


1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Introduction/nn-hl 
It/pps has/hvz recently/rb become/vbn practical/jj to/to use/vb the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn and/cc planets/nns as/cs a/at new/jj source/nn of/in information/nn about/in these/dts bodies/nns and/cc their/pp$ atmospheres/nns ./.
The/at results/nns of/in present/jj observations/nns of/in the/at thermal/jj radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn are/ber consistent/jj with/in the/at very/ql low/jj thermal/jj conductivity/nn of/in the/at surface/nn layer/nn which/wdt was/bedz derived/vbn from/in the/at variation/nn in/in the/at infrared/jj emission/nn during/in eclipses/nns (/( e.g./rb ,/, Garstung/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.
When/wrb sufficiently/ql accurate/jj and/cc complete/jj measurements/nns are/ber available/jj ,/, it/pps will/md be/be possible/jj to/to set/vb limits/nns on/in the/at thermal/jj and/cc electrical/jj characteristics/nns of/in the/at surface/jj and/cc subsurface/jj materials/nns of/in the/at moon/nn ./.


	Observations/nns of/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in a/at planet/nn which/wdt has/hvz an/at extensive/jj atmosphere/nn will/md probe/vb the/at atmosphere/nn to/in a/at greater/jjr extent/nn than/cs those/dts using/vbg shorter/jjr wave/nn lengths/nns and/cc should/md in/in some/dti cases/nns give/vb otherwise/rb unobtainable/jj information/nn about/in the/at characteristics/nns of/in the/at solid/jj surface/nn ./.
Radio/nn observations/nns of/in Venus/np and/cc Jupiter/np have/hv already/rb supplied/vbn unexpected/jj experimental/jj data/nn on/in the/at physical/jj conditions/nns of/in these/dts planets/nns ./.
The/at observed/vbn intensity/nn of/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in Venus/np is/bez much/ql higher/jjr than/cs the/at expected/vbn thermal/jj intensity/nn ,/, although/cs the/at spectrum/nn indicated/vbn by/in measurements/nns at/in wave/nn lengths/nns near/in 3/cd cm/nn and/cc 10/cd cm/nn is/bez like/cs that/dt of/in a/at black/jj body/nn at/in about/rb 600-degrees/nns ./.
This/dt result/nn suggests/vbz a/at very/ql high/jj temperature/nn at/in the/at solid/jj surface/nn of/in the/at planet/nn ,/, although/cs there/ex is/bez the/at possibility/nn that/cs the/at observed/vbn radiation/nn may/md be/be a/at combination/nn of/in both/abx thermal/jj and/cc non-thermal/jj components/nns and/cc that/cs the/at observed/vbn spectrum/nn is/bez that/dt of/in a/at black/jj body/nn merely/rb by/in coincidence/nn ./.
For/in the/at case/nn of/in Jupiter/np ,/, the/at radio/nn emission/nn spectrum/nn is/bez definitely/rb not/* like/cs the/at spectrum/nn of/in a/at black-body/nn radiator/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps seems/vbz very/ql likely/jj that/cs the/at radiation/nn reaching/vbg the/at earth/nn is/bez a/at combination/nn of/in thermal/jj radiation/nn from/in the/at atmosphere/nn and/cc non-thermal/jj components/nns ./.


	Of/in the/at remaining/vbg planets/nns ,/, only/ap Mars/np and/cc Saturn/np have/hv been/ben observed/vbn as/cs radio/nn sources/nns ,/, and/cc not/* very/ql much/ap information/nn is/bez available/jj ./.
Mars/np has/hvz been/ben observed/vbn twice/rb at/in about/rb 3-cm/nn wave/nn length/nn ,/, and/cc the/at intensity/nn of/in the/at observed/vbn radiation/nn is/bez in/in reasonable/jj agreement/nn with/in the/at thermal/jj radiation/nn which/wdt might/md be/be predicted/vbn on/in the/at basis/nn of/in the/at known/vbn temperature/nn of/in Mars/np ./.
The/at low/jj intensity/nn of/in the/at radiation/nn from/in Saturn/np has/hvz limited/vbn observations/nns ,/, but/cc again/rb the/at measured/vbn radiation/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be consistent/jj with/in a/at thermal/jj origin/nn ./.
No/at attempts/nns to/to measure/vb the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at remaining/vbg planets/nns have/hv been/ben reported/vbn ,/, and/cc ,/, because/rb of/in their/pp$ distances/nns ,/, small/jj diameters/nns ,/, or/cc low/jj temperatures/nns ,/, the/at thermal/jj radiation/nn at/in radio/nn wave/nn lengths/nns reaching/vbg the/at earth/nn from/in these/dts sources/nns is/bez expected/vbn to/to be/be of/in very/ql low/jj intensity/nn ./.
In/in spite/nn of/in this/dt ,/, the/at very/ql large/jj radio/nn reflectors/nns and/cc improved/vbn amplifying/vbg techniques/nns which/wdt are/ber now/rb becoming/vbg available/jj should/md make/vb it/ppo possible/jj to/to observe/vb the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in most/ap of/in the/at planets/nns in/in a/at few/ap years/nns ./.


	The/at study/nn of/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn and/cc planets/nns began/vbd with/in the/at detection/nn of/in the/at thermal/jj radiation/nn of/in the/at moon/nn at/in 1.25-cm/nn wave/nn length/nn by/in Dicke/np and/cc Beringer/np (/( 1946/cd )/) ./.
This/dt was/bedz followed/vbn by/in a/at comprehensive/jj series/nn of/in observations/nns of/in the/at 1.25-cm/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn over/in three/cd lunar/jj cycles/nns by/in Piddington/np and/cc Minnett/np (/( 1949/cd )/) ./.
They/ppss deduced/vbd from/in their/pp$ measurements/nns that/cs the/at radio/nn emission/nn from/in the/at whole/jj disk/nn of/in the/at moon/nn varied/vbd during/in a/at lunation/nn in/in a/at roughly/ql sinusoidal/jj fashion/nn ;/. ;/.
that/cs the/at amplitude/nn of/in the/at variation/nn was/bedz considerably/ql less/ap than/cs the/at amplitude/nn of/in the/at variation/nn in/in the/at infrared/jj emission/nn as/cs measured/vbn by/in Pettit/np and/cc Nicholson/np (/( 1930/cd )/) and/cc Pettit/np (/( 1935/cd )/) ;/. ;/.
and/cc that/cs the/at maximum/nn of/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn came/vbd about/rb 3-1/2/cd days/nns after/in Full/jj-tl Moon/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt is/bez again/rb in/in contrast/nn to/in the/at infrared/jj emission/nn ,/, which/wdt reaches/vbz its/pp$ maximum/nn at/in Full/jj-tl Moon/nn-tl ./.
Piddington/np and/cc Minnett/np explained/vbd their/pp$ observations/nns by/in pointing/vbg out/rp that/cs rocklike/jj materials/nns which/wdt are/ber likely/jj to/to make/vb up/rp the/at surface/nn of/in the/at moon/nn would/md be/be partially/ql transparent/jj to/in radio/nn waves/nns ,/, although/cs opaque/jj to/in infrared/jj radiation/nn ./.
The/at infrared/jj emission/nn could/md then/rb be/be assumed/vbn to/to originate/vb at/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at moon/nn ,/, while/cs the/at radio/nn emission/nn originates/vbz at/in some/dti depth/nn beneath/in the/at surface/nn ,/, where/wrb the/at temperature/nn variation/nn due/jj to/in solar/jj radiation/nn is/bez reduced/vbn in/in amplitude/nn and/cc shifted/vbn in/in phase/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at absorption/nn of/in radio/nn waves/nns in/in rocklike/jj material/nn varies/vbz with/in wave/nn length/nn ,/, it/pps should/md be/be possible/jj to/to sample/vb the/at temperature/nn variation/nn at/in different/jj depths/nns beneath/in the/at surface/nn and/cc possibly/rb detect/vb changes/nns in/in the/at structure/nn or/cc composition/nn of/in the/at lunar/jj surface/nn material/nn ./.


	The/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in a/at planet/nn was/bedz first/rb detected/vbn in/in 1955/cd ,/, when/wrb Burke/np and/cc Franklin/np (/( 1955/cd )/) identified/vbn the/at origin/nn of/in interference-like/jj radio/nn noise/nn on/in their/pp$ records/nns at/in about/rb 15/cd meters/nns wave/nn length/nn as/cs emission/nn from/in Jupiter/np ./.
This/dt sporadic/jj type/nn of/in planetary/jj radiation/nn is/bez discussed/vbn by/in Burke/np (/( chap./nn 13/cd )/) and/cc Gallet/np (/( chap./nn 14/cd )/) ./.
Steady/jj radiation/nn which/wdt was/bedz presumably/rb of/in thermal/jj origin/nn was/bedz observed/vbn from/in Venus/np at/in 3.15/cd and/cc 9.4/cd cm/nn ,/, and/cc from/in Mars/np and/cc Jupiter/np at/in 3.15/cd cm/nn in/in 1956/cd (/( Mayer/np ,/, McCullough/np ,/, and/cc Sloanaker/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, A/np ,/, B/np ,/, C/np )/) ,/, and/cc from/in Saturn/np at/in 3.75/cd cm/nn in/in 1957/cd (/( Drake/np and/cc Ewen/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.
In/in the/at relatively/ql short/jj time/nn since/in these/dts early/jj observations/nns ,/, Venus/np has/hvz been/ben observed/vbn at/in additional/jj wave/nn lengths/nns in/in the/at range/nn from/in 0.8/cd to/in 10.2/cd cm/nn ,/, and/cc Jupiter/np has/hvz been/ben observed/vbn over/in the/at wave-length/nn range/nn from/in 3.03/cd to/in 68/cd Aj/nn ./.


	The/at observable/jj characteristics/nns of/in planetary/jj radio/nn radiation/nn are/ber the/at intensity/nn ,/, the/at polarization/nn ,/, and/cc the/at direction/nn of/in arrival/nn of/in the/at waves/nns ./.
The/at maximum/jj angular/jj diameter/nn of/in any/dti planetary/jj disk/nn as/cs observed/vbn from/in the/at earth/nn is/bez about/rb 1/cd minute/nn of/in arc/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez much/ql smaller/jjr than/cs the/at highest/jjt resolution/nn of/in even/rb the/at very/ql large/jj reflectors/nns now/rb under/in construction/nn ,/, and/cc consequently/rb the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in different/jj regions/nns of/in the/at disk/nn cannot/md* be/be resolved/vbn ./.
It/pps should/md be/be possible/jj ,/, however/rb ,/, to/to put/vb useful/jj limits/nns on/in the/at diameters/nns of/in the/at radio/nn sources/nns by/in observing/vbg with/in large/jj reflectors/nns or/cc with/in interferometers/nns ./.
Measurements/nns of/in polarization/nn are/ber presently/rb limited/vbn by/in apparatus/nn sensitivity/nn and/cc will/md remain/vb difficult/jj because/rb of/in the/at low/jj intensity/nn of/in the/at planetary/jj radiation/nn at/in the/at earth/nn ./.
There/ex have/hv been/ben few/ap measurements/nns specifically/rb for/in the/at determination/nn of/in the/at polarization/nn of/in planetary/jj radiation/nn ./.
The/at measurements/nns made/vbn with/in the/at NRL/nn 50-foot/jj reflector/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez altitude-azimuth-mounted/jj ,/, would/md have/hv shown/vbn a/at systematic/jj change/nn with/in local/jj hour/nn angle/nn in/in the/at measured/vbn intensities/nns of/in Venus/np and/cc Jupiter/np if/cs a/at substantial/jj part/nn of/in the/at radiation/nn had/hvd been/ben linearly/rb polarized/vbn ./.
Recent/jj interferometer/nn measurements/nns (/( Radhakrishnan/np and/cc Roberts/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) have/hv shown/vbn the/at 960-mc/nn emission/nn of/in Jupiter/np to/to be/be partially/rb polarized/vbn and/cc to/to originate/vb in/in a/at region/nn of/in larger/jjr diameter/nn than/cs the/at visible/jj disk/nn ./.
Other/ap than/cs this/dt very/ql significant/jj result/nn ,/, most/ap of/in the/at information/nn now/rb available/jj about/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at planets/nns is/bez restricted/vbn to/in the/at intensity/nn of/in the/at radiation/nn ./.


	The/at concept/nn of/in apparent/jj black-body/nn temperature/nn is/bez used/vbn to/to describe/vb the/at radiation/nn received/vbn from/in the/at moon/nn and/cc the/at planets/nns ./.
The/at received/vbn radiation/nn is/bez compared/vbn with/in the/at radiation/nn from/in a/at hypothetical/jj black/jj body/nn which/wdt subtends/vbz the/at same/ap solid/jj angle/nn as/cs the/at visible/jj disk/nn of/in the/at planet/nn ./.
The/at apparent/jj black-body/nn disk/nn temperature/nn is/bez the/at temperature/nn which/wdt must/md be/be assumed/vbn for/in the/at black/jj body/nn in/in order/nn that/cs the/at intensity/nn of/in its/pp$ radiation/nn should/md equal/vb that/dt of/in the/at observed/vbn radiation/nn ./.
The/at use/nn of/in this/dt concept/nn does/doz not/* specify/vb the/at origin/nn of/in the/at radiation/nn ,/, and/cc only/rb if/cs the/at planet/nn really/rb radiates/vbz as/cs a/at black/jj body/nn ,/, will/md the/at apparent/jj black-body/nn temperature/nn correspond/vb to/in the/at physical/jj temperature/nn of/in the/at emitting/vbg material/nn ./.


	The/at radio/nn radiation/nn of/in the/at sun/nn which/wdt is/bez reflected/vbn from/in the/at moon/nn and/cc planets/nns should/md be/be negligible/jj compared/vbn with/in their/pp$ thermal/jj emission/nn at/in centimeter/nn wave/nn lengths/nns ,/, except/in possibly/rb at/in times/nns of/in exceptional/jj outbursts/nns of/in solar/jj radio/nn noise/nn ./.
The/at quiescent/jj level/nn of/in centimeter/nn wave-length/nn solar/jj radiation/nn would/md increase/vb the/at average/jj disk/nn brightness/nn temperature/nn by/in less/ap than/in 1-degree/nn ./.
At/in meter/nn wave/nn lengths/nns an/at increase/nn of/in the/at order/nn of/in 10-degrees/nns in/in the/at average/jj disk/nn temperatures/nns of/in the/at nearer/jjr planets/nns would/md be/be expected/vbn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, neglecting/vbg the/at extreme/jj outbursts/nns ,/, reflected/vbn solar/jj radiation/nn is/bez not/* expected/vbn to/to cause/vb sizable/jj errors/nns in/in the/at measurements/nns of/in planetary/jj radiation/nn in/in the/at centimeter-/nn and/cc decimeter-wave-length/nn range/nn ./.



2/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl moon/nn-hl 
2.1/cd-hl observations/nns-hl 
Radio/nn observations/nns of/in the/at moon/nn have/hv been/ben made/vbn over/in the/at range/nn of/in wave/nn lengths/nns from/in 4.3/cd mm/nn to/in 75/cd cm/nn ,/, and/cc the/at results/nns are/ber summarized/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
Observations/nns have/hv also/rb been/ben made/vbn at/in 1.5/cd mm/nn using/vbg optical/jj techniques/nns (/( Sinton/np ,/, 1955/cd ,/, 1956/cd ,/, ;/. ;/.
see/vb also/rb chap./nn 11/cd )/) ./.
Not/* all/abn the/at observers/nns have/hv used/vbn the/at same/ap procedures/nns or/cc made/vbn the/at same/ap assumptions/nns about/in the/at lunar/jj brightness/nn distribution/nn when/wrb reducing/vbg the/at data/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt ,/, together/rb with/in differences/nns in/in the/at methods/nns of/in calibrating/vbg the/at antennae/nns and/cc receivers/nns ,/, must/md account/vb for/in much/ap of/in the/at disagreement/nn in/in the/at measured/vbn radio/nn brightness/nn temperatures/nns ./.


	In/in the/at observations/nns at/in 4.3/cd mm/nn (/( Coates/np ,/, 1959/cd )/) ,/, the/at diameter/nn of/in the/at antenna/nn beam/nn ,/, 6'.7/nn ,/, was/bedz small/jj enough/qlp to/to allow/vb resolution/nn of/in some/dti of/in the/at larger/jjr features/nns of/in the/at lunar/jj surface/nn ,/, and/cc contour/nn diagrams/nns have/hv been/ben made/vbn of/in the/at lunar/jj brightness/nn distribution/nn at/in three/cd lunar/jj phases/nns ./.
These/dts observations/nns indicate/vb that/cs the/at lunar/jj maria/fw-nns heat/vb up/rp more/ql rapidly/rb and/cc also/rb cool/vb off/rp more/ql rapidly/rb than/cs do/do the/at mountainous/jj regions/nns ./.
Mare/fw-nn-tl Imbrium/np-tl seems/vbz to/to be/be an/at exception/nn and/cc remains/vbz cooler/jjr than/cs the/at regions/nns which/wdt surround/vb it/ppo ./.
These/dts contour/nn diagrams/nns also/rb suggest/vb a/at rather/ql rapid/jj falloff/nn in/in the/at radio/nn brightness/nn with/in latitude/nn ./.


	Very/ql recently/rb ,/, observations/nns have/hv been/ben made/vbn at/in 8-mm/nn wave/nn length/nn with/in a/at reflector/nn 22/cd meters/nns in/in diameter/nn with/in a/at resultant/jj beam/nn width/nn of/in only/rb about/rb 2'/nns (/( Amenitskii/np ,/, Noskova/np ,/, and/cc Salomonovich/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
The/at constant-temperature/nn contours/nns are/ber much/ql smoother/jjr than/cs those/dts observed/vbn at/in 4.3/cd mm/nn by/in Coates/np (/( 1959/cd )/) and/cc apparently/rb the/at emission/nn at/in 8/cd mm/nn is/bez not/* nearly/rb so/ql sensitive/jj to/in differences/nns in/in surface/jj features/nns ./.
Such/jj high-resolution/nn observations/nns as/cs these/dts are/ber needed/vbn at/in several/ap wave/nn lengths/nns in/in order/nn that/cs the/at radio/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn can/md be/be properly/rb interpreted/vbn ./.


	The/at observations/nns of/in Mayer/np ,/, McCullough/np ,/, and/cc Sloanaker/np at/in 3.15/cd cm/nn and/cc of/in Sloanaker/np at/in 10.3/cd cm/nn have/hv not/* previously/rb been/ben published/vbn and/cc will/md be/be briefly/rb described/vbn ./.
Measurements/nns at/in 3.15/cd cm/nn were/bed obtained/vbn on/in 11/cd days/nns spread/vbn over/in the/at interval/nn May/np 3/cd to/in June/np 19/cd ,/, 1956/cd ,/, using/vbg the/at 50-foot/jj reflector/nn at/in the/at U./np-tl S./np-tl Naval/jj-tl Research/nn-tl Laboratory/nn-tl in/in Washington/np ./.
The/at half-intensity/nn diameter/nn of/in the/at antenna/nn beam/nn was/bedz about/rb 9'/nns ,/, and/cc the/at angle/nn subtended/vbn by/in the/at moon/nn included/vbd the/at entire/jj main/jjs beam/nn and/cc part/nn of/in the/at first/od side/jj lobes/nns ./.
The/at antenna/nn patterns/nns and/cc the/at power/nn gain/nn at/in the/at peak/nn of/in the/at beam/nn were/bed both/abx measured/vbn (/( Mayer/np ,/, McCullough/np ,/, and/cc Sloanaker/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at absolute/jj power/nn sensitivity/nn of/in the/at antenna/nn beam/nn over/in the/at solid/jj angle/nn of/in the/at moon/nn was/bedz known/vbn ./.
The/at ratio/nn of/in the/at measured/vbn antenna/nn temperature/nn change/nn during/in a/at drift/nn scan/nn across/in the/at moon/nn to/in the/at average/jj brightness/nn temperature/nn of/in the/at moon/nn over/in the/at antenna/nn beam/nn (/( assuming/vbg that/cs the/at brightness/nn temperature/nn of/in the/at sky/nn is/bez negligible/jj )/) was/bedz found/vbn ,/, by/in graphical/jj integration/nn of/in the/at antenna/nn directivity/nn diagram/nn ,/, to/to be/be 0.85/cd ./.
The/at measured/vbn brightness/nn temperature/nn is/bez a/at good/jj approximation/nn to/in the/at brightness/nn temperature/nn at/in the/at center/nn of/in the/at lunar/jj disk/nn because/rb of/in the/at narrow/jj antenna/nn beam/nn and/cc because/cs the/at temperature/nn distribution/nn over/in the/at central/jj portion/nn of/in the/at moon's/nn$ disk/nn is/bez nearly/ql uniform/jj ./.
The/at result/nn of/in the/at observations/nns is/bez Af/nn where/wrb the/at phase/nn angle/nn ,/, Q/np ,/, is/bez measured/vbn in/in degrees/nns from/in new/jj moon/nn and/cc the/at probable/jj errors/nns include/vb absolute/jj as/ql well/rb as/cs relative/jj errors/nns ./.
This/dt result/nn is/bez plotted/vbn along/rb with/in the/at 8.6-mm/nn observations/nns of/in Gibson/np (/( 1958/cd )/) in/in figure/nn 1/cd ,/, A/np ./.
The/at variation/nn in/in the/at 3-cm/nn emission/nn of/in the/at moon/nn during/in a/at lunation/nn is/bez very/ql much/ql less/ap than/cs the/at variation/nn in/in the/at 8.6-mm/nn emission/nn ,/, as/cs would/md be/be expected/vbn from/in the/at explanation/nn of/in Piddington/np and/cc Minnett/np (/( 1949/cd )/) ./.
In/in the/at discussion/nn which/wdt follows/vbz ,/, the/at time/nn average/nn of/in the/at radio/nn emission/nn will/md be/be referred/vbn to/in as/cs the/at constant/jj component/nn ,/, and/cc the/at superimposed/vbn periodic/jj variation/nn will/md be/be called/vbn the/at variable/jj component/nn ./.


	The/at 10.3-cm/nn observation/nn of/in Sloanaker/np was/bedz made/vbn on/in May/np 20/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, using/vbg the/at 84-foot/nn reflector/nn at/in the/at Maryland/np-tl Point/nn-tl Observatory/nn-tl of/in the/at U./np-tl S./np-tl Naval/jj-tl Research/nn-tl Laboratory/nn-tl ./.
The/at age/nn of/in the/at moon/nn was/bedz about/rb 2/cd days/nns ./.
The/at half-intensity/nn diameter/nn of/in the/at main/jjs lobe/nn of/in the/at antenna/nn was/bedz about/rb 18'.5/nns ,/, and/cc the/at brightness/nn temperature/nn was/bedz reduced/vbn by/in assuming/vbg a/at Gaussian/jj shape/nn for/in the/at antenna/nn beam/nn and/cc a/at uniformly/rb bright/jj disk/nn for/in the/at moon/nn ./.




Abstract/jj-hl 
Experiments/nns were/bed made/vbn on/in an/at electric/jj arc/nn applying/vbg a/at porous/jj graphite/nn anode/nn cooled/vbn by/in a/at transpiring/vbg gas/nn (/( Argon/nn )/) ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at energy/nn transferred/vbn from/in the/at arc/nn to/in the/at anode/nn was/bedz partly/rb fed/vbn back/rb into/in the/at arc/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz shown/vbn that/cs by/in proper/jj anode/nn design/nn the/at net/jj energy/nn loss/nn of/in the/at arc/nn to/in the/at anode/nn could/md be/be reduced/vbn to/in approximately/rb 15%/nn of/in the/at total/jj arc/nn energy/nn ./.
A/at detailed/vbn energy/nn balance/nn of/in the/at anode/nn was/bedz established/vbn ./.
The/at anode/nn ablation/nn could/md be/be reduced/vbn to/in a/at negligible/jj amount/nn ./.
The/at dependence/nn of/in the/at arc/nn voltage/nn upon/in the/at mass/nn flow/nn velocity/nn of/in the/at transpirating/vbg gas/nn was/bedz investigated/vbn for/in various/jj arc/nn lengths/nns and/cc currents/nns between/in 100/cd Amp/nn and/cc 200/cd Aj/nn ./.
Qualitative/jj observations/nns were/bed made/vbn and/cc high-speed/nn motion/nn pictures/nns were/bed taken/vbn to/to study/vb flow/nn phenomena/nns in/in the/at arc/nn at/in various/jj mass/nn flow/nn velocities/nns ./.



Introduction/nn-hl 
The/at high/jj heat/nn fluxes/nns existing/vbg at/in the/at electrode/nn surfaces/nns of/in electric/jj arcs/nns necessitate/vb extensive/jj cooling/nn to/to prevent/vb electrode/nn ablation/nn ./.
The/at cooling/vbg requirements/nns are/ber particularly/ql severe/jj at/in the/at anode/nn ./.
In/in free-burning/jj electric/jj arcs/nns ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, approximately/rb 90%/nn of/in the/at total/jj arc/nn power/nn is/bez transferred/vbn to/in the/at anode/nn giving/vbg rise/nn to/in local/jj heat/nn fluxes/nns in/in excess/nn of/in Af/nn as/cs measured/vbn by/in the/at authors/nns --/-- the/at exact/jj value/nn depending/vbg on/in the/at arc/nn atmosphere/nn ./.
In/in plasma/nn generators/nns as/cs currently/rb commercially/rb available/jj for/in industrial/jj use/nn or/cc as/cs high/jj temperature/nn research/nn tools/nns often/rb more/ap than/in 50%/nn of/in the/at total/jj energy/nn input/nn is/bez being/beg transferred/vbn to/in the/at cooling/vbg medium/nn of/in the/at anode/nn ./.


	The/at higher/jjr heat/nn transfer/nn rates/nns at/in the/at anode/nn compared/vbn with/in those/dts at/in the/at cathode/nn can/md be/be explained/vbn by/in the/at physical/jj phenomena/nns occurring/vbg in/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns ./.
In/in plasma/nn generators/nns the/at superimposed/vbn forced/vbn convection/nn may/md modify/vb the/at picture/nn somewhat/rb ./.
The/at heat/nn transfer/nn to/in the/at anode/nn is/bez due/jj to/in the/at following/vbg effects/nns :/: 1/cd ./.
Heat/nn of/in condensation/nn (/( work/nn function/nn )/) plus/cc kinetic/jj energy/nn of/in the/at electrons/nns impinging/vbg on/in the/at anode/nn ./.
This/dt energy/nn transfer/nn depends/vbz on/in the/at current/nn ,/, the/at temperature/nn in/in the/at arc/nn column/nn ,/, the/at anode/nn material/nn ,/, and/cc the/at conditions/nns in/in the/at anode/nn sheath/nn ./.
2/cd ./.
Heat/nn transfer/nn by/in molecular/jj conduction/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs by/in radiation/nn from/in the/at arc/nn column/nn ./.


	The/at heat/nn transfer/nn to/in the/at anode/nn in/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns is/bez enhanced/vbn by/in a/at hot/jj gas/nn jet/nn flowing/vbg from/in the/at cathode/nn towards/in the/at anode/nn with/in velocities/nns up/rp Af/nn ./.
This/dt phenomenon/nn has/hvz been/ben experimentally/rb investigated/vbn in/in detail/nn by/in Maecker/np (/( Ref./np 1/cd-tl )/) ./.
The/at pressure/nn gradient/nn producing/vbg the/at jet/nn is/bez due/jj to/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at magnetic/jj field/nn in/in the/at arc/nn (/( rapid/jj decrease/nn of/in current/nn density/nn from/in cathode/nn to/in the/at anode/nn )/) ./.
Hence/rb ,/, the/at flow/nn conditions/nns at/in the/at anode/nn of/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns resemble/vb those/dts near/in a/at stagnation/nn point/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez apparent/jj from/in the/at above/jj and/cc from/in experimental/jj evidence/nn that/cs the/at cooling/vbg requirements/nns for/in the/at anode/nn of/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns are/ber large/jj compared/vbn with/in those/dts for/in the/at cathode/nn ./.
The/at gas/nn flow/nn through/in a/at plasma/nn generator/nn will/md modify/vb these/dts conditions/nns ;/. ;/.
however/rb ,/, the/at anode/nn is/bez still/rb the/at part/nn receiving/vbg the/at largest/jjt heat/nn flux/nn ./.
An/at attempt/nn to/to improve/vb the/at life/nn of/in the/at anodes/nns or/cc the/at efficiency/nn of/in the/at plasma/nn generators/nns must/md ,/, therefore/rb ,/, aim/vb at/in a/at reduction/nn of/in the/at anode/nn loss/nn ./.
The/at following/vbg possibilities/nns exist/vb for/in achieving/vbg this/dt :/: 1/cd ./.
The/at use/nn of/in high/jj voltages/nns and/cc low/jj currents/nns by/in proper/jj design/nn to/to reduce/vb electron/nn heat/nn transfer/nn to/in the/at anode/nn for/in a/at given/vbn power/nn output/nn ./.
2/cd ./.
Continuous/jj motion/nn of/in the/at arc/nn contact/nn area/nn at/in the/at anode/nn by/in flow/nn or/cc magnetic/jj forces/nns ./.
3/cd ./.
Feedback/nn of/in the/at energy/nn transferred/vbn to/in the/at anode/nn by/in applying/vbg gas/nn transpiration/nn through/in the/at anode/nn ./.


	The/at third/od method/nn was/bedz ,/, to/in our/pp$ knowledge/nn ,/, successfully/rb applied/vbn for/in the/at first/od time/nn by/in C./np Sheer/np and/cc co-workers/nns (/( Ref./nn-tl 2/cd )/) ./.
The/at purpose/nn of/in the/at present/jj study/nn is/bez to/to study/vb the/at thermal/jj conditions/nns and/cc to/to establish/vb an/at energy/nn balance/nn for/in a/at transpiration/nn cooled/vbn anode/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at effect/nn of/in blowing/vbg on/in the/at arc/nn voltage/nn ./.
Gas/nn injection/nn through/in a/at porous/jj anode/nn (/( transpiration/nn cooling/nn )/) not/* only/rb feeds/vbz back/rb the/at energy/nn transferred/vbn to/in the/at anode/nn by/in the/at above/rb mentioned/vbn processes/nns ,/, but/cc also/rb modifies/vbz the/at conditions/nns in/in the/at arc/nn itself/ppl ./.
A/at detailed/vbn study/nn of/in this/dt latter/ap phenomenon/nn was/bedz not/* attempted/vbn in/in this/dt paper/nn ./.
Argon/nn was/bedz used/vbn as/cs a/at blowing/vbg gas/nn to/to exclude/vb any/dti effects/nns of/in dissociation/nn or/cc chemical/nn reaction/nn ./.
The/at anode/nn material/nn was/bedz porous/jj graphite/nn ./.
Sintered/vbn porous/jj metals/nns should/md be/be usable/jj in/in principle/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, technical/jj difficulties/nns arise/vb by/in melting/vbg at/in local/jj hot/jj spots/nns ./.
The/at experimental/jj arrangement/nn as/cs described/vbn below/rb is/bez based/vbn on/in the/at geometry/nn of/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, direct/jj comparisons/nns can/md be/be drawn/vbn with/in free/rb burning/vbg arcs/nns which/wdt have/hv been/ben studied/vbn in/in detail/nn during/in the/at past/ap years/nns and/cc decades/nns by/in numerous/jj investigators/nns (/( Ref./nn-tl 3/cd )/) ./.



Experimental/jj-hl apparatus/nn-hl 
Figures/nns 1/cd to/in 3/cd show/vb photographic/jj and/cc schematic/jj views/nns of/in the/at test/nn stand/nn and/cc of/in two/cd different/jj models/nns of/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn ./.
The/at cathode/nn consisted/vbd of/in a/at 1/4''/nn ''/'' diameter/nn thoriated/vbn tungsten/nn rod/nn attached/vbn to/in a/at water/nn cooled/vbn copper/nn tube/nn ./.
This/dt tube/nn could/md be/be adjusted/vbn in/in its/pp$ axial/jj direction/nn by/in an/at electric/jj drive/nn to/to establish/vb the/at required/vbn electrode/nn spacing/nn ./.
The/at anode/nn in/in figure/nn 2/cd was/bedz mounted/vbn by/in means/nn of/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn which/wdt was/bedz attached/vbn to/in a/at steel/nn plug/nn and/cc disk/nn ./.
The/at transpiring/vbg gas/nn ejected/vbn from/in the/at anode/nn formed/vbd a/at jet/nn directed/vbn axially/rb towards/in the/at cathode/nn below/rb ./.
Inflow/nn of/in air/nn from/in the/at surrounding/vbg atmosphere/nn was/bedz prevented/vbn by/in the/at two/cd disks/nns shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 2/cd ./.
Argon/nn was/bedz also/rb blown/vbn at/in low/jj velocities/nns (/( mass/nn flow/nn rate/nn Af/nn )/) through/in a/at tube/nn coaxial/jj with/in the/at cathode/nn as/cs an/at additional/jj precaution/nn against/in contamination/nn of/in the/at arc/nn by/in air/nn ./.
The/at anode/nn consisted/vbd of/in a/at 1/2/cd inch/nn diameter/nn porous/jj graphite/nn plug/nn ,/, 1/4/cd inch/nn long/jj ./.
The/at graphite/nn was/bedz National/jj-tl Carbon/nn-tl NC/nn 60/cd ,/, which/wdt has/hvz a/at porosity/nn of/in 50%/nn and/cc an/at average/jj pore/nn size/nn of/in 30/cd ./.
This/dt small/jj pore/nn size/nn was/bedz required/vbn to/to ensure/vb uniformity/nn of/in the/at flow/nn leaving/vbg the/at anode/nn ./.
The/at anode/nn plug/nn (/( Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) was/bedz inserted/vbn into/in a/at carbon/nn anode/nn holder/nn ./.
A/at shielded/vbn thermocouple/nn was/bedz used/vbn to/to measure/vb the/at upstream/jj temperature/nn of/in the/at transpiring/vbg gas/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz exposed/vbn to/in a/at high/jj velocity/nn gas/nn jet/nn ./.
A/at plug/nn and/cc a/at tube/nn with/in holes/nns in/in its/pp$ cylindrical/jj walls/nns divided/vbd the/at chamber/nn above/in the/at porous/jj plug/nn into/in two/cd parts/nns ./.
This/dt arrangement/nn had/hvd the/at purpose/nn to/to prevent/vb heated/vbn gas/nn to/to reach/vb the/at thermocouple/nn by/in natural/jj convection/nn ./.
Two/cd pyrometers/nns shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 1/cd and/cc 2/cd (/( Pyrometer/nn-tl Instrument/nn-tl Co./nn-tl Model/nn-tl 95/cd-tl )/) served/vbd for/in simultaneous/jj measurement/nn of/in the/at anode/nn surface/nn temperature/nn and/cc the/at temperature/nn distribution/nn along/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn ./.
Three/cd thermocouples/nns were/bed placed/vbn at/in different/jj locations/nns in/in the/at aluminum/nn disk/nn surrounding/vbg the/at anode/nn holder/nn to/to determine/vb its/pp$ temperature/nn ./.


	Another/dt anode/nn holder/nn used/vbn in/in the/at experiments/nns is/bez shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 3/cd ./.
In/in this/dt design/nn the/at anode/nn holder/nn is/bez water/nn cooled/vbn and/cc the/at heat/nn losses/nns by/in conduction/nn from/in the/at anode/nn were/bed determined/vbn by/in measuring/vbg the/at temperature/nn rise/nn of/in the/at coolant/nn ./.
To/to reduce/vb heat/nn transfer/nn from/in the/at hot/jj gas/nn to/in this/dt anode/nn holder/nn outside/in the/at regime/nn of/in the/at arc/nn ,/, a/at carbon/nn shield/nn was/bedz attached/vbn to/in the/at surface/nn providing/vbg an/at air/nn gap/nn of/in 1/16/cd inch/nn between/in the/at plate/nn and/cc the/at surface/nn of/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at inner/jj surface/nn of/in the/at carbon/nn shield/nn was/bedz covered/vbn with/in aluminum/nn foil/nn to/to reduce/vb radiation/nn ./.
Temperatures/nns of/in the/at shield/nn and/cc of/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at water-cooled/jj anode/nn holder/nn were/bed measured/vbn by/in thermocouples/nns to/to account/vb for/in heat/nn received/vbn by/in the/at coolant/nn but/cc not/* originating/vbg from/in the/at anode/nn plug/nn ./.


	The/at argon/nn flow/nn from/in commercial/jj bottles/nns was/bedz regulated/vbn by/in a/at pressure/nn regulator/nn and/cc measured/vbn with/in a/at gas/nn flow/nn rator/nn ./.
The/at power/nn source/nn was/bedz a/at commercial/jj D./np C./np rectifier/nn ./.
At/in 100/cd Amp/nn the/at 360/cd cycle/nn ripple/nn was/bedz less/ap than/in 0.5/cd V/nn (/( peak/nn to/in peak/nn )/) with/in a/at resistive/jj load/nn ./.
The/at current/nn was/bedz regulated/vbn by/in means/nn of/in a/at variable/jj resistor/nn and/cc measured/vbn with/in a/at 50/cd mV/nn shunt/nn and/cc millivoltmeter/nn ./.
The/at arc/nn voltage/nn was/bedz measured/vbn with/in a/at voltmeter/nn whose/wp$ terminals/nns were/bed connected/vbn to/in the/at anode/nn and/cc cathode/nn holders/nns ./.
Because/rb of/in the/at falling/vbg characteristic/nn of/in the/at rectifier/nn ,/, no/at ballast/nn resistor/nn was/bedz required/vbn for/in stability/nn of/in operation/nn ./.
A/at high/jj frequency/nn starter/nn was/bedz used/vbn to/to start/vb the/at arc/nn ./.



Experimental/jj-hl procedure/nn-hl and/cc-hl error/nn-hl analysis/nn-hl 
1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Transpiration/nn-hl cooled/vbn-hl anode/nn-hl with/in-hl carbon/nn-hl anode/nn-hl holder/nn-hl 
The/at anode/nn holder/nn shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 2/cd was/bedz designed/vbn with/in two/cd goals/nns in/in mind/nn ./.
The/at heat/nn losses/nns of/in the/at holder/nn were/bed to/to be/be reduced/vbn as/ql far/rb as/cs possible/jj and/cc they/ppss should/md be/be such/jj that/cs an/at accurate/jj heat/nn balance/nn can/md be/be made/vbn ./.
In/in order/nn to/to reduce/vb the/at number/nn of/in variable/jj parameters/nns ,/, all/abn experiments/nns were/bed made/vbn with/in a/at constant/jj arc/nn length/nn of/in 0.5''/nns ''/'' and/cc a/at current/nn of/in 100/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at argon/nn flow/nn through/in the/at porous/jj anode/nn was/bedz varied/vbn systematically/rb between/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
The/at lower/jjr limit/nn was/bedz determined/vbn by/in the/at fact/nn that/cs for/in smaller/jjr flow/nn rates/nns the/at arc/nn started/vbd to/to strike/vb to/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn instead/rb of/in to/in the/at porous/jj graphite/nn plug/nn and/cc that/cs it/pps became/vbd highly/ql unstable/jj ./.
The/at upper/jj limit/nn was/bedz determined/vbn by/in the/at difficulty/nn of/in measuring/vbg the/at characteristic/jj anode/nn surface/nn temperature/nn (/( see/vb below/rb )/) since/cs only/rb a/at small/jj region/nn of/in the/at anode/nn was/bedz struck/vbn by/in the/at arc/nn ./.
This/dt region/nn which/wdt had/hvd a/at higher/jjr temperature/nn than/cs the/at rest/nn of/in the/at anode/nn surface/nn changed/vbd size/nn and/cc location/nn continuously/rb ./.


	For/in each/dt mass/nn flow/nn rate/nn the/at arc/nn voltage/nn was/bedz measured/vbn ./.
To/to measure/vb the/at surface/nn temperature/nn of/in the/at anode/nn plug/nn ,/, the/at surface/nn was/bedz scanned/vbn with/in a/at pyrometer/nn ./.
As/cs it/pps turned/vbd out/rp ,/, a/at very/ql hot/jj region/nn occurred/vbd on/in the/at plug/nn ./.
Its/pp$ temperature/nn was/bedz denoted/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at size/nn of/in this/dt hot/jj region/nn was/bedz estimated/vbn by/in eye/nn ./.
The/at rest/nn of/in the/at surface/nn had/hvd a/at temperature/nn which/wdt decreased/vbd towards/in the/at outer/jj diameter/nn of/in the/at plug/nn ./.
The/at mean/jj temperature/nn of/in this/dt region/nn was/bedz approximated/vbn by/in the/at temperature/nn measured/vbn halfways/rb between/in the/at edge/nn of/in the/at hot/jj spot/nn and/cc the/at rim/nn of/in the/at plug/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz denoted/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at mean/jj temperature/nn of/in the/at surface/nn was/bedz then/rb computed/vbn according/in to/in the/at following/vbg relation/nn :/: Af/nn where/wrb x/nn is/bez the/at fraction/nn of/in the/at plug/nn area/nn covered/vbn by/in the/at hot/jj spot/nn ./.
Assuming/vbg thermal/jj equilibrium/nn between/in the/at anode/nn surface/nn and/cc the/at transpiring/vbg argon/nn ,/, the/at gas/nn enthalpy/nn rise/nn through/in the/at anode/nn was/bedz calculated/vbn according/in to/in the/at relation/nn Af/nn whereby/wrb the/at specific/jj heat/nn of/in argon/nn was/bedz taken/vbn as/cs Af/nn ./.
This/dt calculation/nn results/vbz in/in an/at enthalpy/nn rise/nn which/wdt is/bez somewhat/ql high/jj because/cs it/pps assumes/vbz a/at mass/nn flow/nn equally/rb distributed/vbn over/in the/at plug/nn cross/nn section/nn whereas/cs in/in reality/nn the/at mass/nn velocity/nn is/bez expected/vbn to/to be/be smaller/jjr in/in the/at regions/nns of/in higher/jjr temperatures/nns ./.


	The/at upstream/jj gas/nn temperature/nn measured/vbn with/in the/at thermocouple/nn shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 2/cd was/bedz Af/nn ./.
The/at Af/nn values/nns are/ber listed/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl together/rb with/in the/at measured/vbn surface/nn temperatures/nns and/cc arc/nn voltages/nns ./.
Simultaneously/rb with/in the/at anode/nn surface/nn temperature/nn and/cc voltage/nn measurements/nns pyrometer/nn readings/nns were/bed taken/vbn along/in the/at cylindrical/jj surface/nn of/in the/at carbon/nn anode/nn holder/nn as/cs indicated/vbn on/in figure/nn 2/cd ./.
Some/dti of/in these/dts temperatures/nns are/ber plotted/vbn in/in figure/nn 4/cd ./.
They/ppss showed/vbd no/at marked/vbn dependence/nn on/in the/at flow/nn rate/nn within/in the/at accuracy/nn of/in these/dts measurements/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at dotted/vbn line/nn shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 4/cd was/bedz taken/vbn as/cs typical/jj for/in the/at temperature/nn distribution/nn for/in all/abn blowing/vbg rates/nns ./.


	The/at thermocouples/nns in/in the/at aluminum/nn disk/nn shown/vbn in/in figure/nn 2/cd indicated/vbd an/at equilibrium/nn temperature/nn of/in the/at surface/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
This/dt temperature/nn was/bedz taken/vbn as/cs environmental/jj temperature/nn to/in which/wdt the/at anode/nn holder/nn was/bedz exposed/vbn as/ql far/rb as/cs radiation/nn is/bez concerned/vbn ./.
It/pps is/bez sufficiently/ql small/jj compared/vbn with/in the/at surface/nn temperature/nn of/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn ,/, to/to make/vb the/at energy/nn flux/nn radiated/vbn from/in the/at environment/nn toward/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn negligible/jj within/in the/at accuracy/nn of/in the/at present/jj measurements/nns ./.
The/at reflection/nn of/in radiation/nn originating/vbg from/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn and/cc reflected/vbn back/rb to/in it/ppo by/in the/at surrounding/vbg metal/nn surfaces/nns should/md also/rb be/be small/jj because/rb of/in the/at peculiar/jj characteristic/nn of/in the/at metal/nn surfaces/nns and/cc of/in the/at specific/jj geometry/nn ./.
The/at total/jj heat/nn loss/nn through/in the/at anode/nn holder/nn included/vbd also/rb the/at heat/nn conducted/vbn through/in the/at base/nn of/in the/at cylindrical/jj piece/nn into/in the/at adjacent/jj metal/nn parts/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz calculated/vbn from/in the/at temperature/nn gradient/nn Af/nn at/in Af/nn inch/nn as/cs Af/nn ./.
The/at total/jj heat/nn flux/nn from/in the/at porous/jj plug/nn into/in the/at plug/nn holder/nn is/bez thereby/rb Af/nn ./.
The/at temperature/nn distribution/nn of/in figure/nn 4/cd gives/vbz Af/nn for/in all/abn blowing/vbg rates/nns ,/, assuming/vbg Af/nn ./.
The/at temperature/nn dependent/jj value/nn of/in **ye/nn was/bedz taken/vbn from/in Ref./nn-tl 7/cd-tl ./.
The/at radiation/nn loss/nn from/in the/at anode/nn surface/nn was/bedz computed/vbn according/in to/in Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn is/bez the/at mean/nn of/in the/at fourth/od powers/nns of/in the/at temperatures/nns Af/nn and/cc Af/nn calculated/vbn analogously/rb to/in equation/nn (/( 1/cd )/) ./.



	A/at band/nn viscometer/nn is/bez shown/vbn in/in Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
It/pps consists/vbz of/in two/cd blocks/nns with/in flat/jj surfaces/nns held/vbn apart/rb by/in shims/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at small/jj well/nn in/in the/at top/nn in/in which/wdt the/at fluid/nn or/cc paste/nn to/to be/be tested/vbn is/bez placed/vbn ./.
A/at tape/nn of/in cellulose/nn acetate/nn is/bez pulled/vbn between/in the/at blocks/nns and/cc the/at tape/nn pulls/vbz the/at fluid/nn or/cc paste/nn with/in it/ppo between/in the/at parallel/jj faces/nns of/in the/at blocks/nns ./.
In/in normal/jj use/nn weights/nns are/ber hung/vbn on/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at tape/nn and/cc allowed/vbn to/to pull/vb the/at tape/nn and/cc the/at material/nn to/to be/be tested/vbn between/in the/at blocks/nns ./.
After/cs it/pps has/hvz reached/vbn terminal/jj velocity/nn ,/, the/at time/nn for/in the/at tape/nn to/to travel/vb a/at known/vbn distance/nn is/bez recorded/vbn ./.
By/in the/at use/nn of/in various/jj weights/nns ,/, data/nn for/in a/at force-rate/nn of/in shear/nn graph/nn can/md be/be obtained/vbn ./.
The/at instrument/nn used/vbn for/in this/dt work/nn was/bedz a/at slight/jj modification/nn of/in that/dt previously/rb described/vbn ./.


	In/in this/dt test/nn a/at Af/nn tape/nn was/bedz pulled/vbn between/in the/at blocks/nns with/in a/at motor/nn and/cc pulley/nn at/in a/at rate/nn of/in Af/nn with/in a/at clearance/nn of/in 0.002''/nn ''/'' on/in each/dt side/nn of/in the/at tape/nn ./.
This/dt gives/vbz a/at rate/nn of/in shear/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
This/dt ,/, however/rb ,/, can/md only/rb be/be considered/vbn approximate/jj ,/, as/cs the/at diameter/nn of/in the/at pulley/nn was/bedz increased/vbn by/in the/at build-up/nn of/in tape/nn and/cc the/at tape/nn was/bedz occasionally/rb removed/vbn from/in the/at pulley/nn during/in the/at runs/nns ./.
The/at face/nn of/in one/cd block/nn contained/vbd a/at hole/nn 1/16''/nn ''/'' in/in diameter/nn which/wdt led/vbd to/in a/at manometer/nn for/in the/at measurement/nn of/in the/at normal/jj pressure/nn ./.


	Although/cs there/ex were/bed only/ap four/cd fluids/nns tested/vbn ,/, it/pps was/bedz apparent/jj that/cs there/ex were/bed two/cd distinct/jj types/nns ./.
Two/cd of/in the/at fluids/nns showed/vbd a/at high-positive/jj normal/jj pressure/nn when/wrb undergoing/vbg shear/nn ,/, and/cc two/cd showed/vbd small/jj negative/jj pressures/nns which/wdt were/bed negligible/jj in/in comparison/nn with/in the/at amount/nn of/in the/at positive/jj pressures/nns generated/vbn by/in the/at other/ap two/cd ./.


	Figure/nn 3/cd shows/vbz the/at data/nn on/in a/at silicone/nn fluid/nn ,/, labeled/vbn 12,500/cd cps/nn which/wdt gave/vbd a/at high/jj positive/jj normal/jj pressure/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at tape/nn was/bedz run/vbn for/in over/rp 1/cd hr./nn ,/, a/at steady/jj state/nn was/bedz not/* reached/vbn ,/, and/cc it/pps was/bedz concluded/vbn that/cs the/at reason/nn for/in this/dt was/bedz that/cs the/at back/jj pressure/nn of/in the/at manometer/nn was/bedz built/vbn up/rp from/in the/at material/nn fed/vbn from/in between/in the/at blocks/nns and/cc this/dt was/bedz available/jj at/in a/at very/ql slow/jj rate/nn ./.
A/at system/nn had/hvd to/to be/be used/vbn which/wdt did/dod not/* depend/vb upon/in the/at feeding/nn of/in the/at fluid/nn into/in the/at manometer/nn if/cs measurements/nns of/in the/at normal/jj pressure/nn were/bed to/to be/be made/vbn in/in a/at reasonable/jj time/nn ./.
A/at back/jj pressure/nn was/bedz then/rb introduced/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at rise/nn or/cc fall/nn of/in the/at material/nn in/in the/at manometer/nn indicated/vbd which/wdt was/bedz greater/jjr ,/, the/at normal/jj pressure/nn in/in the/at block/nn or/cc the/at back/jj pressure/nn ./.
By/in this/dt method/nn it/pps was/bedz determined/vbn that/cs the/at normal/jj pressure/nn exerted/vbn by/in a/at sample/nn of/in polybutene/nn (/( molecular/jj weight/nn reported/vbn to/to be/be 770/cd )/) was/bedz over/rp half/abn an/at atmosphere/nn ./.
The/at actual/jj pressure/nn was/bedz not/* determined/vbn because/cs the/at pressure/nn was/bedz beyond/in the/at upper/jj limit/nn of/in the/at apparatus/nn on/in hand/nn ./.


	The/at two/cd fluids/nns which/wdt gave/vbd the/at small/jj negative/jj pressures/nns were/bed polybutenes/nns with/in molecular/jj weights/nns which/wdt were/bed stated/vbn to/to be/be 520/cd and/cc 300/cd ./.
These/dts are/ber fluids/nns which/wdt one/pn would/md expect/vb to/to be/be less/ql viscoelastic/jj or/cc more/ql Newtonian/jj because/rb of/in their/pp$ lower/jjr molecular/jj weight/nn ./.
The/at maximum/jj suction/nn was/bedz 3.25''/nns ''/'' of/in test/nn fluid/nn measured/vbn from/in the/at top/nn of/in the/at block/nn ,/, and/cc steady/jj states/nns were/bed apparently/rb reached/vbn with/in these/dts fluids/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez presumed/vbn that/cs this/dt negative/jj head/nn was/bedz associated/vbn with/in some/dti geometric/jj factor/nn of/in the/at assembly/nn ,/, since/cs different/jj readings/nns were/bed obtained/vbn with/in the/at same/ap fluid/nn and/cc the/at only/ap apparent/jj difference/nn was/bedz the/at assembly/nn and/cc disassembly/nn of/in the/at apparatus/nn ./.
This/dt negative/jj pressure/nn is/bez not/* explained/vbn by/in the/at velocity/nn head/nn Af/nn since/cs this/dt is/bez not/* sufficient/jj to/to explain/vb the/at readings/nns by/in several/ap magnitudes/nns ./.


	These/dts experiments/nns can/md be/be considered/vbn exploratory/jj only/rb ./.
However/rb ,/, they/ppss do/do demonstrate/vb the/at presence/nn of/in large/jj normal/jj pressures/nns in/in the/at presence/nn of/in flat/jj shear/nn fields/nns which/wdt were/bed forecast/vbn by/in the/at theory/nn in/in the/at first/od part/nn of/in the/at paper/nn ./.
They/ppss also/rb give/vb information/nn which/wdt will/md aid/vb in/in the/at design/nn of/in a/at more/ql satisfactory/jj instrument/nn for/in the/at measurement/nn of/in the/at normal/jj pressures/nns ./.
Such/abl an/at instrument/nn would/md be/be useful/jj for/in the/at characterization/nn of/in many/ap commercial/jj materials/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs theoretical/jj studies/nns ./.
The/at elasticity/nn is/bez a/at parameter/nn of/in fluids/nns which/wdt is/bez not/* subject/jj to/in simple/jj measurement/nn at/in present/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez a/at parameter/nn which/wdt is/bez probably/rb varying/vbg in/in an/at unknown/jj manner/nn with/in many/ap commercial/jj materials/nns ./.
Such/abl an/at instrument/nn is/bez expected/vbn to/to be/be especially/ql useful/jj if/cs it/pps could/md be/be used/vbn to/to measure/vb the/at elasticity/nn of/in heavy/jj pastes/nns such/jj as/cs printing/vbg inks/nns ,/, paints/nns ,/, adhesives/nns ,/, molten/jj plastics/nns ,/, and/cc bread/nn dough/nn ,/, for/cs the/at elasticity/nn is/bez related/vbn to/in those/dts various/jj properties/nns termed/vbn ``/`` length/nn ''/'' ,/, ``/`` shortness/nn ''/'' ,/, ``/`` spinnability/nn ''/'' ,/, etc./rb ,/, which/wdt are/ber usually/rb judged/vbn by/in subjective/jj methods/nns at/in present/nn ./.


	The/at actual/jj change/nn Af/nn caused/vbn by/in a/at shear/nn field/nn is/bez calculated/vbn by/in multiplying/vbg the/at pressure/nn differential/nn times/in the/at volume/nn ,/, just/rb as/cs it/pps is/bez for/in any/dti gravitational/jj or/cc osmotic/jj pressure/nn head/nn ./.
If/cs the/at volume/nn is/bez the/at molal/jj volume/nn ,/, then/rb Af/nn is/bez obtained/vbn on/in a/at molal/jj basis/nn which/wdt is/bez the/at customary/jj terminology/nn of/in the/at chemists/nns ./.


	Although/cs the/at Af/nn calculation/nn is/bez obvious/jj by/in analogy/nn with/in that/dt for/in gravitational/jj field/nn and/cc osmotic/jj pressure/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez interesting/jj to/to confirm/vb it/ppo by/in a/at method/nn which/wdt can/md be/be generalized/vbn to/to include/vb related/vbn effects/nns ./.
Consider/vb a/at shear/nn field/nn with/in a/at height/nn of/in H/nn and/cc a/at cross-sectional/jj area/nn of/in A/nn opposed/vbn by/in a/at manometer/nn with/in a/at height/nn of/in H/np (/( referred/vbn to/in the/at same/ap base/nn as/cs H/nn )/) and/cc a/at cross-sectional/jj area/nn of/in A/np ./.
If/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at change/nn per/in unit/nn volume/nn in/in Gibbs/np function/nn caused/vbn by/in the/at shear/nn field/nn at/in constant/jj P/nn and/cc T/nn ,/, and/cc **yr/nn is/bez the/at density/nn of/in the/at fluid/nn ,/, then/rb the/at total/jj potential/jj energy/nn of/in the/at system/nn above/in the/at reference/nn height/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.
Af/nn is/bez the/at work/nn necessary/jj to/to fill/vb the/at manometer/nn column/nn from/in the/at reference/nn height/nn to/in H/np ./.
The/at total/jj volume/nn of/in the/at system/nn above/in the/at reference/nn height/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, and/cc H/np can/md be/be eliminated/vbn to/to obtain/vb an/at equation/nn for/in the/at total/jj potential/jj energy/nn of/in the/at system/nn in/in terms/nns of/in H/nn ./.
The/at minimum/jj total/jj potential/jj energy/nn is/bez found/vbn by/in taking/vbg the/at derivative/nn with/in respect/nn to/in H/nn and/cc equating/vbg to/in zero/nn ./.
This/dt gives/vbz Af/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez the/at pressure/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez interesting/jj for/cs it/pps combines/vbz both/abx the/at thermodynamic/jj concept/nn of/in a/at minimum/jj Gibbs/np function/nn for/in equilibrium/nn and/cc minimum/jj mechanical/jj potential/jj energy/nn for/in equilibrium/nn ./.
This/dt method/nn can/md be/be extended/vbn to/to include/vb the/at concentration/nn differences/nns caused/vbn by/in shear/nn fields/nns ./.
The/at relation/nn between/in osmotic/jj pressure/nn and/cc the/at Gibbs/np function/nn may/md also/rb be/be developed/vbn in/in an/at analogous/jj way/nn ./.


	In/in the/at above/jj development/nn we/ppss have/hv applied/vbn the/at thermodynamics/nn of/in equilibrium/nn (/( referred/vbn to/in by/in some/dti as/cs thermostatics/nn )/) to/in the/at steady/jj state/nn ./.
This/dt can/md be/be justified/vbn thermodynamically/rb in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt will/md be/be done/vbn in/in a/at separate/jj paper/nn which/wdt is/bez being/beg prepared/vbn ./.
This/dt has/hvz an/at interesting/jj analogy/nn with/in the/at assumption/nn stated/vbn by/in Philippoff/np that/cs ``/`` the/at deformational/jj mechanics/nn of/in elastic/jj solids/nns can/md be/be applied/vbn to/in flowing/vbg solutions/nns ''/'' ./.
There/ex is/bez one/cd exception/nn to/in the/at above/jj statement/nn as/cs has/hvz been/ben pointed/vbn out/rp ,/, and/cc that/dt is/bez that/cs fluids/nns can/md relax/vb by/in flowing/vbg into/in fields/nns of/in lower/jjr rates/nns of/in shear/nn ,/, so/rb the/at statement/nn should/md be/be modified/vbn by/in stating/vbg that/cs the/at mechanics/nns are/ber similar/jj ./.
If/cs the/at mechanics/nns are/ber similar/jj ,/, we/ppss can/md also/rb infer/vb that/cs the/at thermodynamics/nn will/md also/rb be/be similar/jj ./.


	The/at concept/nn of/in the/at strain/nn energy/nn as/cs a/at Gibbs/np function/nn difference/nn Af/nn and/cc exerting/vbg a/at force/nn normal/rb to/in the/at shearing/vbg face/nn is/bez compatible/jj with/in the/at information/nn obtained/vbn from/in optical/jj birefringence/nn studies/nns of/in fluids/nns undergoing/vbg shear/nn ./.
Essentially/rb these/dts birefringence/nn studies/nns show/vb that/cs at/in low/jj rates/nns of/in shear/nn a/at tension/nn is/bez present/jj at/in 45-degrees/nns to/in the/at direction/nn of/in shear/nn ,/, and/cc as/cs the/at rate/nn of/in shear/nn increases/vbz ,/, the/at direction/nn of/in the/at maximum/jj tension/nn moves/vbz asymptotically/rb toward/in the/at direction/nn of/in shear/nn ./.
According/in to/in Philippoff/np ,/, the/at recoverable/jj shear/nn S/np is/bez given/vbn by/in Af/nn where/wrb **yc/nn is/bez the/at angle/nn of/in extinction/nn ./.
From/in this/dt and/cc the/at force/nn of/in deformation/nn it/pps should/md be/be possible/jj to/to calculate/vb the/at elastic/jj energy/nn of/in deformation/nn which/wdt should/md be/be equal/jj to/in the/at Af/nn calculated/vbn from/in the/at pressure/nn normal/rb to/in the/at shearing/vbg face/nn ./.


	There/ex is/bez another/dt means/nn which/wdt should/md show/vb the/at direction/nn and/cc relative/jj value/nn of/in the/at stresses/nns in/in viscoelastic/jj fluids/nns that/wps is/bez not/* mentioned/vbn as/cs such/jj in/in the/at literature/nn ,/, and/cc that/dt is/bez the/at shape/nn of/in the/at suspended/vbn drops/nns of/in low/jj viscosity/nn fluids/nns in/in shear/nn fields/nns ./.
These/dts droplets/nns are/ber distorted/vbn by/in the/at normal/jj forces/nns just/rb as/cs a/at balloon/nn would/md be/be pulled/vbn or/cc pressed/vbn out/rp of/in shape/nn in/in one's/pn$ hands/nns ./.
These/dts droplets/nns appear/vb to/to be/be ellipsoids/nns ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez mathematically/rb convenient/jj to/to assume/vb that/cs they/ppss are/ber ./.
If/cs they/ppss are/ber not/* ellipsoids/nns ,/, the/at conclusions/nns will/md be/be a/at reasonable/jj approximation/nn ./.
The/at direction/nn of/in the/at tension/nn of/in minimum/nn pressure/nn is/bez ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, given/vbn by/in the/at direction/nn of/in the/at major/jj axis/nn of/in the/at ellipsoids/nns ./.
Mason/np and/cc Taylor/np both/abx show/vb that/cs the/at major/jj axis/nn of/in the/at ellipsoids/nns is/bez at/in 45-degrees/nns at/in low/jj rates/nns of/in shear/nn and/cc that/cs it/pps approaches/vbz the/at direction/nn of/in shear/nn with/in increased/vbn rates/nns of/in shear/nn ./.
(/( Some/dti suspensions/nns break/vb up/rp before/cs they/ppss are/ber near/in to/in the/at direction/nn of/in shear/nn ,/, and/cc some/dti become/vb asymptotic/jj to/in it/ppo without/in breakup/nn ./.
)/) This/dt is/bez ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, a/at similar/jj type/nn of/in behavior/nn to/in that/dt indicated/vbn by/in birefringence/nn studies/nns ./.
The/at relative/jj forces/nns can/md be/be calculated/vbn from/in the/at various/jj radii/nns of/in curvature/nn if/cs we/ppss assume/vb :/: (/( A/np )/) The/at surface/jj tension/nn is/bez uniform/jj on/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at drop/nn ./.
(/( B/np )/) That/cs because/rb of/in the/at low/jj viscosity/nn of/in the/at fluid/nn ,/, the/at internal/jj pressure/nn is/bez the/at same/ap in/in all/abn directions/nns ./.
(/( C/np )/) The/at kinetic/jj effects/nns are/ber negligible/jj ./.
(/( D/np )/) Since/cs the/at shape/nn of/in the/at drop/nn conforms/vbz to/in the/at force/nn field/nn ,/, it/pps does/doz not/* appreciably/rb affect/vb the/at distribution/nn of/in forces/nns in/in the/at fluid/nn ./.


	These/dts are/ber reasonable/jj assumptions/nns with/in low/jj viscosity/nn fluids/nns suspended/vbn in/in high/jj viscosity/nn fluids/nns which/wdt are/ber subjected/vbn to/in low/jj rates/nns of/in shear/nn ./.
Just/rb as/cs the/at pressure/nn exerted/vbn by/in surface/jj tension/nn in/in a/at spherical/jj drop/nn is/bez Af/nn and/cc the/at pressure/nn exerted/vbn by/in surface/jj tension/nn on/in a/at cylindrical/jj shape/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, the/at pressure/nn exerted/vbn by/in any/dti curved/vbn surface/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, where/wrb **yg/nn is/bez the/at interfacial/jj tension/nn and/cc Af/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber the/at two/cd radii/nns of/in curvature/nn ./.
This/dt formula/nn is/bez given/vbn by/in Rumscheidt/np and/cc Mason/np ./.
If/cs A/np is/bez the/at major/jj axis/nn of/in an/at ellipsoid/nn and/cc B/np and/cc C/np are/ber the/at other/ap two/cd axes/nns ,/, the/at radius/nn of/in curvature/nn in/in the/at ab/nn plane/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at axis/nn Af/nn ,/, and/cc the/at difference/nn in/in pressure/nn along/in the/at A/np and/cc B/np axes/nns is/bez Af/nn ./.


	There/ex are/ber no/at data/nn published/vbn in/in the/at literature/nn on/in the/at shape/nn of/in low/jj viscosity/nn drops/nns to/to confirm/vb the/at above/jj formulas/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber photographs/nns of/in suspended/vbn drops/nns of/in cyclohexanol/nn phthalate/nn (/( viscosity/nn 155/cd poises/nns )/) suspended/vbn in/in corn/nn syrup/nn of/in 71/cd poises/nns in/in a/at paper/nn by/in Mason/np and/cc Bartok/np ./.
This/dt viscosity/nn of/in the/at material/nn in/in the/at drops/nns is/bez ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, not/* negligible/jj ./.
Measurements/nns on/in the/at photograph/nn in/in this/dt paper/nn give/vb Af/nn at/in the/at maximum/jj rate/nn of/in shear/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs it/pps is/bez assumed/vbn that/cs the/at formula/nn given/vbn by/in Lodge/np of/in cosec/nn Af/nil applies/vbz ,/, the/at pressure/nn difference/nn along/in the/at major/jj axes/nns can/md be/be calculated/vbn from/in the/at angle/nn of/in inclination/nn of/in the/at major/jj axis/nn ,/, and/cc from/in this/dt the/at interfacial/jj tension/nn can/md be/be calculated/vbn ./.
Its/pp$ value/nn was/bedz Af/nn from/in the/at above/jj data/nn ./.
This/dt appears/vbz to/to be/be high/jj ,/, as/cs would/md be/be expected/vbn from/in the/at appreciable/jj viscosity/nn of/in the/at material/nn in/in the/at drops/nns ./.


	It/pps is/bez appropriate/jj to/to call/vb attention/nn to/in certain/jj thermodynamic/jj properties/nns of/in an/at ideal/jj gas/nn that/wps are/ber analogous/jj to/in rubber-like/jj deformation/nn ./.
The/at internal/jj energy/nn of/in an/at ideal/jj gas/nn depends/vbz on/in temperature/nn only/rb and/cc is/bez independent/jj of/in pressure/nn or/cc volume/nn ./.
In/in other/ap words/nns ,/, if/cs an/at ideal/jj gas/nn is/bez compressed/vbn and/cc kept/vbn at/in constant/jj temperature/nn ,/, the/at work/nn done/vbn in/in compressing/vbg it/ppo is/bez completely/rb converted/vbn into/in heat/nn and/cc transferred/vbn to/in the/at surrounding/vbg heat/nn sink/nn ./.
This/dt means/vbz that/cs work/nn equals/vbz Q/np which/wdt in/in turn/nn equals/vbz Af/nn ./.


	There/ex is/bez a/at well-known/jj relationship/nn between/in probability/nn and/cc entropy/nn which/wdt states/vbz that/cs Af/nn ,/, where/wrb **zq/nn is/bez the/at probability/nn that/dt state/nn (/( i.e./rb ,/, volume/nn for/in an/at ideal/jj gas/nn )/) could/md be/be reached/vbn by/in chance/nn alone/rb ./.
This/dt is/bez known/vbn as/cs conformational/jj entropy/nn ./.
This/dt conformational/nn entropy/nn is/bez ,/, in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, equal/jj to/in the/at usual/jj entropy/nn ,/, for/cs there/ex are/ber no/at other/ap changes/nns or/cc other/ap energies/nns involved/vbn ./.
Note/vb that/cs though/cs the/at ideal/jj gas/nn itself/ppl contains/vbz no/at additional/jj energy/nn ,/, the/at compressed/vbn gas/nn does/doz exert/vb an/at increased/vbn pressure/nn ./.
The/at energy/nn for/in any/dti isothermal/jj work/nn done/vbn by/in the/at perfect/jj gas/nn must/md come/vb as/cs thermal/jj energy/nn from/in its/pp$ surroundings/nns ./.





A/at proton/nn magnetic/jj resonance/nn study/nn of/in polycrystalline/jj Af/nn as/cs a/at function/nn of/in magnetic/jj field/nn and/cc temperature/nn is/bez presented/vbn ./.
Af/nn is/bez paramagnetic/jj ,/, and/cc electron/nn paramagnetic/jj dipole/jj as/ql well/rb as/cs nuclear/jj dipole/jj effects/nns lead/vb to/in line/nn broadening/nn ./.
The/at lines/nns are/ber asymmetric/jj and/cc over/in the/at range/nn of/in field/nn Af/nn gauss/nn and/cc temperature/nn Af/nn the/at asymmetry/nn increases/vbz with/in increasing/vbg Af/nn and/cc decreasing/vbg T/np ./.
An/at isotropic/jj resonance/nn shift/nn of/in Af/nn to/to lower/jjr applied/vbn fields/vbz indicates/vbz a/at weak/jj isotropic/jj hyperfine/jj contact/nn interaction/nn ./.
The/at general/jj theory/nn of/in resonance/nn shifts/nns is/bez used/vbn to/to derive/vb a/at general/jj expression/nn for/in the/at second/od moment/nn Af/nn of/in a/at polycrystalline/jj paramagnetic/jj sample/nn and/cc is/bez specialized/vbn to/in Af/nn ./.
The/at theory/nn predicts/vbz a/at linear/jj dependence/nn of/in Af/nn on/in Af/nn ,/, where/wrb J/np is/bez the/at experimentally/rb determined/vbn Curie-Weiss/np constant/nn ./.
The/at experimental/jj second/od moment/nn Af/nn conforms/vbz to/in the/at relation/nn Af/nn in/in agreement/nn with/in theory/nn ./.
Hence/rb ,/, the/at electron/nn paramagnetic/jj effects/nns (/( slope/nn )/) can/md be/be separated/vbn from/in the/at nuclear/jj effects/nns (/( intercept/nn )/) ./.
The/at paramagnetic/jj dipole/jj effects/nns provide/vb some/dti information/nn on/in the/at particle/nn shapes/nns ./.
The/at nuclear/jj dipole/jj effects/nns provide/vb some/dti information/nn on/in the/at motions/nns of/in the/at hydrogen/nn nuclei/nns ,/, but/cc the/at symmetry/nn of/in the/at Af/nn bond/nn in/in Af/nn remains/vbz in/in doubt/nn ./.



Introduction/nn-hl 
the/at magnetic/jj moment/nn of/in an/at unpaired/jj electron/nn associated/vbn nearby/rb may/md have/hv a/at tremendous/jj influence/nn on/in the/at magnetic/jj resonance/nn properties/nns of/in nuclei/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez important/jj to/to consider/vb and/cc experimentally/rb verify/vb this/dt influence/nn since/cs quantitative/jj nuclear/jj resonance/nn is/bez becoming/vbg increasingly/rb used/vbn in/in investigations/nns of/in structure/nn ./.
Af/nn appeared/vbd to/to be/be well/rb suited/vbn for/in the/at study/nn of/in these/dts matters/nns ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez a/at normal/jj paramagnet/nn ,/, with/in three/cd unpaired/jj electrons/nns on/in the/at chromium/nn ,/, its/pp$ crystal/nn structure/nn is/bez very/ql simple/jj ,/, and/cc the/at unknown/jj position/nn of/in the/at hydrogen/nn in/in the/at strong/jj Af/nn bond/nn provides/vbz structural/jj interest/nn ./.


	We/ppss first/rb discuss/vb the/at Af/nn bond/nn in/in Af/nn ./.
We/ppss then/rb outline/vb the/at theory/nn of/in the/at interaction/nn of/in paramagnetic/jj dipoles/nns with/in nuclei/nns and/cc show/vb that/cs the/at theory/nn is/bez in/in excellent/jj agreement/nn with/in experiment/nn ./.
Indeed/rb it/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to separate/vb electron/nn paramagnetic/jj from/in nuclear/jj effects/nns ./.
The/at information/nn provided/vbn by/in the/at electron/nn paramagnetic/jj effects/nns is/bez then/rb discussed/vbn ,/, and/cc finally/rb the/at nuclear/jj effects/nns are/ber interpreted/vbn in/in terms/nns of/in various/jj motional-modified/jj models/nns of/in the/at Af/nn-hl bond/nn-hl in/in-hl Af/nn-hl ./.



Af/nn bond/nn in/in Af/nn 
Theoretical/jj studies/nns of/in the/at hydrogen/nn bond/nn generally/rb agree/vb that/cs the/at Af/nn bond/nn will/md be/be linear/jj in/in the/at absence/nn of/in peculiarities/nns of/in packing/vbg in/in the/at solid/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, it/pps will/md be/be asymmetric/jj until/cs a/at certain/jj critical/jj Af/nn distance/nn is/bez reached/vbn ,/, below/in which/wdt it/pps will/md become/vb symmetric/jj ./.
There/ex is/bez ample/jj evidence/nn from/in many/ap sources/nns that/cs the/at Af/nn bond/nn in/in Af/nn is/bez symmetric/jj ./.
The/at Af/nn distance/nn in/in Af/nn is/bez 2.26/cd Aj/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez evidence/nn ,/, though/cs less/ql convincing/jj than/cs for/in Af/nn ,/, that/cs the/at Af/nn bond/nn in/in nickel/nn dimethylglyoxime/nn is/bez symmetric/jj ./.
Here/rb the/at Af/nn distance/nn is/bez 2.44/cd Aj/nn ./.
A/at number/nn of/in semiempirical/jj estimates/nns by/in various/jj workers/nns lead/vb to/in the/at conclusion/nn that/cs the/at Af/nn bond/nn becomes/vbz symmetric/jj when/wrb the/at Af/nn bond/nn length/nn is/bez about/rb 2.4/cd to/in 2.5/cd A/nn ,/, but/cc aside/rb from/in the/at possible/jj example/nn of/in nickel/nn dimethylglyoxime/nn there/ex have/hv been/ben no/at convincing/jj reports/nns of/in symmetric/jj Af/nn bonds/nns ./.
Douglass/np has/hvz studied/vbn the/at crystal/nn structure/nn of/in Af/nn by/in x-ray/nn diffraction/nn ./.
He/pps finds/vbz the/at structure/nn contains/vbz an/at Af/nn bond/nn with/in the/at Af/nn distance/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez ,/, then/rb ,/, the/at possibility/nn that/cs this/dt Af/nn bond/nn is/bez symmetric/jj ,/, although/cs Douglass/np was/bedz unable/jj to/to determine/vb its/pp$ symmetry/nn from/in his/pp$ x-ray/nn data/nn ./.


	Douglass/np found/vbd Af/nn to/to be/be trigonal/jj ,/, Laue/np symmetry/nn Af/nn ,/, with/in Af/nn ,/, Af/nn ./.
X-ray/nn and/cc experimental/jj density/nn showed/vbd one/cd formula/nn unit/nn in/in the/at unit/nn cell/nn ,/, corresponding/vbg to/in a/at paramagnetic/jj ion/nn density/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at x-ray/nn data/nn did/dod not/* permit/vb Douglass/np to/to determine/vb uniquely/rb the/at space/nn group/nn ,/, but/cc a/at negative/jj test/nn for/in piezoelectricity/nn led/vbd him/ppo to/to assume/vb a/at center/nn of/in symmetry/nn ./.
Under/in this/dt assumption/nn the/at space/nn group/nn must/md be/be Af/nn and/cc the/at following/vbg are/ber the/at positions/nns of/in the/at atoms/nns in/in the/at unit/nn cell/nn ./.
Af/nn ./.
This/dt space/nn group/nn requires/vbz the/at hydrogen/nn bond/nn to/to be/be symmetric/jj ./.
Douglass/np found/vbd powder/nn intensity/nn calculations/nns and/cc measurements/nns to/to agree/vb best/rbt for/in Af/nn ./.
These/dts data/nns lead/vb to/in a/at structure/nn in/in which/wdt sheets/nns of/in Cr/nn atoms/nns lie/vb between/in two/cd sheets/nns of/in O/nn atoms/nns ./.
The/at O/nn atoms/nns in/in each/dt sheet/nn are/ber close/rb packed/vbn and/cc each/dt Cr/nn atom/nn is/bez surrounded/vbn by/in a/at distorted/vbn octahedron/nn of/in O/nn atoms/nns ./.
The/at Af/nn layers/nns are/ber stacked/vbn normal/rb to/in the/at (/( 111/cd )/) axis/nn with/in the/at lower/jjr oxygens/nns of/in one/cd layer/nn directly/rb above/in the/at upper/jjr oxygens/nns of/in the/at neighboring/vbg lower/jjr layer/nn ,/, in/in such/abl a/at manner/nn that/cs the/at repeat/nn is/bez every/at three/cd layers/nns ./.
The/at separate/jj layers/nns are/ber joined/vbn together/rb by/in hydrogen/nn bonds/nns ./.
A/at drawing/nn of/in the/at structure/nn is/bez to/to be/be found/vbn in/in reference/nn 6/cd ./.


	The/at gross/jj details/nns of/in the/at structure/nn appear/vb reasonable/jj ./.
The/at structure/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be unique/jj among/in OOH/nn compounds/nns ,/, but/cc is/bez the/at same/ap as/cs that/dt assumed/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at bond/nn angles/nns and/cc distances/nns are/ber all/abn within/in the/at expected/vbn limits/nns and/cc the/at volume/nn per/in oxygen/nn is/bez about/rp normal/jj ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at possible/jj absence/nn of/in a/at center/nn of/in symmetry/nn not/* only/rb moves/vbz the/at hydrogen/nn atom/nn off/in Af/nn ,/, but/cc also/rb allows/vbz the/at oxygen/nn atoms/nns to/to become/vb nonequivalent/jj ,/, with/in Af/nn at/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn at/in Af/nn (/( space/nn group/nn Af/nn )/) ,/, where/wrb Af/nn represents/vbz the/at oxygens/nns on/in one/cd side/nn of/in the/at Af/nn layers/nns and/cc Af/nn those/dts on/in the/at other/ap side/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, any/dti oxygen/nn nonequivalence/nn would/md shorten/vb either/cc the/at already/rb extremely/ql short/jj Af/nn interlayer/jj distance/nn of/in 2.55/cd A/nn or/cc the/at non-hydrogen-bonded/jj Af/nn interlayer/jj interactions/nns which/wdt are/ber already/rb quite/ql short/jj at/in 2.58/cd Aj/nn ./.
Hence/rb it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to conceive/vb of/in a/at packing/nn of/in the/at atoms/nns in/in this/dt material/nn in/in which/wdt the/at oxygen/nn atoms/nns are/ber far/rb from/in geometrical/jj equivalence/nn ./.
The/at only/ap effect/nn of/in lack/nn of/in a/at center/nn would/md then/rb be/be to/to release/vb the/at hydrogen/nn atoms/nns to/to occupy/vb general/jj ,/, rather/rb than/in special/jj ,/, positions/nns along/in the/at (/( 111/cd )/) axis/nn ./.


	If/cs the/at Af/nn bond/nn is/bez linear/jj then/rb there/ex are/ber three/cd reasonable/jj positions/nns for/in the/at hydrogen/nn atoms/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) The/at hydrogen/nn atoms/nns are/ber centered/vbn and/cc hence/rb all/abn lie/vb on/in a/at sheet/nn midway/rb between/in the/at oxygen/nn sheets/nns ;/. ;/.
(/( 2/cd )/) all/abn hydrogen/nn atoms/nns lie/vb on/in a/at sheet/nn ,/, but/cc the/at sheet/nn is/bez closer/rbr to/in one/cd oxygen/nn sheet/nn than/cs to/in the/at other/ap ;/. ;/.
(/( 3/cd )/) hydrogen/nn atoms/nns are/ber asymmetrically/rb placed/vbn ,/, either/cc randomly/rb or/cc in/in an/at ordered/vbn way/nn ,/, so/cs that/cs some/dti hydrogen/nn atoms/nns are/ber closer/rbr to/in the/at upper/jjr oxygen/nn atoms/nns while/cs others/nns are/ber closer/rbr to/in the/at lower/jjr oxygen/nn atoms/nns ./.
Position/nn (/( 2/cd )/) appears/vbz to/in us/ppo to/to be/be unlikely/jj in/in view/nn of/in the/at absence/nn of/in a/at piezoelectric/jj effect/nn and/cc on/in general/jj chemical/jj structural/jj grounds/nns ./.
A/at randomization/nn of/in ``/`` ups/nns ''/'' and/cc ``/`` downs/nns ''/'' is/bez more/ql likely/jj than/cs ordered/vbn ``/`` ups/nns ''/'' and/cc ``/`` downs/nns ''/'' in/in position/nn (/( 3/cd )/) since/cs the/at hydrogen/nn atoms/nns are/ber well/rb separated/vbn and/cc so/cs the/at position/nn of/in one/cd could/md hardly/rb affect/vb the/at position/nn of/in another/dt ,/, and/cc also/rb since/cs ordered/vbn ``/`` up/rp ''/'' and/cc ``/`` down/rp ''/'' implies/vbz a/at larger/jjr unit/nn cell/nn ,/, for/in which/wdt no/at evidence/nn exists/vbz ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at only/ap unknown/jj structural/jj feature/nn would/md appear/vb to/to be/be whether/cs the/at hydrogen/nn atoms/nns are/ber located/vbn symmetrically/rb (/( 1/cd )/) or/cc asymmetrically/rb (/( 3/cd )/) ./.



Experimental/jj-hl procedures/nns-hl 
samples/nns-hl 
Douglass/np prepared/vbd his/pp$ sample/nn of/in Af/nn by/in thermal/jj decomposition/nn of/in aqueous/jj chromic/jj acid/nn at/in 300/cd -/in 325-degrees-C/nns ./.
Dr./nn-tl Douglass/np was/bedz kind/jj enough/qlp to/to lend/vb us/ppo about/rb 5/cd grams/nns of/in his/pp$ material/nn ./.
This/dt material/nn proved/vbd to/to be/be unsatisfactory/jj ,/, since/cs we/ppss could/md not/* obtain/vb reproducible/jj results/nns on/in various/jj portions/nns of/in the/at sample/nn ./.
Subsequently/rb ,/, we/ppss learned/vbd from/in Douglass/np that/cs his/pp$ sample/nn contained/vbd a/at few/ap percent/nn Af/nn impurity/nn ./.
Since/cs Af/nn is/bez ferromagnetic/jj ,/, we/ppss felt/vbd that/cs any/dti results/nns obtained/vbn from/in the/at magnetically/rb contaminated/vbn Af/nn would/md be/be suspect/jj ./.


	Plane/np suggested/vbd another/dt preparation/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt we/ppss used/vbd here/rb ./.
500/cd ml/nn of/in 1M/jj aqueous/jj Af/nn with/in 1/cd Af/nn added/vbn are/ber heated/vbn in/in a/at bomb/nn at/in 170-degrees-C/nns for/in 48/cd hours/nns ./.
A/at very/ql fine/jj ,/, gray/jj solid/nn (/( about/rb 15/cd g/nn )/) is/bez formed/vbn ,/, water-washed/nn by/in centrifugation/nn ,/, and/cc dried/vbn at/in 110-degrees-C/nns )/) ./.


	Differential/jj thermal/jj analysis/nn showed/vbd a/at very/ql small/jj endothermic/jj reaction/nn at/in 340-degrees-C/nns and/cc a/at large/jj endothermic/jj reaction/nn at/in 470-degrees-C/nns ./.
This/dt latter/ap reaction/nn is/bez in/in accord/nn with/in the/at reported/vbn decomposition/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Thermogravimetric/jj analysis/nn showed/vbd a/at weight/nn loss/nn of/in 1.8%/nn centered/vbn at/in 337-degrees-C/nns and/cc another/dt weight/nn loss/nn of/in 10.8%/nn at/in 463-degrees-C/nns ./.
The/at expected/vbn weight/nn loss/nn for/in Af/nn going/vbg to/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn is/bez 10.6%/nn ./.
Mass/nn spectrometric/jj analysis/nn of/in gases/nns evolved/vbn upon/in heating/vbg to/in 410-degrees-C/nns indicated/vbd nitrogen/nn oxides/nns and/cc water/nn vapor/nn ./.
The/at small/jj reaction/nn occurring/vbg at/in 337-degrees-C/nns is/bez probably/rb caused/vbn by/in decomposition/nn of/in occluded/vbn nitrates/nns ,/, and/cc perhaps/rb by/in a/at small/jj amount/nn of/in some/dti hydrous/jj material/nn other/ap than/cs Af/nn ./.
All/abn subsequent/jj measurements/nns were/bed made/vbn on/in material/nn which/wdt had/hvd been/ben heated/vbn to/in 375-degrees-C/nns for/in one/cd hour/nn ./.
Emission/nn spectra/nns indicated/vbd Af/nn calcium/nn and/cc all/abn other/ap impurities/nns much/ql lower/jjr ./.
Chromium/nn analysis/nn gave/vbd 58.8%/nn Cr/nn as/cs compared/vbn with/in 61.2%/nn theory/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, Af/nn adsorbs/vbz water/nn from/in the/at atmosphere/nn and/cc this/dt may/md account/vb for/in the/at low/jj chromium/nn analysis/nn and/cc high/jj total/jj weight/nn loss/nn ./.


	The/at x-ray/nn diffraction/nn pattern/nn of/in the/at material/nn ,/, taken/vbn with/in CuK**ya/nn radiation/nn ,/, indicated/vbd the/at presence/nn of/in no/at extra/jj lines/nns and/cc was/bedz in/in good/jj agreement/nn with/in the/at pattern/nn of/in Douglass/np ./.
Magnetic/jj analyses/nns by/in R./np G./np Meisenheimer/np of/in this/dt laboratory/nn indicated/vbd no/at ferromagnetic/jj impurities/nns ./.
Af/nn was/bedz found/vbn to/to be/be paramagnetic/jj with/in three/cd unpaired/jj electrons/nns per/in chromium/nn atom/nn and/cc a/at molecular/jj susceptibility/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, where/wrb Af/nn ./.
For/in exactly/rb three/cd unpaired/jj electrons/nns the/at coefficient/nn would/md be/be 3.10/cd ./.
An/at infrared/jj spectrum/nn ,/, obtained/vbn by/in H./np A./np Benesi/np and/cc R./np G./np Snyder/np of/in this/dt laboratory/nn ,/, showed/vbd bands/nns in/in the/at positions/nns found/vbn by/in Jones/np ./.


	Electron/nn microscopic/jj examination/nn of/in the/at Af/nn sample/nn showed/vbd it/ppo to/to be/be composed/vbn of/in nearly/ql isotropic/jj particles/nns about/rb 0.3M/nns in/in diameter/nn ./.
The/at particles/nns appeared/vbd rough/jj and/cc undoubtedly/rb the/at single-crystal/nn domains/nns are/ber smaller/jjr than/cs this/dt ./.
The/at x-ray/nn data/nns are/ber consistent/jj with/in particle/nn sizes/nns of/in 1000/cd A/nn or/cc greater/jjr ./.
We/ppss found/vbd no/at obvious/jj effects/nns due/jj to/in preferred/vbn orientation/nn of/in the/at crystallites/nns in/in this/dt sample/nn nor/cc would/md we/ppss expect/vb to/to on/in the/at basis/nn of/in the/at shape/nn found/vbn from/in electron/nn microscopic/jj examination/nn ./.



Nuclear/jj-hl magnetic/jj-hl resonance/nn-hl (/(-hl NMR/np-hl )/)-hl measurements/nns-hl 
The/at magnetic/jj resonance/nn absorption/nn was/bedz detected/vbn by/in employing/vbg a/at Varian/jj model/nn Af/nn broad/jj line/nn spectrometer/nn and/cc the/at associated/vbn 12-inch/jj electromagnet/nn system/nn ./.
One/cd measurement/nn at/in 40/cd Mc/sec/nn was/bedz obtained/vbn with/in the/at Varian/jj model/nn Af/nn unit/nn ./.
A/at bridged-T/jj type/nn of/in bridge/nn was/bedz used/vbn in/in the/at 10/cd -/in 16/cd Mc/sec/nn range/nn ./.
The/at rf/nn power/nn level/nn was/bedz maintained/vbn small/jj enough/qlp at/in all/abn times/nns to/to prevent/vb obvious/jj line/nn shape/nn distortions/nns by/in saturation/nn effects/nns ./.
A/at modulation/nn frequency/nn of/in 40/cd cps/nn with/in an/at amplitude/nn as/ql small/jj as/cs possible/jj ,/, commensurate/jj with/in reasonably/ql good/jj signal-to-noise/jj quality/nn ,/, was/bedz used/vbn ./.
Background/nn spectra/nns were/bed obtained/vbn in/in all/abn cases/nns ./.
The/at spectrometer/nn was/bedz adjusted/vbn to/to minimize/vb the/at amount/nn of/in dispersion/nn mode/nn mixed/vbn in/rp with/in the/at absorption/nn signal/nn ./.


	A/at single/ap value/nn of/in the/at thermal/jj relaxation/nn time/nn Af/nn at/in room/nn temperature/nn was/bedz measured/vbn by/in the/at progressive/jj saturation/nn method/nn ./.
The/at value/nn of/in Af/nn estimated/vbn at/in 470/cd gauss/nn was/bedz Af/nn microseconds/nns ./.
A/at single/ap measurement/nn of/in the/at spin/nn -/in spin/nn relaxation/nn time/nn Af/nn was/bedz obtained/vbn at/in 10/cd Mc/sec/nn by/in pulse/nn methods/nns ./.
This/dt measurement/nn was/bedz obtained/vbn by/in W./np Blumberg/np of/in the/at University/nn-tl of/in-tl California/np-tl ,/, Berkeley/np-tl ,/, by/in observing/vbg the/at breadth/nn of/in the/at free/jj induction/nn decay/nn signal/nn ./.
The/at value/nn derived/vbn was/bedz 16/cd microseconds/nns ./.


	Field/nn shifts/nns were/bed derived/vbn from/in the/at mean/jj value/nn of/in the/at resonance/nn line/nn ,/, defined/vbn as/cs the/at field/nn about/in which/wdt the/at first/od moment/nn is/bez zero/cd ./.


	Second/od moments/nns of/in the/at spectra/nns were/bed computed/vbn by/in numerical/jj integration/nn ./.
Corrections/nns were/bed applied/vbn for/in modulation/nn broadening/nn ,/, apparatus/nn background/nn ,/, and/cc field/nn shift/nn ./.


	Spectra/nns were/bed obtained/vbn over/in the/at temperature/nn range/nn of/in 77/cd -/in 294-degrees-K/nns ./.
For/in the/at low-temperature/nn measurements/nns the/at sample/nn was/bedz cooled/vbn by/in a/at cold/jj nitrogen/nn gas/nn flow/nn method/nn similar/jj to/in that/dt of/in Andrew/np and/cc Eades/np ./.
The/at temperature/nn was/bedz maintained/vbn to/in within/in about/rb Af/nn for/in the/at period/nn of/in time/nn required/vbn to/to make/vb the/at measurement/nn (/( usually/rb about/rb one/cd hour/nn )/) ./.
One/cd sample/nn ,/, which/wdt had/hvd been/ben exposed/vbn to/in the/at atmosphere/nn after/in evacuation/nn at/in 375-degrees-C/nns ,/, showed/vbd the/at presence/nn of/in adsorbed/vbn water/nn (/( about/rb 0.3/cd wt/nn )/) )/) as/cs evidenced/vbn by/in a/at weak/jj resonance/nn line/nn which/wdt was/bedz very/ql narrow/jj at/in room/nn temperature/nn and/cc which/wdt disappeared/vbd ,/, due/rb to/in broadening/vbg ,/, at/in low/jj temperature/nn ./.
The/at data/nns reported/vbn here/rb are/ber either/cc from/in spectra/nns from/in which/wdt the/at adsorbed/vbn water/nn resonance/nn could/md easily/rb be/be eliminated/vbn or/cc from/in spectra/nns of/in samples/nns evacuated/vbn and/cc sealed/vbn off/rp at/in 375-degrees-C/nns which/wdt contain/vb no/at adsorbed/vbn water/nn ./.


	The/at measured/vbn powder/nn density/nn of/in the/at Af/nn used/vbn here/rb was/bedz about/rb Af/nn ,/, approximately/rb one-third/nn that/dt of/in the/at crystal/nn density/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ./.
Such/abl a/at density/nn corresponds/vbz to/in a/at paramagnetic/jj ion/nn density/nn of/in about/rb Af/nn ./.


	Spectra/nns were/bed obtained/vbn from/in a/at powdered/vbn sample/nn having/hvg the/at shape/nn of/in a/at right/jj circular/jj cylinder/nn with/in a/at height-to-diameter/jj ratio/nn of/in 4/cd :/. :/.
1/cd ./.
The/at top/nn of/in the/at sample/nn was/bedz nearly/ql flat/jj and/cc the/at bottom/nn hemispherical/jj ./.
Spectra/nns were/bed also/rb obtained/vbn from/in a/at sample/nn in/in a/at spherical/jj container/nn which/wdt was/bedz made/vbn by/in blowing/vbg a/at bubble/nn on/in the/at end/nn of/in a/at capillary/nn glass/nn tube/nn ./.
The/at bubble/nn was/bedz filled/vbn to/in the/at top/nn and/cc special/jj precautions/nns were/bed taken/vbn to/to prevent/vb any/dti sample/nn from/in remaining/vbg in/in the/at capillary/nn ./.
Spectra/nns were/bed also/rb obtained/vbn from/in a/at third/od sample/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt had/hvd been/ben diluted/vbn to/in three/cd times/nns its/pp$ original/jj volume/nn with/in powdered/vbn ,/, anhydrous/jj alundum/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ./.
This/dt sample/nn was/bedz contained/vbn in/in a/at cylindrical/jj container/nn similar/jj to/in that/dt described/vbn above/rb ./.

Polyphosphates/nns gave/vbd renewed/vbn life/nn to/in soap/nn products/nns at/in a/at time/nn when/wrb surfactants/nns were/bed a/at threat/nn though/cs expensive/jj ,/, and/cc these/dts same/ap polyphosphates/nns spelled/vbd the/at decline/nn of/in soap/nn usage/nn when/wrb the/at synergism/nn between/in polyphosphates/nns and/cc synthetic/jj detergent/nn actives/nns was/bedz recognized/vbn and/cc exploited/vbn ./.


	The/at market/nn today/nr for/in detergent/nn builders/nns is/bez quite/ql diverse/jj ./.
The/at best/rbt known/vbn field/nn of/in application/nn for/in builders/nns is/bez in/in heavy-duty/nn ,/, spray-dried/jj detergent/nn formulations/nns for/in household/nn use/nn ./.
These/dts widely/rb advertised/vbn products/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber used/vbn primarily/rb for/in washing/vbg clothes/nns ,/, are/ber based/vbn on/in high-sudsing/jj ,/, synthetic/jj organic/jj actives/nns (/( sodium/nn alkylbenzenesulfonates/nns )/) and/cc contain/vb up/rp to/in 50%/nn by/in weight/nn of/in sodium/nn tripolyphosphate/nn or/cc a/at mixture/nn of/in sodium/nn tripolyphosphate/nn and/cc tetrasodium/nn pyrophosphate/nn ./.
In/in the/at household/nn market/nn ,/, there/ex are/ber also/rb low-sudsing/jj detergent/nn formulations/nns based/vbn on/in nonionic/jj actives/nns with/in about/rb the/at same/ap amount/vb of/in phosphate/nn builder/nn ;/. ;/.
light-duty/nn synthetic/jj detergents/nns with/in much/ql less/ap builder/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc the/at dwindling/vbg built-soap/nn powders/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs soap/nn flakes/nns and/cc granules/nns ,/, none/pn of/in which/wdt are/ber now/rb nationally/rb advertised/vbn ./.
A/at well-publicized/jj entrant/nn which/wdt has/hvz achieved/vbn success/nn only/rb recently/rb is/bez the/at built/vbn liquid/jj detergent/nn ,/, with/in which/wdt the/at major/jj problem/nn today/nr is/bez incorporation/nn of/in builder/nn and/cc active/nn into/in a/at small/jj volume/nn using/vbg a/at sufficiently/ql high/jj builder/active/jj ratio/nn ./.


	Hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn in/in household/nn application/nn is/bez represented/vbn by/in two/cd classes/nns of/in alkaline/jj products/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) the/at formulations/nns made/vbn expressly/rb for/in machine/nn dishwashers/nns ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) the/at general-purpose/jj cleaners/nns used/vbn for/in walls/nns and/cc woodwork/nn ./.
The/at better/jjr quality/nn products/nns in/in both/abx of/in these/dts lines/nns contain/vb phosphate/nn builders/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, many/ap of/in the/at hard-surface/jj cleaners/nns used/vbn for/in walls/nns and/cc woodwork/nn had/hvd their/pp$ genesis/nn in/in trisodium/nn orthophosphate/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez still/rb the/at major/jj ingredient/nn of/in a/at number/nn of/in such/jj products/nns ./.
Many/ap scouring/vbg powders/nns now/rb also/rb contain/vb phosphates/nns ./.
These/dts hard-surface/jj cleaners/nns are/ber discussed/vbn in/in Chapter/nn-tl 28/cd-tl ./.



The/at-hl cleaning/vbg-hl process/nn-hl 
Cleaning/vbg or/cc detergent/nn action/nn is/bez entirely/rb a/at matter/nn of/in surfaces/nns ./.
Wet/jj cleaning/nn involves/vbz an/at aqueous/jj medium/nn ,/, a/at solid/jj substrate/nn ,/, soil/nn to/to be/be removed/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at detergent/nn or/cc surface-active/jj material/nn ./.
An/at oversimplified/vbn differentiation/nn between/in soft-/jj and/cc hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn lies/vbz in/in the/at magnitude/nn and/cc kind/nn of/in surface/nn involved/vbn ./.
One/cd gram/nn of/in cotton/nn has/hvz been/ben found/vbn to/to have/hv a/at specific/jj surface/nn area/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
In/in contrast/nn ,/, a/at metal/nn coupon/nn Af/nn in/in size/nn would/md have/hv a/at magnitude/nn from/in 100,000/cd to/in a/at million/cd less/ap ./.
Even/rb here/rb there/ex is/bez room/nn for/in some/dti variation/nn ,/, for/cs metal/nn surfaces/nns vary/vb in/in smoothness/nn ,/, absorptive/jj capacity/nn ,/, and/cc chemical/jj reactivity/nn ./.
Spring/np used/vbd a/at Brush/np surface-analyzer/nn in/in a/at metal-cleaning/jj study/nn and/cc showed/vbd considerable/jj differences/nns in/in soil/nn removal/nn ,/, depending/in upon/in surface/nn roughness/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber considerable/jj differences/nns between/in the/at requirements/nns for/in textile/jj and/cc hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn ./.
Exclusive/jj of/in esthetic/jj values/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs high-/jj or/cc low-foam/nn level/nn ,/, perfume/nn content/nn ,/, etc./rb ,/, the/at requirements/nns for/in the/at organic/jj active/jj used/vbn in/in washing/vbg textiles/nns are/ber high/jj ./.
No/at matter/nn how/wrb they/ppss are/ber formulated/vbn ,/, a/at large/jj number/nn of/in organic/jj actives/nns are/ber simply/rb not/* suitable/jj for/in this/dt application/nn ,/, since/cs they/ppss do/do not/* give/vb adequate/jj soil/nn removal/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez best/rbt demonstrated/vbn by/in practical/jj washing/vbg tests/nns in/in which/wdt cloth/nn articles/nns are/ber repeatedly/rb washed/vbn with/in the/at same/ap detergent/nn formulation/nn ./.
A/at good/jj formulation/nn will/md keep/vb the/at clothes/nns clean/vb and/cc white/jj after/in many/ap washings/nns ;/. ;/.
whereas/cs ,/, with/in a/at poor/jj formulation/nn ,/, the/at clothes/nns exhibit/vb a/at build-up/nn of/in ``/`` tattle-tale/nn grey/nn ''/'' and/cc dirty/jj spots/nns --/-- sometimes/rb with/in bad/jj results/nns even/rb after/in the/at first/od wash/nn ./.
Since/cs practical/jj washing/vbg procedures/nns are/ber both/abx lengthy/jj and/cc expensive/jj ,/, a/at number/nn of/in laboratory/nn tests/nns have/hv been/ben developed/vbn for/in the/at numerical/jj evaluation/nn of/in detergents/nns ./.
Harris/np has/hvz indicated/vbn that/cs two/cd devices/nns ,/, the/at Launder-Ometer/np and/cc Terg-O-Tometer/np are/ber most/rbt widely/rb used/vbn for/in rapid/jj detergent/nn testing/nn ,/, and/cc he/pps has/hvz listed/vbn the/at commercially/rb available/jj standard/jj soiled/vbn fabrics/nns ./.
Also/rb given/vbn are/ber several/ap laboratory/nn wash/nn procedures/nns in/in general/jj use/nn ./.
The/at soiled/vbn fabrics/nns used/vbn for/in rapid/jj testing/nn of/in detergent/nn formulations/nns are/ber made/vbn in/in such/abl a/at way/nn that/cs only/ap part/nn of/in the/at soil/nn is/bez removed/vbn by/in even/rb the/at best/jjt detergent/nn formulation/nn in/in a/at single/ap wash/nn ./.
In/in this/dt way/nn ,/, numerical/jj values/nns for/in the/at relative/jj efficacy/nn of/in various/jj detergent/nn formulations/nns can/md be/be obtained/vbn by/in measuring/vbg the/at reflectance/nn (/( whiteness/nn )/) of/in the/at cloth/nn swatches/nns before/in and/cc after/in washing/vbg ./.
Soil/nn redeposition/nn is/bez evaluated/vbn by/in washing/vbg clean/jj swatches/nns with/in the/at dirty/jj ones/nns ./.
As/cs is/bez the/at case/nn with/in the/at surface-active/jj agent/nn ,/, the/at requirements/nns for/in builders/nns to/to be/be used/vbn in/in detergent/nn compositions/nns for/in washing/vbg textiles/nns are/ber also/rb high/jj ./.
Large/jj numbers/nns of/in potential/jj builders/nns have/hv been/ben investigated/vbn ,/, but/cc none/pn have/hv been/ben found/vbn to/to be/be as/ql effective/jj as/cs the/at polyphosphates/nns over/in the/at relatively/ql wide/jj range/nn of/in conditions/nns met/vbn in/in practice/nn ./.


	The/at problems/nns of/in hard-surface/jj cleaning/vbg are/ber not/* nearly/rb as/cs complex/jj ./.
In/in hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn ,/, the/at inorganic/jj salts/nns are/ber more/ql important/jj than/cs the/at organic/jj active/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, when/wrb the/at proper/jj inorganic/jj constituents/nns are/ber employed/vbn ,/, practically/rb any/dti wetting/vbg or/cc surface-active/jj agent/nn will/md do/do a/at reasonably/ql good/jj job/nn when/wrb present/rb in/in sufficient/jj amount/nn in/in a/at hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn formulation/nn ./.
Hydroxides/nns ,/, orthophosphates/nns ,/, borates/nns ,/, carbonates/nns ,/, and/cc silicates/nns are/ber important/jj inorganic/jj ingredients/nns of/in hard-surface/jj cleaners/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at polyphosphates/nns are/ber also/rb used/vbn ,/, probably/rb acting/vbg more/rbr as/cs peptizing/vbg agents/nns than/cs anything/pn else/rb ./.
The/at importance/nn of/in the/at inorganic/jj constituents/nns in/in hard-surface/jj cleaning/nn has/hvz been/ben emphasized/vbn in/in a/at number/nn of/in papers/nns ./.



Physical/jj-hl chemistry/nn-hl of/in-hl washing/vbg-hl 
Although/cs there/ex is/bez no/at question/nn but/in that/cs the/at process/nn of/in washing/vbg fabrics/nns involves/vbz a/at number/nn of/in phenomena/nns which/wdt are/ber related/vbn together/rb in/in an/at extremely/ql complicated/vbn way/nn and/cc that/cs these/dts phenomena/nns and/cc their/pp$ interrelations/nns are/ber not/* well/rb understood/vbn at/in the/at present/nn ,/, this/dt section/nn attempts/vbz to/to present/vb briefly/rb an/at up-to-date/jj picture/nn of/in the/at physical/jj chemistry/nn of/in washing/vbg either/cc fabrics/nns or/cc hard/jj surfaces/nns ./.
The/at purpose/nn of/in washing/vbg is/bez ,/, obviously/rb ,/, to/to remove/vb soils/nns which/wdt are/ber arbitrarily/rb classed/vbn in/in the/at four/cd major/jj categories/nns given/vbn below/rb :/: 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Dirt/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez here/rb defined/vbn as/cs particulate/jj material/nn which/wdt is/bez usually/rb inorganic/jj and/cc is/bez very/ql often/rb extremely/ql finely/rb divided/vbn so/cs as/cs to/to exhibit/vb colloidal/jj properties/nns ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

Greasy/jj soils/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber typified/vbn by/in hydrocarbons/nns and/cc fats/nns (/( esters/nns of/in glycerol/nn with/in long-chain/nn organic/jj acids/nns )/) ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

Stains/nns ,/, which/wdt include/vb the/at wide/jj variety/nn of/in nonparticulate/jj materials/nns which/wdt give/vb color/nn even/rb when/wrb present/rb in/in very/ql low/jj concentration/nn on/in the/at soiled/vbn object/nn ./.
4/cd-hl ./.-hl

Miscellaneous/jj soils/nns ,/, which/wdt primarily/rb include/vb sticky/jj substances/nns and/cc colorless/jj liquids/nns which/wdt evaporate/vb to/to leave/vb a/at residue/nn ./.


	The/at dirt/nn on/in the/at soiled/vbn objects/nns is/bez mechanically/rb held/vbn by/in surface/nn irregularities/nns to/in some/dti extent/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, a/at major/jj factor/nn in/in binding/vbg dirt/nn is/bez the/at attraction/nn between/in surfaces/nns that/wps goes/vbz under/in the/at name/nn of/in Van/np der/np Waal's/np$ forces/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez a/at theoretically/rb complicated/vbn dipole/jj interaction/nn which/wdt causes/vbz any/dti extremely/ql small/jj uncharged/jj particle/nn to/to agglomerate/vb with/in other/ap small/jj uncharged/jj particles/nns ,/, or/cc to/to stick/vb to/in an/at uncharged/jj surface/nn ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, if/cs colloidal/jj particles/nns bear/vb charges/nns of/in opposite/jj sign/nn or/cc ,/, if/cs one/cd kind/nn is/bez charged/vbn and/cc the/at other/ap kind/nn is/bez not/* ,/, the/at attraction/nn will/md be/be intensified/vbn and/cc the/at tendency/nn to/to agglomerate/vb will/md be/be greatly/rb reinforced/vbn ./.
Likewise/rb ,/, a/at charged/vbn particle/nn will/md tend/vb to/to stick/vb to/in an/at uncharged/jj surface/nn and/cc vice/rb versa/rb ,/, and/cc a/at charged/vbn particle/nn will/md be/be very/ql strongly/rb attracted/vbn to/in a/at surface/nn exhibiting/vbg an/at opposite/jj charge/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, dirt/nn particles/nns can/md be/be held/vbn onto/in a/at soiled/vbn surface/nn by/in sticky/jj substances/nns or/cc by/in the/at surface/nn tension/nn of/in liquids/nns ,/, including/in liquid/nn greases/nns ./.


	Greases/nns ,/, stains/nns ,/, and/cc miscellaneous/jj soils/nns are/ber usually/rb sorbed/vbn onto/in the/at soiled/vbn surface/nn ./.
In/in most/ap cases/nns ,/, these/dts soils/nns are/ber taken/vbn up/rp as/cs liquids/nns through/in capillary/nn action/nn ./.
In/in an/at essentially/rb static/jj system/nn ,/, an/at oil/nn cannot/md* be/be replaced/vbn by/in water/nn on/in a/at surface/nn unless/cs the/at interfacial/jj tensions/nns of/in the/at water/nn phase/nn are/ber reduced/vbn by/in a/at surface-active/jj agent/nn ./.


	The/at washing/vbg process/nn whereby/wrb soils/nns are/ber removed/vbn consists/vbz basically/rb of/in applying/vbg mechanical/jj action/nn to/to loosen/vb the/at dirt/nn particles/nns and/cc dried/vbn matter/nn in/in the/at presence/nn of/in water/nn which/wdt helps/vbz to/to float/vb off/rp the/at debris/nn and/cc acts/vbz ,/, to/in some/dti extent/nn ,/, as/cs a/at dissolving/vbg and/cc solvating/vbg agent/nn ./.
Greasy/jj soils/nns are/ber hardly/rb removed/vbn by/in washing/vbg in/in plain/jj water/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc natural/jj waters/nns ,/, in/in addition/nn ,/, often/rb contain/vb impurities/nns such/jj as/cs calcium/nn salts/nns which/wdt can/md react/vb with/in soils/nns to/to make/vb them/ppo more/ql difficult/jj to/to remove/vb ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, detergents/nns are/ber used/vbn ./.
The/at detergent/nn active/nn is/bez that/dt substance/nn which/wdt primarily/rb acts/vbz to/to remove/vb greasy/jj soils/nns ./.
The/at other/ap constituents/nns in/in a/at built/vbn detergent/nn assist/vb in/in this/dt and/cc in/in the/at removal/nn of/in dirty/jj stains/nns and/cc the/at hydrophilic/jj sticky/jj or/cc dried/vbn soils/nns ./.


	As/cs is/bez well/rb known/vbn ,/, detergent/nn actives/nns belong/vb to/in the/at chemical/nn class/nn consisting/vbg of/in moderately/ql high/jj molecular/jj weight/nn and/cc highly/ql polar/jj molecules/nns which/wdt exhibit/vb the/at property/nn of/in forming/vbg micelles/nns in/in solution/nn ./.
Physicochemical/jj investigations/nns of/in anionic/jj surfactants/nns ,/, including/in the/at soaps/nns ,/, have/hv shown/vbn that/cs there/ex is/bez little/ap polymerization/nn or/cc agglomeration/nn of/in the/at chain/nn anions/nns below/in a/at certain/jj region/nn of/in concentration/nn called/vbn the/at critical/jj micelle/nn concentration/nn ./.
(/( 1/cd )/) Below/in the/at critical/jj micelle/nn concentration/nn ,/, monomers/nns and/cc some/dti dimers/nns are/ber present/jj ./.
(/( 2/cd )/) In/in the/at critical/jj micelle/nn region/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at rapid/jj agglomeration/nn or/cc polymerization/nn to/to give/vb the/at micelles/nns ,/, which/wdt have/hv a/at degree/nn of/in polymerization/nn averaging/vbg around/rb 60/cd -/in 80/cd ./.
(/( 3/cd )/) For/in anionics/nns ,/, these/dts micelles/nns appear/vb to/to be/be roughly/rb spherical/jj assemblages/nns in/in which/wdt the/at hydrocarbon/nn tails/nns come/vb together/rb so/cs that/cs the/at polar/jj groups/nns (/( the/at ionized/vbn ends/nns )/) face/vb outward/rb towards/in the/at aqueous/jj continuous/jj phase/nn ./.
Obviously/rb hydrophobic/jj (/( oleophilic/jj )/) substances/nns such/jj as/cs greases/nns ,/, oils/nns ,/, or/cc particles/nns having/hvg a/at greasy/jj or/cc oily/jj surface/nn are/ber more/rbr at/in home/nn in/in the/at center/nn of/in a/at micelle/nn than/cs in/in the/at aqueous/jj phase/nn ./.
Micelles/nns can/md imbibe/vb and/cc hold/vb a/at considerable/jj amount/nn of/in oleophilic/jj substances/nns so/cs that/cs the/at micelle/nn volume/nn may/md be/be increased/vbn as/ql much/ap as/cs approximately/rb two-fold/rb ./.
Although/cs the/at matter/nn has/hvz not/* been/ben unequivocally/rb demonstrated/vbn ,/, the/at available/jj data/nns show/vb that/cs micelles/nns in/in themselves/ppls do/do not/* contribute/vb significantly/rb to/in the/at detergency/nn process/nn ./.


	Related/vbn to/in micelle/nn formation/nn is/bez the/at technologically/rb important/jj ability/nn of/in detergent/nn actives/nns to/to congregate/vb at/in oil/nn -/in water/nn interfaces/nns in/in such/abl a/at manner/nn that/cs the/at polar/jj (/( or/cc ionized/vbn )/) end/nn of/in the/at molecule/nn is/bez directed/vbn towards/in the/at aqueous/jj phase/nn and/cc the/at hydrocarbon/nn chain/nn towards/in the/at oily/jj phase/nn ./.
In/in the/at cleaning/vbg process/nn ,/, sorbed/vbn greasy/jj soils/nns become/vb coated/vbn in/in this/dt manner/nn with/in an/at oriented/vbn film/nn of/in surfactant/nn ./.
Then/rb during/in washing/vbg ,/, the/at greasy/jj soil/nn rolls/vbz back/rb at/in the/at edges/nns so/cs that/cs emulsified/vbn droplets/nns can/md disengage/vb themselves/ppls from/in the/at sorbed/vbn oil/nn mass/nn ,/, with/in the/at aid/nn of/in mechanical/jj action/nn ,/, and/cc enter/vb the/at aqueous/jj phase/nn ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, a/at substance/nn which/wdt is/bez permanently/rb or/cc temporarily/rb sorbed/vbn on/in the/at surface/nn in/in place/nn of/in the/at soil/nn will/md tend/vb to/to accelerate/vb this/dt process/nn and/cc effectively/rb push/vb off/rp the/at greasy/jj soil/nn ./.


	Substances/nns other/ap than/cs detergent/nn actives/nns also/rb tend/vb to/to be/be strongly/rb sorbed/vbn from/in aqueous/jj media/nns onto/in surfaces/nns of/in other/ap contiguous/jj condensed/vbn phases/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez particularly/ql true/jj of/in highly/ql charged/vbn ions/nns ,/, especially/rb those/dts ions/nns which/wdt fall/vb into/in the/at class/nn of/in polyelectrolytes/nns ./.
Whereas/cs the/at usual/jj organic/jj surface-active/jj agent/nn is/bez strongly/rb sorbed/vbn at/in oil/nn -/in water/nn interfaces/nns ,/, the/at highly/ql charged/vbn ions/nns are/ber most/ql strongly/rb sorbed/vbn at/in interfaces/nns between/in water/nn and/cc insoluble/jj materials/nns exhibiting/vbg an/at ionic/jj structure/nn (/( see/vb Table/nn-tl 26-2/cd-tl on/in p./nn 1678/cd )/) ./.
Thus/rb ,/, for/in aqueous/jj media/nns ,/, we/ppss can/md think/vb of/in the/at idealized/vbn organic/jj active/nn as/cs an/at oleophilic/jj or/cc hydrophobic/jj surface-active/jj agent/nn ,/, and/cc of/in an/at idealized/vbn builder/nn as/cs a/at oleophobic/jj or/cc hydrophilic/jj surface-active/jj agent/nn ./.


	From/in the/at equilibrium/nn sorption/nn data/nns which/wdt are/ber available/jj ,/, it/pps seems/vbz logical/jj to/to expect/vb that/cs polyphosphate/nn ions/nns would/md be/be strongly/rb sorbed/vbn on/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at dirt/nn (/( especially/rb clay/nn soils/nns )/) so/cs as/cs to/to give/vb it/ppo a/at greatly/rb increased/vbn negative/jj charge/nn ./.
The/at charged/vbn particles/nns then/rb repel/vb each/dt other/ap and/cc are/ber also/rb repelled/vbn from/in the/at charged/vbn surface/nn ,/, which/wdt almost/ql invariably/rb bears/vbz a/at negative/jj charge/nn under/in washing/vbg conditions/nns ./.
The/at negatively/rb charged/vbn dirt/nn particles/nns then/rb leave/vb the/at surface/nn and/cc go/vb into/in the/at aqueous/jj phase/nn ./.
This/dt hypothesis/nn is/bez evolved/vbn in/in analogy/nn to/in the/at demonstrated/vbn action/nn of/in organic/jj actives/nns in/in detergency/nn ./.
It/pps does/doz not/* consider/vb the/at kinetic/jj effects/nns of/in the/at phosphate/nn builders/nns on/in sorption-desorption/nn phenomena/nns which/wdt will/md be/be discussed/vbn later/rbr (/( see/vb pp./nns 1746/cd -/in 1748/cd )/) ./.


	The/at crude/jj picture/nn of/in the/at detergency/nn process/nn thus/ql far/rb developed/vbn can/md be/be represented/vbn as/cs :/: Af/nn ./.
The/at influence/nn of/in mechanical/jj action/nn on/in the/at particles/nns of/in free/jj soil/nn may/md be/be compared/vbn to/in that/dt of/in kinetic/jj energy/nn on/in a/at molecular/jj scale/nn ./.
Freed/vbn soil/nn must/md be/be dispersed/vbn and/cc protected/vbn against/in flocculation/nn ./.
Cleaned/vbn cloth/nn must/md be/be protected/vbn against/in the/at redeposition/nn of/in dispersed/vbn soil/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez evident/jj that/cs the/at requirements/nns imposed/vbn by/in these/dts effects/nns upon/in any/dti one/cd detergent/nn constituent/nn acting/vbg alone/rb are/ber severe/jj ./.


	Upon/in consideration/nn of/in the/at variety/nn of/in soils/nns and/cc fabrics/nns normally/rb encountered/vbn in/in the/at washing/vbg process/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez little/ap wonder/nn that/cs the/at use/nn of/in a/at number/nn of/in detergent/nn constituents/nns having/hvg ``/`` synergistic/jj ''/'' properties/nns has/hvz gained/vbn widespread/jj acceptance/nn ./.
In/in the/at over-all/jj process/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to assign/vb a/at ``/`` pure/jj ''/'' role/nn to/in each/dt constituent/nn of/in a/at built-detergent/nn formulation/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc ,/, indeed/rb ,/, there/ex is/bez no/at more/ap reason/nn to/to separate/vb the/at interrelated/vbn roles/nns of/in the/at active/nn ,/, builder/nn ,/, antiredeposition/nn agent/nn ,/, etc./rb than/cs there/ex is/bez to/to assign/vb individual/jj actions/nns to/in each/dt of/in the/at numerous/jj isomers/nns making/vbg up/rp a/at given/vbn commercial/jj organic/jj active/nn ./.





The/at thermal/jj exchange/nn of/in chlorine/nn between/in Af/nn and/cc liquid/jj Af/nn is/bez readily/rb measurable/jj at/in temperatures/nns in/in the/at range/nn of/in 180-degrees/nns and/cc above/rb ./.
The/at photochemical/jj exchange/nn occurs/vbz with/in a/at quantum/nn yield/nn of/in the/at order/nn of/in unity/nn in/in the/at liquid/jj phase/nn at/in 65-degrees/nns using/vbg light/nn absorbed/vbn only/rb by/in the/at Af/nn ./.
In/in the/at gas/nn phase/nn ,/, with/in Af/nn of/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, quantum/nn yields/nns of/in the/at order/nn of/in Af/nn have/hv been/ben observed/vbn at/in 85-degrees/nns ./.
Despite/in extensive/jj attempts/nns to/to obtain/vb highly/ql pure/jj reagents/nns ,/, serious/jj difficulty/nn was/bedz experienced/vbn in/in obtaining/vbg reproducible/jj rates/nns of/in reaction/nn ./.
It/pps appears/vbz possible/jj to/to set/vb a/at lower/jjr limit/nn of/in about/rb Af/nn for/in the/at activation/nn energy/nn of/in the/at abstraction/nn of/in a/at chlorine/nn atom/nn from/in a/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn molecule/nn by/in a/at chlorine/nn atom/nn to/to form/vb Af/nn radical/nn ./.
The/at rate/nn of/in the/at gas/nn phase/nn exchange/nn reaction/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be proportional/jj to/in the/at first/od power/nn of/in the/at absorbed/vbn light/nn intensity/nn indicating/vbg that/cs the/at radical/nn intermediates/nns are/ber removed/vbn at/in the/at walls/nns or/cc by/in reaction/nn with/in an/at impurity/nn rather/rb than/in by/in bimolecular/jj radical/nn combination/nn reactions/nns ./.



Introduction/nn-hl 
Because/rb of/in the/at simplicity/nn of/in the/at molecules/nns ,/, isotopic/jj exchange/nn reactions/nns between/in elemental/jj halogens/nns and/cc the/at corresponding/jj carbon/nn tetrahalides/nns would/md appear/vb to/to offer/vb particularly/ql fruitful/jj possibilities/nns for/in obtaining/vbg unambiguous/jj basic/jj kinetic/jj data/nn ./.
It/pps would/md appear/vb that/cs it/pps should/md be/be possible/jj to/to determine/vb unique/jj mechanisms/nns for/in the/at thermal/jj and/cc photochemical/jj reactions/nns in/in both/abx the/at liquid/jj and/cc gas/nn phases/nns and/cc to/to determine/vb values/nns for/in activation/nn energies/nns of/in some/dti of/in the/at intermediate/jj reactions/nns of/in atoms/nns and/cc free/jj radicals/nns ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs information/nn on/in the/at heat/nn of/in dissociation/nn of/in the/at carbon-halogen/nn bond/nn ./.
The/at reaction/nn of/in chlorine/nn with/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn seemed/vbd particularly/ql suited/vbn for/in such/jj studies/nns ./.
It/pps should/md be/be possible/jj to/to prepare/vb very/ql pure/jj chlorine/nn by/in oxidation/nn of/in inorganic/jj chlorides/nns on/in a/at vacuum/nn system/nn followed/vbn by/in multiple/jj distillation/nn of/in the/at liquid/nn ./.
It/pps should/md be/be possible/jj to/to free/vb carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn of/in any/dti interfering/vbg substances/nns by/in the/at usual/jj purification/nn methods/nns followed/vbn by/in prechlorination/nn prior/rb to/in addition/nn of/in radioactive/jj chlorine/nn ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at exchange/nn would/md not/* be/be expected/vbn to/to be/be sensitive/jj to/in trace/jj amounts/vbz of/in impurities/nns because/cs it/pps would/md not/* be/be apt/jj to/to be/be a/at chain/nn reaction/nn since/cs the/at activation/nn energy/nn for/in abstraction/nn of/in chlorine/nn by/in a/at chlorine/nn atom/nn would/md be/be expected/vbn to/to be/be too/ql high/jj ;/. ;/.
also/rb it/pps would/md be/be expected/vbn that/dt Af/nn would/md compete/vb very/ql effectively/rb with/in any/dti impurities/nns as/cs a/at scavenger/nn for/in Af/nn radicals/nns ./.
Contrary/jj to/in these/dts expectations/nns we/ppss have/hv found/vbn it/ppo impossible/jj to/to obtain/vb the/at degree/nn of/in reproducibility/nn one/pn would/md wish/vb ,/, even/rb with/in extensive/jj efforts/nns to/to prepare/vb especially/ql pure/jj reagents/nns ./.
We/ppss are/ber reporting/vbg these/dts investigations/nns here/rb briefly/rb because/rb of/in their/pp$ relevancy/nn to/in problems/nns of/in the/at study/nn of/in apparently/rb simple/jj exchange/nn reactions/nns of/in chlorine/nn and/cc because/cs the/at results/nns furnish/vb some/dti information/nn on/in the/at activation/nn energy/nn for/in abstraction/nn of/in chlorine/nn atoms/nns from/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn ./.



Experimental/jj-hl 
reagents/nns ./.

--/-- Matheson/np highest/jjt purity/nn tank/nn chlorine/nn was/bedz passed/vbn through/in a/at tube/nn of/in resublimed/vbn Af/nn into/in an/at evacuated/vbn Pyrex/np system/nn where/wrb it/pps was/bedz condensed/vbn with/in liquid/jj air/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz then/rb distilled/vbn at/in least/ap three/cd times/nns from/in a/at trap/nn at/in -78-degrees/nns to/in a/at liquid/jj air/nn trap/nn with/in only/rb a/at small/jj middle/nn fraction/nn being/beg retained/vbn in/in each/dt distillation/nn ./.
The/at purified/vbn product/nn was/bedz stored/vbn at/in -78-degrees/nns in/in a/at tube/nn equipped/vbn with/in a/at break/nn seal/nn ./.


	Of/in several/ap methods/nns employed/vbn for/in tagging/vbg chlorine/nn with/in radiochlorine/nn ,/, the/at exchange/nn of/in inactive/jj chlorine/nn with/in tagged/vbn aluminum/nn chloride/nn at/in room/nn temperature/nn was/bedz found/vbn to/to be/be the/at most/ql satisfactory/jj ./.
To/to prepare/vb the/at latter/ap ,/, silver/nn chloride/nn was/bedz precipitated/vbn from/in a/at solution/nn containing/vbg Af/nn obtained/vbn from/in the/at Oak/nn-tl Ridge/nn-tl National/jj-tl Laboratory/nn-tl ./.
The/at silver/nn chloride/nn was/bedz fused/vbn under/in vacuum/nn in/in the/at presence/nn of/in aluminum/nn chips/nns with/in the/at resultant/jj product/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt was/bedz sublimed/vbn into/in a/at flask/nn on/in the/at vacuum/nn line/nn ./.
Previously/rb purified/vbn chlorine/nn was/bedz subsequently/rb admitted/vbn and/cc the/at exchange/nn was/bedz allowed/vbn to/to take/vb place/nn ./.
The/at radiochlorine/nn was/bedz stored/vbn at/in -78-degrees/nns in/in a/at tube/nn equipped/vbn with/in a/at break/nn seal/nn ./.


	Liter/nn quantities/nns of/in Mallinckrodt/np ,/, low/jj sulfur/nn ,/, reagent/nn grade/nn carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn were/bed saturated/vbn with/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn and/cc illuminated/vbn for/in about/rb 50/cd hours/nns with/in a/at 1000/cd watt/nn tungsten/nn lamp/nn at/in a/at distance/nn of/in a/at few/ap inches/nns ./.
The/at mixture/nn was/bedz then/rb extracted/vbn with/in alkali/nn and/cc with/in water/nn following/vbg which/wdt the/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn was/bedz distilled/vbn on/in a/at Vigreux/np column/nn ,/, a/at 25%/nn center/nn cut/nn being/beg retained/vbn which/wdt was/bedz then/rb degassed/vbn under/in vacuum/nn in/in the/at presence/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Purified/vbn inactive/jj chlorine/nn was/bedz then/rb added/vbn from/in one/cd of/in the/at tubes/nns described/vbn above/rb and/cc the/at mixture/nn frozen/vbn out/rp and/cc sealed/vbn off/rp in/in a/at flask/nn equipped/vbn with/in a/at break/nn seal/nn ./.
This/dt chlorine-carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn solution/nn was/bedz illuminated/vbn for/in a/at day/nn following/vbg which/wdt the/at flask/nn was/bedz resealed/vbn onto/in a/at vacuum/nn system/nn and/cc the/at excess/nn chlorine/nn distilled/vbn off/rp ./.
The/at required/vbn amount/nn of/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn was/bedz distilled/vbn into/in a/at series/nn of/in reaction/nn cells/nns on/in a/at manifold/nn on/in a/at vacuum/nn line/nn ./.
The/at desired/vbn amounts/nns of/in inactive/jj chlorine/nn and/cc radioactive/jj chlorine/nn were/bed likewise/rb condensed/vbn in/in these/dts cells/nns on/in the/at vacuum/nn line/nn following/vbg which/wdt they/ppss were/bed frozen/vbn down/rp and/cc the/at manifold/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn was/bedz sealed/vbn off/rp ./.
The/at contents/nns of/in the/at manifold/nn for/in liquid/jj phase/nn experiments/nns were/bed then/rb mixed/vbn by/in shaking/vbg ,/, redistributed/vbn to/in the/at reaction/nn tubes/nns ,/, frozen/vbn down/rp ,/, and/cc each/dt tube/nn was/bedz then/rb sealed/vbn off/rp ./.
The/at reactants/nns for/in the/at gas/nn phase/nn experiments/nns were/bed first/rb frozen/vbn out/rp in/in a/at side-arm/nn attached/vbn to/in the/at manifold/nn and/cc then/rb allowed/vbn to/to distil/vb slowly/rb into/in the/at manifold/nn of/in pre-cooled/jj reaction/nn cells/nns before/cs sealing/vbg off/rp ./.
This/dt method/nn in/in general/jj solved/vbd the/at problem/nn of/in obtaining/vbg fairly/ql equal/jj concentrations/nns of/in reactants/nns in/in each/dt of/in the/at six/cd cells/nns from/in a/at set/nn ./.
Reaction/nn-hl conditions/nns-hl and/cc-hl analysis/nn-hl ./.-hl

--/-- The/at samples/nns for/in liquid/jj phase/nn thermal/jj reaction/nn studies/nns were/bed prepared/vbn in/in Pyrex/np capillary/nn tubing/nn 2.5/cd mm./nns i.d./nn and/cc about/rb 15/cd cm./nns long/jj ./.
In/in a/at few/ap experiments/nns the/at tubes/nns were/bed made/vbn from/in standard/jj 6/cd mm./nn i.d./nn Pyrex/np tubing/nn of/in 1/cd mm./nn wall/nn thickness/nn ./.
Both/abx types/nns of/in tube/nn withstood/vbd the/at pressure/nn of/in approximately/rb 20/cd atmospheres/nns exerted/vbn by/in the/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn at/in 220-degrees/nns ./.
The/at photochemical/jj reaction/nn cells/nns consisted/vbd of/in 10/cd mm./nn i.d./nn Pyrex/np tubing/nn ,/, 5.5/cd cm./nn long/jj ,/, diffraction/nn effects/nns being/beg minimized/vbn by/in the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at light/nn passed/vbd through/in only/ap liquid-glass/nn interfaces/nns and/cc not/* gas-glass/nn interfaces/nns ./.
These/dts cells/nns were/bed used/vbn rather/rb than/in square/jj Pyrex/np tubing/nn because/rb of/in the/at tendency/nn of/in the/at latter/ap to/to shatter/vb when/wrb thawing/vbg frozen/vbn carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn ./.
The/at round/jj cells/nns were/bed reproducibly/rb positioned/vbn in/in the/at light/nn beam/nn which/wdt entered/vbd the/at thermostated/jj mineral/nn oil-bath/nn through/in a/at window/nn ./.
Two/cd types/nns of/in light/nn source/nn were/bed used/vbn ,/, a/at thousand/cd watt/nn projection/nn lamp/nn and/cc an/at AH6/nn high/jj pressure/nn mercury/nn arc/nn ./.
The/at light/nn was/bedz filtered/vbn by/in the/at soft/jj glass/nn window/nn of/in the/at thermostat/nn thus/rb ensuring/vbg that/cs only/ap light/nn absorbed/vbn by/in the/at chlorine/nn and/cc not/* by/in the/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn could/md enter/vb the/at reaction/nn cell/nn ./.
Relative/jj incident/jj light/nn intensities/nns were/bed measured/vbn with/in a/at thermopile/nn potentiometer/nn system/nn ./.
Changes/nns of/in intensity/nn on/in the/at cell/nn were/bed achieved/vbn by/in use/nn of/in a/at wire/nn screen/nn and/cc by/in varying/vbg the/at distance/nn of/in the/at light/nn source/nn from/in the/at cell/nn ./.


	Following/vbg reaction/nn the/at cells/nns were/bed scratched/vbn with/in a/at file/nn and/cc opened/vbn under/in a/at 20%/nn aqueous/jj sodium/nn iodide/nn solution/nn ./.
Carrier/nn Af/nn was/bedz added/vbn and/cc the/at aqueous/jj and/cc organic/jj phases/nns were/bed separated/vbn (/( cells/nns containing/vbg gaseous/jj reactants/nns were/bed immersed/vbn in/in liquid/jj air/nn before/cs opening/vbg under/in sodium/nn iodide/nn )/) ./.
After/in titration/nn of/in the/at liberated/vbn Af/nn with/in Af/nn ,/, aliquots/nns of/in the/at aqueous/jj and/cc of/in the/at organic/jj phase/nn were/bed counted/vbn in/in a/at solution-type/jj Geiger/np tube/nn ./.
In/in the/at liquid/jj phase/nn runs/nns the/at amount/nn of/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn in/in each/dt reaction/nn tube/nn was/bedz determined/vbn by/in weighing/vbg the/at tube/nn before/cs opening/vbg and/cc weighing/vbg the/at fragments/nns after/cs emptying/vbg ./.
The/at fraction/nn of/in exchange/nn was/bedz determined/vbn as/cs the/at ratio/nn of/in the/at counts/nns //in minute/nn observed/vbn in/in the/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn to/in the/at counts/nns //in minute/nn calculated/vbn for/in the/at carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn fractions/nns for/in equilibrium/nn distribution/nn of/in the/at activity/nn between/in the/at chlorine/nn and/cc carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn ,/, empirically/rb determined/vbn correction/nn being/beg made/vbn for/in the/at difference/nn in/in counting/vbg efficiency/nn of/in Af/nn in/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.



Results/nns-hl 
the/at-hl thermal/jj-hl reaction/nn-hl ./.-hl

--/-- In/in studying/vbg the/at liquid/jj phase/nn thermal/jj reaction/nn ,/, some/rb 70/cd tubes/nns from/in 12/cd different/jj manifold/nn fillings/nns were/bed prepared/vbn and/cc analyzed/vbn ./.
Experiments/nns were/bed done/vbn at/in 180/cd ,/, 200/cd ,/, 210/cd ,/, and/cc 220-degrees/nns ./.
Following/vbg observation/nn of/in the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at reaction/nn rates/nns of/in supposedly/rb identical/jj reaction/nn mixtures/nns prepared/vbn on/in the/at same/ap filling/vbg manifold/nn and/cc exposed/vbn under/in identical/jj conditions/nns often/rb differed/vbd by/in several/ap hundred/cd per/in cent/nn ,/, a/at systematic/jj series/nn of/in experiments/nns was/bedz undertaken/vbn to/to see/vb whether/cs the/at difficulty/nn could/md be/be ascribed/vbn to/in the/at method/nn of/in preparing/vbg the/at chlorine/nn ,/, to/in the/at effects/nns of/in oxygen/nn or/cc moisture/nn or/cc to/in the/at effect/nn of/in surface/nn to/in volume/nn ratio/nn in/in the/at reaction/nn tubes/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in the/at method/nn described/vbn in/in the/at section/nn above/rb ,/, chlorine/nn and/cc radiochlorine/nn were/bed prepared/vbn by/in the/at electrolysis/nn of/in a/at Af/nn eutectic/nn on/in the/at vacuum/nn line/nn ,/, and/cc by/in exchange/nn of/in Af/nn with/in molten/jj Af/nn ./.
Calcium/nn hydride/nn was/bedz substituted/vbn for/in Af/nn as/cs a/at drying/vbg agent/nn for/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn ./.
No/at correlation/nn between/in these/dts variables/nns and/cc the/at irreproducibility/nn of/in the/at results/nns was/bedz found/vbn ./.


	The/at reaction/nn rates/nns observed/vbn at/in 200-degrees/nns ranged/vbd from/in Af/nn of/in the/at chlorine/nn exchanged/vbn per/in hour/nn to/in 0.7/cd exchanged/vbn per/in hour/nn ./.
In/in most/ap cases/nns the/at chlorine/nn concentration/nn was/bedz about/rb Af/nn ./.
Sets/nns of/in reaction/nn tubes/nns containing/vbg 0.2/cd of/in an/at atmosphere/nn of/in added/vbn oxygen/nn in/in one/cd case/nn and/cc added/vbn moisture/nn in/in another/dt ,/, both/abx gave/vbd reaction/nn rates/nns in/in the/at range/nn of/in 0.1/cd to/in 0.4/cd of/in the/at chlorine/nn exchanged/vbn per/in hour/nn ./.
No/at detectable/jj reaction/nn was/bedz found/vbn at/in room/nn temperature/nn for/in reaction/nn mixtures/nns allowed/vbn to/to stand/vb up/rp to/in 5/cd hours/nns ./.
The/at-hl liquid/jj-hl phase/nn-hl photochemical/jj-hl reaction/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at liquid/jj phase/nn photochemical/jj exchange/nn between/in chlorine/nn and/cc carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn was/bedz more/ql reproducible/jj than/cs the/at thermal/jj exchange/nn ,/, although/cs still/rb erratic/jj ./.
The/at improvement/nn was/bedz most/ql noticeable/jj in/in the/at greater/jjr consistency/nn among/in reaction/nn cells/nns prepared/vbn as/cs a/at group/nn on/in the/at same/ap manifold/nn ./.
Rather/ql large/jj differences/nns were/bed still/rb found/vbn between/in reaction/nn cells/nns from/in different/jj manifold/nn fillings/nns ./.
Some/rb 80/cd reaction/nn tubes/nns from/in 13/cd manifold/nn fillings/nns were/bed illuminated/vbn in/in the/at temperature/nn range/nn from/in 40/cd to/in 85-degrees/nns in/in a/at further/jjr endeavor/nn to/to determine/vb the/at cause/nn of/in the/at irreproducibility/nn and/cc to/to obtain/vb information/nn on/in the/at activation/nn energy/nn and/cc the/at effect/nn of/in light/nn intensity/nn ./.
In/in all/abn cases/nns there/ex was/bedz readily/rb measurable/jj exchange/nn after/in as/ql little/ap as/cs one/cd hour/nn of/in illumination/nn ./.
By/in comparing/vbg reaction/nn cells/nns sealed/vbn from/in the/at same/ap manifold/nn temperature/nn dependency/nn corresponding/vbg to/in activation/nn energies/nns ranging/vbg from/in 11/cd to/in 18/cd Af/nn was/bedz observed/vbn while/cs dependence/nn on/in the/at first/od power/nn of/in the/at light/nn intensity/nn seemed/vbd to/to be/be indicated/vbn in/in most/ap cases/nns ./.


	It/pps was/bedz possible/jj to/to make/vb estimates/nns of/in the/at quantum/nn yield/nn by/in observing/vbg the/at extent/nn of/in reduction/nn of/in a/at uranyl/nn oxalate/nn actinometer/nn solution/nn illuminated/vbn for/in a/at known/vbn time/nn in/in a/at typical/jj reaction/nn cell/nn and/cc making/vbg appropriate/jj conversions/nns based/vbn on/in the/at differences/nns in/in the/at absorption/nn spectra/nns of/in uranyl/nn oxalate/nn and/cc of/in chlorine/nn ,/, and/cc considering/in the/at spectral/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at light/nn source/nn ./.
These/dts estimates/nns indicated/vbd that/cs the/at quantum/nn yield/nn for/in the/at exchange/nn of/in chlorine/nn with/in liquid/jj carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn at/in 65-degrees/nns is/bez of/in the/at order/nn of/in magnitude/nn of/in unity/nn ./.


	When/wrb typical/jj reaction/nn cells/nns to/in which/wdt 0.3/cd of/in an/at atmosphere/nn of/in oxygen/nn had/hvd been/ben added/vbn were/bed illuminated/vbn ,/, chlorine/nn and/cc phosgene/nn were/bed produced/vbn ./.
Exchange/nn was/bedz also/rb observed/vbn in/in these/dts cells/nns ,/, which/wdt had/hvd chlorine/nn present/rb at/in Af/nn ./.
The/at-hl photochemical/jj-hl exchange/nn-hl in/in-hl the/at-hl gas/nn-hl phase/nn-hl ./.-hl

--/-- Although/cs there/ex was/bedz some/dti variation/nn in/in results/nns which/wdt must/md be/be attributed/vbn either/cc to/in trace/jj impurities/nns or/cc to/in variation/nn in/in wall/nn effects/nns ,/, the/at photochemical/jj exchange/nn in/in the/at gas/nn phase/nn was/bedz sufficiently/ql reproducible/jj so/cs that/cs it/pps seemed/vbd meaningful/jj to/to compare/vb the/at reaction/nn rates/nns in/in different/jj series/nns of/in reaction/nn tubes/nns for/in the/at purpose/nn of/in obtaining/vbg information/nn on/in the/at effect/nn of/in chlorine/nn concentration/nn and/cc of/in carbon/nn tetrachloride/nn concentration/nn on/in the/at reaction/nn rate/nn ./.
Data/nns on/in such/jj comparisons/nns together/rb with/in data/nns on/in the/at effect/nn of/in light/nn intensity/nn are/ber given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
,/, 

	In/in series/nn 1/cd ,/, the/at relative/jj light/nn intensity/nn was/bedz varied/vbn by/in varying/vbg the/at distance/nn of/in the/at lamp/nn from/in the/at reaction/nn cell/nn over/in the/at range/nn from/in 14.7/cd to/in 29.2/cd cm./nns ./.
The/at last/ap column/nn shows/vbz the/at rate/nn of/in exchange/nn that/wps would/md have/hv been/ben observed/vbn at/in a/at relative/jj intensity/nn of/in 4/cd (/( 14.7/cd cm./nns distance/nn )/) calculated/vbn on/in the/at assumptions/nns that/cs the/at incident/jj light/nn intensity/nn is/bez inversely/rb proportional/jj to/in the/at square/nn of/in the/at distance/nn of/in the/at lamp/nn from/in the/at cell/nn and/cc that/cs the/at rate/nn is/bez directly/rb proportional/jj to/in the/at incident/jj light/nn intensity/nn ./.
Direct/jj proportionality/nn of/in the/at rate/nn to/in the/at incident/jj intensity/nn has/hvz also/rb been/ben assumed/vbn in/in obtaining/vbg the/at value/nn in/in the/at last/ap column/nn for/in the/at fourth/od sample/nn of/in series/nn 2/cd ,/, where/wrb the/at light/nn intensity/nn was/bedz reduced/vbn by/in use/nn of/in a/at screen/nn ./.

The/at Poynting-Robertson/np effect/nn (/( Robertson/np ,/, 1937/cd ;/. ;/.
Wyatt/np and/cc Whipple/np ,/, 1950/cd )/) ,/, which/wdt is/bez a/at retardation/nn of/in the/at orbital/jj motion/nn of/in particles/nns by/in the/at relativistic/jj aberration/nn of/in the/at repulsive/jj force/nn of/in the/at impinging/vbg solar/jj radiation/nn ,/, causes/vbz the/at dust/nn to/to spiral/vb into/in the/at sun/nn in/in times/nns much/ql shorter/jjr than/cs the/at age/nn of/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ./.
The/at radial/jj velocity/nn varies/vbz inversely/rb as/cs the/at particle/nn size/nn --/-- a/at 1000-m-diameter/nn particle/nn near/in the/at orbit/nn of/in Mars/np would/md reach/vb the/at sun/nn in/in about/rb 60/cd million/cd years/nns ./.
Whipple/np (/( 1955/cd )/) extends/vbz the/at effects/nns to/to include/vb the/at solar-corpuscular-radiation/nn pressure/nn ,/, which/wdt increases/vbz both/abx the/at minimum/jj particle/nn size/nn and/cc the/at drag/nn ./.
Further/rbr ,/, the/at corpuscular/jj radiation/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, the/at solar-wind/nn protons/nns ,/, must/md sputter/vb away/rb the/at surface/jj atoms/nns of/in the/at dust/nn and/cc cause/vb a/at slow/jj diminution/nn in/in size/nn ,/, with/in a/at resultant/jj increase/nn in/in both/abx the/at Poynting-Robertson/np effect/nn and/cc the/at ratio/nn of/in the/at repulsive/jj force/nn to/in the/at gravitational/jj force/nn ./.


	The/at Poynting-Robertson/np effect/nn causes/vbz the/at semi-major/jj axis/nn of/in orbits/nns to/to diminish/vb more/ql rapidly/rb than/cs the/at semi-minor/jj axis/nn ,/, with/in a/at consequent/jj tendency/nn toward/in circular/jj orbits/nns as/cs the/at particles/nns move/vb toward/in the/at sun/nn ./.
Also/rb ,/, planetary/jj gravitational/jj attraction/nn increases/vbz the/at dust/nn concentration/nn near/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at ecliptic/nn as/cs the/at sun/nn is/bez approached/vbn ./.
At/in one/cd astronomical/jj unit/nn from/in the/at sun/nn (/( the/at Earth's/nn$-tl distance/nn )/) the/at dust/nn orbits/nns are/ber probably/rb nearly/ql circular/jj ./.
If/cs such/jj is/bez the/at case/nn ,/, the/at particles/nns within/in a/at distance/nn of/in about/rb Af/nn of/in the/at Earth/nn-tl will/md have/hv ,/, relative/jj to/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ,/, a/at kinetic/jj energy/nn less/ap than/cs their/pp$ potential/jj energy/nn and/cc they/ppss will/md be/be captured/vbn into/in orbits/nns about/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ./.
De/np Jager/np (/( 1955/cd )/) has/hvz calculated/vbn the/at times/nns required/vbn for/in these/dts particles/nns to/to reach/vb the/at atmosphere/nn under/in the/at influence/nn of/in the/at Poynting-Robertson/np effect/nn ,/, which/wdt in/in this/dt case/nn causes/vbz the/at orbits/nns to/to become/vb more/ql and/cc more/ql eccentric/jj without/in changing/vbg the/at semi-major/jj axis/nn ./.
This/dt effect/nn can/md give/vb rise/nn to/in a/at blanket/nn of/in micrometeorites/nns around/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ./.


	Since/cs there/ex is/bez a/at continual/jj loss/nn of/in micrometeoritic/jj material/nn in/in space/nn because/rb of/in the/at radiation/nn effects/nns ,/, there/ex must/md be/be a/at continual/jj replenishment/nn :/: otherwise/rb ,/, micrometeorites/nns would/md have/hv disappeared/vbn from/in interplanetary/jj space/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber several/ap possible/jj sources/nns ./.
According/in to/in Whipple/np (/( 1955/cd )/) ,/, cometary/jj debris/nn is/bez sufficient/jj to/to replenish/vb the/at material/nn spiraling/vbg into/in the/at sun/nn ,/, maintaining/vbg a/at fairly/ql steady/jj state/nn ./.
Asteroidal/jj collisions/nns are/ber also/rb thought/vbn to/to contribute/vb material/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez also/rb possible/jj that/cs some/dti of/in the/at dust/nn in/in the/at vicinity/nn of/in the/at Earth/nn-tl originated/vbd from/in meteoritic/jj impacts/nns upon/in the/at moon/nn ./.



5.3/cd-hl direct/jj-hl measurements/nns-hl of/in-hl micrometeorite/nn-hl flux/nn-hl 
One/pn cannot/md* make/vb a/at very/ql satisfactory/jj guess/nn about/in the/at micrometeorite/nn flux/nn in/in space/nn ./.
Even/rb in/in the/at neighborhood/nn of/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ,/, where/wrb information/nn has/hvz been/ben obtained/vbn both/abx directly/rb and/cc indirectly/rb ,/, the/at derived/vbn flux/nn values/nns vary/vb by/in at/in least/ap four/cd orders/nns of/in magnitude/nn ./.
This/dt large/jj discrepancy/nn demonstrates/vbz the/at inadequacies/nns of/in the/at experimental/jj methods/nns and/cc the/at lack/nn of/in understanding/nn of/in the/at various/ap phenomena/nns involved/vbn ./.
Beyond/in a/at few/ap million/cd kilometers/nns from/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ,/, but/cc still/rb in/in the/at region/nn of/in the/at Earth's/nn$-tl orbit/nn ,/, a/at prediction/nn of/in the/at flux/nn of/in dust/nn is/bez even/ql more/ql unreliable/jj ./.
At/in greater/jjr distances/nns from/in the/at sun/nn ,/, the/at situation/nn is/bez still/rb less/ql certain/jj ./.


	There/ex are/ber several/ap sources/nns of/in evidence/nn on/in the/at micrometeorite/nn environment/nn ./.
Direct/jj information/nn has/hvz been/ben obtained/vbn from/in rockets/nns and/cc satellites/nns equipped/vbn with/in impact/nn sensors/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at size/nn distribution/nn obtained/vbn from/in visual/jj and/cc radar/nn observations/nns of/in meteors/nns may/md be/be extrapolated/vbn to/in the/at micrometeorite/nn domain/nn ./.
From/in the/at brightness/nn of/in the/at F/nn component/nn of/in the/at solar/jj corona/nn and/cc the/at brightness/nn of/in the/at zodiacal/jj light/nn ,/, an/at estimate/nn of/in the/at particle/nn sizes/nns ,/, concentrations/nns ,/, and/cc spatial/jj distribution/nn can/md be/be derived/vbn for/in regions/nns of/in space/nn near/in the/at ecliptic/nn plane/nn ./.
Another/dt important/jj source/nn of/in evidence/nn only/rb recently/rb receiving/vbg much/ap attention/nn is/bez the/at analysis/nn of/in atmospheric/jj dust/nn for/in a/at meteoritic/jj component/nn ./.
The/at cores/nns of/in deep-sea/jj sediments/nns and/cc content/nn of/in collectors/nns in/in remote/jj regions/nns are/ber valuable/jj in/in this/dt category/nn ./.
The/at data/nns provide/vb a/at measure/nn of/in the/at total/jj mass/nn of/in cosmic/jj material/nn incident/jj upon/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ./.


	The/at direct/jj evidence/nn on/in the/at micrometeorite/nn environment/nn near/in the/at Earth/nn-tl is/bez obtained/vbn from/in piezoelectric/jj sensors/nns (/( essentially/rb microphones/nns )/) and/cc from/in wire/nn gages/nns ;/. ;/.
these/dts instruments/nns are/ber installed/vbn on/in rockets/nns ,/, satellites/nns ,/, and/cc space/nn probes/nns ./.
Statistically/rb ,/, the/at most/ql significant/jj data/nns have/hv been/ben collected/vbn from/in the/at sensors/nns on/in 1958/cd Alpha/np (/( Explorer/nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ,/, 1958/cd Delta/np 2/cd (/( Sputnik/nn-tl 3/cd )/) ,/, and/cc 1959/cd Eta/np (/( Vanguard/nn-tl 3/cd )/) ./.
These/dts vehicles/nns ,/, with/in large/jj sensitive/jj areas/nns ,/, have/hv collected/vbn data/nn for/in long/jj enough/qlp times/nns to/to give/vb reliable/jj impact/nn rates/nns for/in the/at periods/nns of/in exposure/nn ./.
Many/ap other/ap vehicles/nns with/in smaller/jjr sensitive-area/nn exposure-time/nn products/nns contribute/vb some/dti information/nn ./.


	The/at impact/nn rate/nn on/in 1958/cd Alpha/np for/in 153/cd events/nns was/bedz Af/nn for/in particles/nns of/in mass/nn greater/jjr than/cs Af/nn (/( Dubin/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ;/. ;/.
this/dt mass/nn threshold/nn was/bedz derived/vbn from/in the/at detector/nn calibration/nn and/cc an/at assumed/vbn impact/nn velocity/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at data/nns show/vb daily/jj and/cc diurnal/jj variations/nns ./.
Ninety/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at 153/cd recorded/vbn impacts/nns occurred/vbd between/in midnight/nn and/cc noon/nn ,/, and/cc from/in day/nn to/in day/nn the/at variation/nn of/in the/at rate/nn was/bedz as/ql much/ap as/cs an/at order/nn of/in magnitude/nn ./.
One/pn may/md conclude/vb that/cs most/ap of/in the/at detected/vbn micrometeoritic/jj material/nn is/bez concentrated/vbn in/in orbital/jj streams/nns which/wdt intersect/vb the/at Earth's/nn$-tl orbit/nn ./.


	There/ex have/hv been/ben contradictory/jj reports/nns from/in 1958/cd Delta/np 2/cd ,/, and/cc the/at data/nns quoted/vbn here/rb are/ber believed/vbn to/to be/be the/at more/ql reliable/jj ./.
On/in May/np 15/cd ,/, a/at very/ql large/jj increase/nn occurred/vbd with/in Af/nn of/in mass/nn between/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ;/. ;/.
for/in the/at next/ap two/cd days/nns ,/, the/at impact/nn rate/nn was/bedz Af/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc for/in the/at next/ap nine/cd days/nns ,/, the/at impact/nn rate/nn was/bedz less/ap than/in Af/nn (/( Nazarova/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
The/at data/nns for/in the/at first/od day/nn indicate/vb a/at meteor/nn stream/nn with/in a/at very/ql high/jj concentration/nn of/in particles/nns and/cc may/md have/hv led/vbn to/in the/at high/jj estimates/nns of/in micrometeorite/nn flux/nn ./.


	Preliminary/jj data/nns from/in 1959/cd Eta/np give/vb an/at average/jj impact/nn rate/nn of/in Af/nn for/in masses/nns larger/jjr than/cs Af/nn for/in about/rb 1000/cd events/nns in/in a/at 22-day/jj period/nn (/( LaGow/np and/cc Alexander/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
The/at day-to-day/jj rate/nn varied/vbd by/in less/ap than/cs a/at factor/nn of/in 4.5/cd ./.
The/at data/nns have/hv not/* yet/rb been/ben analyzed/vbn for/in diurnal/jj variations/nns ./.
Note/vb that/cs the/at mass/nn threshold/nn is/bez four/cd times/nns that/dt of/in 1958/cd Alpha/np and/cc that/cs the/at flux/nn is/bez one/cd fifth/od as/cs large/jj ./.
If/cs one/pn assumes/vbz that/cs the/at average/jj flux/nn did/dod not/* change/vb between/in measurements/nns ,/, a/at mass-distribution/nn curve/nn is/bez obtained/vbn which/wdt relates/vbz the/at flux/nn of/in particles/nns larger/jjr than/cs a/at given/vbn radius/nn to/in the/at inverse/jj 7/2/cd power/nn of/in the/at radius/nn ./.


	Space/nn probes/nns have/hv yielded/vbn little/ap information/nn ./.
Pioneer/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, recorded/vbd a/at decrease/nn in/in flux/nn with/in distance/nn from/in the/at Earth/nn-tl on/in the/at basis/nn of/in 11/cd counts/nns in/in 9/cd hours/nns ./.
With/in detectors/nns sensitive/jj to/in three/cd mass/nn intervals/nns and/cc based/vbn on/in a/at few/ap counts/nns ,/, the/at second/od and/cc third/od Russian/jj space/nn probes/nns indicate/vb that/cs the/at flux/nn of/in the/at smallest/jjt particles/nns detected/vbn is/bez less/ap than/cs that/dt of/in larger/jjr ones/nns ./.
Being/beg based/vbn on/in so/ql few/ap events/nns ,/, these/dts results/nns are/ber of/in dubious/jj validity/nn ./.


	The/at calibration/nn of/in piezoelectric/jj sensors/nns in/in terms/nns of/in the/at particle/nn parameters/nns is/bez very/ql uncertain/jj ./.
Many/ap workers/nns believe/vb that/cs the/at response/nn is/bez proportional/jj to/in the/at incident/jj momentum/nn of/in the/at particles/nns ,/, a/at relation/nn deduced/vbn from/in laboratory/nn results/nns linearly/rb extrapolated/vbn to/in meteoritic/jj velocities/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, one/pn must/md expect/vb that/cs vaporization/nn and/cc ejection/nn of/in material/nn by/in hypervelocity/nn impacts/nns would/md cause/vb a/at deviation/nn from/in a/at linear/jj relationship/nn ./.
In/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, most/ap of/in the/at sensors/nns are/ber calibrated/vbn by/in dropping/vbg small/jj spheres/nns on/in their/pp$ sensitive/jj surfaces/nns ./.
The/at Russian/np experimenters/nns claim/vb that/cs only/rb a/at small/jj fraction/nn of/in the/at impulse/nn from/in the/at sensors/nns is/bez caused/vbn by/in the/at incident/jj momentum/nn with/in the/at remainder/nn being/beg momentum/nn of/in ejected/vbn material/nn from/in the/at sensor/nn ./.
This/dt ``/`` ejection/nn ''/'' momentum/nn is/bez linearly/rb related/vbn to/in the/at particle/nn energy/nn ./.
They/ppss quote/vb about/rb the/at same/ap mass/nn threshold/nn as/cs that/dt of/in the/at U.S./np apparatus/nn ,/, but/cc a/at momentum/nn threshold/nn about/rb 40/cd times/nns greater/jjr ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at difference/nn in/in the/at experimental/jj arrangement/nn ,/, in/in that/cs the/at U.S./np microphones/nns are/ber attached/vbn directly/rb to/in the/at vehicle/nn skin/nn while/cs the/at Russian/jj instruments/nns are/ber isolated/vbn from/in the/at skin/nn ./.
The/at threshold/nn mass/nn is/bez derived/vbn from/in the/at momentum/nn threshold/nn with/in the/at assumption/nn of/in a/at mean/jj impact/nn velocity/nn of/in Af/nn in/in the/at U.S./np work/nn and/cc Af/nn in/in the/at U.S.S.R./np work/nn ./.
The/at threshold/nn mass/nn of/in about/rb Af/nn corresponds/vbz to/in a/at 10-M-diameter/nn sphere/nn of/in density/nn Af/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at conversion/nn from/in mass/nn to/in size/nn is/bez unreliable/jj ,/, since/cs many/ap photographic/jj meteors/nns give/vb evidence/nn of/in a/at fluffy/jj ,/, loosely/rb bound/vbn meteorite/nn structure/nn with/in densities/nns as/ql low/jj as/cs Af/nn ./.
To/in what/wdt extent/nn such/ql low/jj density/nn applies/vbz to/in micrometeorites/nns is/bez unknown/jj ./.
The/at velocity/nn value/nn used/vbn is/bez also/rb open/jj to/in some/dti question/nn ;/. ;/.
if/cs a/at substantial/jj fraction/nn of/in the/at dust/nn is/bez orbiting/vbg about/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ,/, only/rb about/rb one/cd third/od the/at above-mentioned/jj average/jj velocity/nn should/md be/be used/vbn in/in deriving/vbg the/at mass/nn ./.
Zodiacal/jj light/nn and/cc the/at gegenschein/fw-nn give/vb some/dti evidence/nn for/in such/abl a/at dust/nn blanket/nn ,/, a/at phenomenon/nn also/rb to/to be/be expected/vbn if/cs the/at dust/nn before/in capture/nn is/bez in/in circular/jj orbits/nns about/in the/at sun/nn ,/, as/cs indicated/vbn by/in the/at trend/nn of/in the/at smaller/jjr visible/jj meteors/nns ./.
The/at diurnal/jj variation/nn in/in the/at observed/vbn flux/nn may/md be/be partly/rb due/jj to/in the/at dependence/nn of/in the/at detector/nn sensitivity/nn on/in the/at incident/jj velocity/nn ./.


	The/at flux/nn of/in micrometeorites/nns in/in the/at neighborhood/nn of/in the/at Earth/nn-tl can/md be/be estimated/vbn by/in extrapolation/nn from/in radar/nn and/cc visual/jj meteor/nn data/nn ./.
A/at summary/nn of/in meteorite/nn data/nn ,/, prepared/vbn by/in Whipple/np (/( 1958/cd )/) on/in the/at basis/nn of/in photographic/jj ,/, visual/jj ,/, and/cc radar/nn evidence/nn ,/, is/bez given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 5-1/cd-tl ./.
From/in an/at estimated/vbn mass/nn of/in 25/cd g/nn for/in a/at zero-magnitude/nn meteorite/nn ,/, the/at other/ap masses/nns are/ber derived/vbn with/in the/at assumption/nn of/in a/at mass/nn decrease/nn by/in a/at factor/nn of/in 2.512/cd for/in each/dt unit/nn increase/nn in/in magnitude/nn ./.
The/at radius/nn is/bez calculated/vbn from/in the/at mass/nn by/in assuming/vbg spheres/nns of/in density/nn Af/nn except/in for/in the/at smallest/jjt particles/nns ,/, which/wdt must/md have/hv a/at higher/jjr mass/nn density/nn to/to remain/vb in/in the/at solar/jj system/nn in/in the/at presence/nn of/in solar-radiation/nn pressure/nn ./.
The/at flux/nn values/nns are/ber for/in all/abn particles/nns with/in masses/nns greater/jjr than/cs the/at given/vbn mass/nn and/cc are/ber based/vbn on/in an/at estimate/nn of/in the/at numbers/nns of/in visual/jj meteors/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez assumed/vbn that/cs the/at flux/nn values/nns increase/vb by/in a/at factor/nn of/in 2.512/cd per/in magnitude/nn ,/, in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at opinion/nn that/cs the/at total/jj mass/nn flux/nn in/in each/dt unit/nn range/nn in/in magnitude/nn is/bez constant/jj ./.
The/at values/nns agree/vb with/in the/at data/nns from/in 1958/cd Alpha/np and/cc 1959/cd Eta/np ./.
The/at figures/nns in/in the/at next-to-last/ap column/nn are/ber derived/vbn with/in the/at assumption/nn of/in 50/cd per/in cent/nn shielding/nn by/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ;/. ;/.
hence/rb ,/, these/dts figures/nns apply/vb immediately/ql above/in the/at Earth's/nn$-tl atmosphere/nn ./.
The/at unshielded/jj flux/nn is/bez given/vbn in/in the/at last/ap column/nn ;/. ;/.
these/dts figures/nns constitute/vb the/at best/jjt estimate/nn for/in the/at flux/nn in/in interplanetary/jj space/nn near/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ./.
Of/in course/nn ,/, if/cs there/ex is/bez a/at dust/nn blanket/nn around/in the/at Earth/nn-tl ,/, the/at fluxes/nns in/in interplanetary/jj space/nn should/md be/be less/ap than/cs the/at figures/nns given/vbn here/rb ./.


	Note/vb that/cs the/at mass/nn scale/nn is/bez one/cd to/in two/cd orders/nns of/in magnitude/nn greater/jjr than/cs some/dti previously/rb used/vbn ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, Jacchia/np (/( 1948/cd )/) derived/vbn a/at scale/nn of/in 0.15/cd g/nn for/in a/at Af/nn ,/, zero-magnitude/nn meteorite/nn ./.
The/at older/jjr scales/nns were/bed based/vbn on/in theoretical/jj estimates/nns of/in the/at conversion/nn efficiency/nn of/in kinetic/jj energy/nn into/in light/nn ./.
The/at mass/nn scale/nn used/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 5-1/cd-tl was/bedz derived/vbn on/in the/at assumption/nn that/cs the/at motion/nn of/in the/at glowing/vbg trail/nn is/bez related/vbn to/in the/at momentum/nn transfer/nn to/in the/at trail/nn by/in the/at meteorite/nn ,/, permitting/vbg the/at calculation/nn of/in the/at mass/nn if/cs the/at velocity/nn is/bez known/vbn (/( Cook/np and/cc Whipple/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.


	A/at concentration/nn distribution/nn has/hvz been/ben derived/vbn from/in radar/nn observations/nns sensitive/jj to/in the/at fifteenth/od magnitude/nn (/( Manning/np and/cc Eshleman/np ,/, 1959/cd )/) ./.
Extrapolation/nn of/in this/dt relationship/nn through/in the/at thirtieth/od magnitude/nn covers/vbz the/at range/nn of/in micrometeorites/nns ./.
The/at approximate/jj equation/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, where/wrb N/np is/bez the/at number/nn of/in Af/nn with/in electron/nn line-density/nn greater/jjr than/cs or/cc equal/jj to/in Af/nn ,/, and/cc Q/np is/bez proportional/jj to/in the/at mass/nn of/in the/at meteorite/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, N/np is/bez inversely/rb proportional/jj to/in the/at radius/nn cubed/vbn and/cc in/in fair/jj agreement/nn with/in the/at inverse/jj 7/2/cd power/nn derived/vbn from/in 1958/cd Alpha/np and/cc 1959/cd Eta/np data/nns ./.
At/in the/at fifteenth/od magnitude/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, and/cc at/in the/at twenty-fifth/od magnitude/nn ,/, Af/nn ./.
These/dts extrapolated/vbn fluxes/nns are/ber about/rb an/at order/nn of/in magnitude/nn less/ap than/cs the/at values/nns from/in the/at satellite/nn data/nn and/cc the/at figures/nns in/in Whipple's/np$ table/nn ./.
The/at extrapolation/nn may/md be/be in/in error/nn for/in several/ap reasons/nns ./.
The/at observational/jj data/nns determining/vbg the/at concentration/nn distribution/nn have/hv a/at range/nn of/in error/nn which/wdt is/bez magnified/vbn in/in the/at extension/nn into/in the/at micrometeorite/nn region/nn ./.
The/at solar-electromagnetic-/jj and/cc corpuscular-radiation/nn pressure/nn and/cc the/at associated/vbn Poynting-Robertson/np effect/nn increase/vb in/in effectiveness/nn as/cs the/at particle/nn size/nn decreases/vbz and/cc modify/vb the/at distribution/nn and/cc limit/vb sizes/nns to/in larger/jjr than/cs a/at few/ap microns/nns ./.
Also/rb ,/, it/pps has/hvz been/ben suggested/vbn that/cs the/at source/nn of/in all/abn or/cc part/nn of/in the/at dust/nn may/md not/* be/be the/at same/ap as/cs that/dt for/in visual/jj or/cc radar/nn meteorites/nns (/( Best/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ,/, and/cc the/at same/ap distribution/nn would/md not/* be/be expected/vbn ./.



5.4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Indirect/jj-hl indications/nns-hl of/in-hl micrometeorite/nn-hl flux/nn-hl 
A/at measure/nn of/in the/at total/jj mass/nn accretion/nn of/in meteoritic/jj material/nn by/in the/at Earth/nn-tl is/bez obtained/vbn from/in analyses/nns of/in deep-sea/jj sediments/nns and/cc dust/nn collected/vbn in/in remote/jj regions/nns (/( Pettersson/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
Most/ap meteoritic/jj material/nn ,/, by/in the/at time/nn it/pps reaches/vbz the/at Earth's/nn$-tl surface/nn ,/, has/hvz been/ben reduced/vbn to/in dust/nn or/cc to/in spherules/nns of/in ablated/vbn material/nn in/in its/pp$ passage/nn through/in the/at atmosphere/nn ./.
For/in all/abn meteorites/nns ,/, the/at average/jj nickel/nn content/nn is/bez about/rb 2.5/cd per/in cent/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez much/ql higher/jjr than/cs the/at nickel/nn content/nn of/in terrestrial/jj dusts/nns and/cc sediments/nns and/cc provides/vbz a/at basis/nn for/in the/at determination/nn of/in the/at meteoritic/jj mass/nn influx/nn ./.
Present/jj data/nns indicate/vb an/at accretion/nn of/in about/rb Af/nn tons/nns per/in year/nn over/in the/at entire/jj globe/nn ,/, or/cc about/rb Af/nn ./.




Biological/jj-hl warfare/nn-hl 
Biological/jj warfare/nn is/bez the/at intentional/jj use/nn of/in living/vbg microorganisms/nns or/cc their/pp$ toxic/jj products/nns for/in the/at purpose/nn of/in destroying/vbg or/cc reducing/vbg the/at military/jj effectiveness/nn of/in man/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at exploitation/nn of/in the/at inherent/jj potential/nn of/in infectious/jj disease/nn agents/nns by/in scientific/jj research/nn and/cc development/nn ,/, resulting/vbg in/in the/at production/nn of/in BW/nn weapons/nns systems/nns ./.
Man/nn may/md also/rb be/be injured/vbn secondarily/rb by/in damage/nn to/in his/pp$ food/nn crops/nns or/cc domestic/jj animals/nns ./.


	Biological/jj warfare/nn is/bez considered/vbn to/to be/be primarily/rb a/at strategic/jj weapon/nn ./.
The/at major/jj reason/nn for/in this/dt is/bez that/cs it/pps has/hvz no/at quick-kill/nn effect/nn ./.
The/at incubation/nn period/nn of/in infectious/jj disease/nn ,/, plus/in a/at variable/jj period/nn of/in illness/nn even/rb before/in a/at lethal/jj effect/nn ,/, render/vb this/dt weapon/nn unsuitable/jj for/in hand-to-hand/jj encounter/nn ./.
A/at man/nn can/md be/be an/at effective/jj fighting/vbg machine/nn throughout/in the/at incubation/nn period/nn of/in most/ap infectious/jj diseases/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, an/at enemy/nn would/md probably/rb use/vb this/dt weapon/nn for/in attack/nn on/in static/jj population/nn centers/nns such/jj as/cs large/jj cities/nns ./.


	An/at important/jj operational/jj procedure/nn in/in BW/nn for/in an/at enemy/nn would/md be/be to/to create/vb an/at areosol/nn or/cc cloud/nn of/in agent/nn over/in the/at target/nn area/nn ./.
This/dt concept/nn has/hvz stimulated/vbn much/ap basic/jj research/nn concerning/in the/at behavior/nn of/in particulate/jj biological/jj materials/nns ,/, the/at pathogenesis/nn of/in respiratory/jj infections/nns ,/, the/at medical/jj management/nn of/in such/jj diseases/nns and/cc defense/nn against/in their/pp$ occurrence/nn ./.


	The/at biological/jj and/cc physical/jj properties/nns of/in infectious/jj particles/nns have/hv been/ben studied/vbn intensively/rb during/in the/at past/ap fifteen/cd years/nns ./.
Much/ap new/jj equipment/nn and/cc many/ap unique/jj techniques/nns have/hv been/ben developed/vbn for/in the/at quantitative/jj exposure/nn of/in experimental/jj animals/nns to/in aerosols/nns of/in infectious/jj agents/nns contained/vbn in/in particles/nns of/in specified/vbn dimensional/jj characteristics/nns ./.
Much/ap information/nn has/hvz been/ben gathered/vbn relative/jj to/in quantitative/jj sampling/nn and/cc assesment/nn techniques/nns ./.
Much/ap of/in the/at older/jjr experimental/jj work/nn on/in respiratory/jj infections/nns was/bedz accomplished/vbn by/in very/ql artificial/jj procedures/nns ./.
The/at intranasal/jj instillation/nn of/in a/at fluid/nn suspension/nn of/in infectious/jj agent/nn in/in an/at anesthetized/vbn animal/nn is/bez far/ql different/jj from/in exposure/nn ,/, through/in natural/jj respiration/nn ,/, to/in aerosolized/vbn organisms/nns ./.


	The/at importance/nn of/in particle/nn size/nn in/in such/jj aerosols/nns has/hvz been/ben thoroughly/rb demonstrated/vbn ./.
The/at natural/jj anatomical/jj and/cc physiological/jj defensive/jj features/nns of/in the/at upper/jjr respiratory/jj tract/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs the/at turbinates/nns of/in the/at nose/nn and/cc the/at cilia/nns of/in the/at trachea/nn and/cc larger/jjr bronchi/nns ,/, are/ber capable/jj of/in impinging/vbg out/rp the/at larger/jjr particles/nns to/in which/wdt we/ppss are/ber ordinarily/rb exposed/vbn in/in our/pp$ daily/jj existence/nn ./.
Very/ql small/jj particles/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, in/in a/at size/nn range/nn of/in 1/cd to/in 4/cd microns/nns in/in diameter/nn are/ber capable/jj of/in passing/vbg these/dts impinging/vbg barriers/nns and/cc entering/vbg the/at alveolar/jj bed/nn of/in the/at lungs/nns ./.
This/dt area/nn is/bez highly/ql susceptible/jj to/in infection/nn ./.
The/at entrance/nn and/cc retention/nn of/in infectious/jj particles/nns in/in the/at alveoli/nns amounts/vbz almost/rb to/in an/at intratissue/jj inoculation/nn ./.
The/at relationship/nn between/in particle/nn size/nn and/cc infectious/jj dose/nn is/bez illustrated/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.


	In/in considering/vbg BW/nn defense/nn ,/, it/pps must/md be/be recognized/vbn that/cs a/at number/nn of/in critical/jj meterological/jj parameters/nns must/md be/be met/vbn for/cs an/at aerosol/nn to/to exhibit/vb optimum/jj effect/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, bright/jj sunlight/nn is/bez rapidly/rb destructive/jj for/in living/vbg microorganisms/nns suspended/vbn in/in air/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber optimal/jj humidity/nn requirements/nns for/in various/jj agents/nns when/wrb airborne/jj ./.
Neutral/jj or/cc inversion/nn meteorological/jj conditions/nns are/ber necessary/jj for/cs a/at cloud/nn to/to travel/vb along/in the/at surface/nn ./.
It/pps will/md rise/vb during/in lapse/nn conditions/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, certain/ap times/nns during/in the/at 24-hour/jj daily/jj cycle/nn when/wrb most/ap of/in these/dts conditions/nns will/md be/be met/vbn ./.


	Certain/ap other/ap properties/nns of/in small/jj particles/nns ,/, in/in addition/nn to/in those/dts already/rb mentioned/vbn in/in connection/nn with/in penetration/nn of/in the/at respiratory/jj tract/nn ,/, are/ber noteworthy/jj in/in defense/nn considerations/nns ./.
The/at smaller/jjr the/at particle/nn the/at further/rbr it/pps will/md travel/vb downwind/rb before/cs settling/vbg out/rp ./.
An/at aerosol/nn of/in such/ql small/jj particles/nns ,/, moreover/rb ,/, diffuses/vbz through/in structures/nns in/in much/ap the/at same/ap manner/nn as/cs a/at gas/nn ./.
There/ex may/md be/be a/at number/nn of/in secondary/jj effects/nns resulting/vbg from/in diffusion/nn through/in buildings/nns such/jj as/cs widespread/jj contamination/nn of/in kitchens/nns ,/, restaurants/nns ,/, food/nn stores/nns ,/, hospitals/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.
Depending/in on/in the/at organism/nn ,/, there/ex may/md be/be multiplication/nn in/in some/dti food/nn or/cc beverage/nn products/nns ,/, i.e./rb ,/, in/in milk/nn for/in example/nn ./.
The/at secondary/jj consequences/nns from/in this/dt could/md be/be very/ql serious/jj and/cc must/md be/be taken/vbn into/in consideration/nn in/in planning/vbg for/in defense/nn ./.


	Something/pn of/in the/at behavior/nn of/in clouds/nns of/in small/jj particles/nns can/md be/be illustrated/vbn by/in the/at following/vbg field/nn trials/nns :/: 

	In/in the/at first/od trial/nn an/at inert/jj substance/nn was/bedz disseminated/vbn from/in a/at boat/nn travelling/vbg some/rb ten/cd miles/nns off/in shore/nn under/in appropriately/rb selected/vbn meteorological/jj conditions/nns ./.
Zinc/nn cadmium/nn sulfide/nn in/in particles/nns of/in 2/cd microns/nns in/in size/nn were/bed disseminated/vbn ./.
This/dt material/nn fluoresces/vbz under/in ultraviolet/jj light/nn which/wdt facilitates/vbz its/pp$ sampling/nn and/cc assessment/nn ./.
Four/cd hundred/cd and/cc fifty/cd pounds/nns was/bedz disseminated/vbn while/cs the/at ship/nn was/bedz traveling/vbg a/at distance/nn of/in 156/cd miles/nns ./.


	Figure/nn 1/cd describes/vbz the/at results/nns obtained/vbn in/in this/dt trial/nn ./.
The/at particles/nns traveled/vbd a/at maximum/jj detected/vbn distance/nn of/in some/rb 450/cd miles/nns ./.
From/in these/dts dosage/nn isopleths/nns it/ppo can/md be/be seen/vbn that/cs an/at area/nn of/in over/rp 34,000/cd square/jj miles/nns was/bedz covered/vbn ./.
These/dts dosages/nns could/md have/hv been/ben increased/vbn by/in increasing/vbg the/at source/nn strength/nn which/wdt was/bedz small/jj in/in this/dt case/nn ./.


	The/at behavior/nn of/in a/at biological/jj aerosol/nn ,/, on/in a/at much/ql smaller/jjr scale/nn ,/, is/bez illustrated/vbn by/in a/at specific/jj field/nn trial/nn conducted/vbn with/in a/at non-pathogenic/jj organism/nn ./.
An/at aqueous/jj suspension/nn of/in the/at spores/nns of/in B./np subtilis/np ,/, var./nn niger/np ,/, generally/rb known/vbn as/cs Bacillus/np globigii/np ,/, was/bedz aerosolized/vbn using/vbg commercially/rb available/jj nozzles/nns ./.
A/at satisfactory/jj cloud/nn was/bedz produced/vbn even/rb though/cs these/dts nozzles/nns were/bed only/rb about/rb 5/cd per/in cent/nn efficient/jj in/in producing/vbg an/at initial/jj cloud/nn in/in the/at size/nn range/nn of/in 1/cd to/in 5/cd microns/nns ./.
In/in this/dt test/nn ,/, 130/cd gallons/nns of/in a/at suspension/nn ,/, having/hvg a/at count/nn of/in Af/nn organisms/nns per/in ml/nn ,/, or/cc a/at total/nn of/in approximately/rb Af/nn spores/nns ,/, was/bedz aerosolized/vbn ./.
The/at spraying/vbg operation/nn was/bedz conducted/vbn from/in the/at rear/jj deck/nn of/in a/at small/jj Naval/jj-tl vessel/nn ,/, cruising/vbg two/cd miles/nns off-shore/rb and/cc vertical/jj to/in an/at on-sure/jj breeze/nn ./.
Spraying/vbg continued/vbd along/in a/at two-mile/jj course/nn ./.


	This/dt operation/nn was/bedz started/vbn at/in 5:00/cd p.m./rb and/cc lasted/vbd for/in 29/cd minutes/nns ./.
There/ex was/bedz a/at slight/jj lapse/nn condition/nn ,/, a/at moderate/jj fog/nn ,/, and/cc 100/cd per/in cent/nn relative/jj humidity/nn ./.
A/at network/nn of/in sampling/vbg stations/nns had/hvd been/ben set/vbn up/rp on/in shore/nn ./.
These/dts were/bed located/vbn at/in the/at homes/nns of/in Government/nn-tl employees/nns ,/, in/in Government/nn-tl Offices/nns-tl ,/, buildings/nns and/cc reservations/nns within/in the/at trial/nn area/nn ./.
A/at rough/jj attempt/nn was/bedz made/vbn to/to characterize/vb the/at vertical/jj profile/nn of/in the/at cloud/nn by/in taking/vbg samples/nns from/in outside/in the/at windows/nns on/in the/at first/od ,/, ninth/od ,/, and/cc fifteenth/od floors/nns of/in a/at Government/nn-tl office/nn building/nn ./.


	All/abn samplers/nns were/bed operated/vbn for/in a/at period/nn of/in two/cd hours/nns except/in one/cd ,/, which/wdt was/bedz operated/vbn for/in four/cd hours/nns ./.
In/in this/dt instance/nn ,/, there/ex was/bedz a/at dosage/nn of/in 562/cd during/in the/at first/od two/cd hours/nns and/cc a/at total/jj dosage/nn of/in 1980/cd for/in the/at four-hour/jj period/nn ,/, a/at four-fold/jj increase/nn ./.
This/dt suggests/vbz that/cs the/at sampling/vbg period/nn ,/, particularly/rb at/in the/at more/ql distant/jj locations/nns ,/, should/md have/hv been/ben increased/vbn ./.


	As/cs can/md be/be seen/vbn from/in Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, an/at extensive/jj area/nn was/bedz covered/vbn by/in this/dt aerosol/nn ./.
The/at maximum/jj distance/nn sampled/vbn was/bedz 23/cd miles/nns from/in the/at source/nn ./.
As/cs can/md be/be seen/vbn from/in these/dts dosage/nn isopleths/nns ,/, approximately/rb 100/cd square/jj miles/nns was/bedz covered/vbn within/in the/at area/nn sampled/vbn ./.
It/pps is/bez quite/ql likely/jj that/cs an/at even/ql greater/jjr area/nn was/bedz covered/vbn ,/, particularly/rb downwind/rb ./.
The/at dosages/nns in/in the/at three/cd levels/nns of/in the/at vertical/jj profile/nn were/bed :/: Af/nn 

	./.
This/dt was/bedz not/* ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, enough/ap sampling/nn to/to give/vb a/at satisfactory/jj description/nn of/in the/at vertical/jj diffusion/nn of/in the/at aerosol/nn ./.


	A/at number/nn of/in unique/jj medical/jj problems/nns might/md be/be created/vbn when/wrb man/nn is/bez exposed/vbn to/in an/at infectious/jj agent/nn through/in the/at respiratory/jj route/nn rather/rb than/cs by/in natural/jj portal/nn of/in entry/nn ./.
Some/dti agents/nns have/hv been/ben shown/vbn to/to be/be much/ql more/ql toxic/jj or/cc infectious/jj to/in experimental/jj animals/nns when/wrb exposed/vbn to/in aerosols/nns of/in optimum/jj particle/nn size/nn than/cs by/in the/at natural/jj portal/nn ./.
Botulinal/jj toxin/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, is/bez several/ap thousand-fold/nn more/ql toxic/jj by/in this/dt route/nn than/cs when/wrb given/vbn per/in os/nn ./.
In/in some/dti instances/nns a/at different/jj clinical/jj disease/nn picture/nn may/md result/vb from/in this/dt route/nn of/in exposure/nn ,/, making/vbg diagnosis/nn difficult/jj ./.
In/in tularemia/nn produced/vbn by/in aerosol/nn exposure/nn ,/, one/pn would/md not/* expect/vb to/to find/vb the/at classical/jj ulcer/nn of/in ``/`` rabbit/nn fever/nn ''/'' on/in a/at finger/nn ./.


	An/at enemy/nn would/md obviously/rb choose/vb an/at agent/nn that/wps is/bez believed/vbn to/to be/be highly/ql infectious/jj ./.
Agents/nns that/wps are/ber known/vbn to/to cause/vb frequent/jj infections/nns among/in laboratory/nn workers/nns such/jj as/cs those/dts causing/vbg Q/nn fever/nn ,/, tularemia/nn ,/, brucellosis/nn ,/, glanders/nns ,/, coccidioidomycosis/nn ,/, etc./rb ,/, belong/vb in/in this/dt category/nn ./.


	An/at agent/nn would/md likely/rb be/be selected/vbn which/wdt would/md possess/vb sufficient/jj viability/nn and/cc virulence/nn stability/nn to/to meet/vb realistic/jj minimal/jj logistic/jj requirements/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez ,/, obviously/rb ,/, a/at proper/jj goal/nn of/in research/nn to/to improve/vb on/in this/dt property/nn ./.
In/in this/dt connection/nn it/pps should/md be/be capable/jj of/in being/beg disseminated/vbn without/in excessive/jj destruction/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, it/pps should/md not/* be/be so/ql fastidious/jj in/in its/pp$ growth/nn requirements/nns as/cs to/to make/vb production/nn on/in a/at militarily/rb significant/jj scale/nn improbable/jj ./.


	An/at aggressor/nn would/md use/vb an/at agent/nn against/in which/wdt there/ex was/bedz a/at minimal/jj naturally/rb acquired/vbn or/cc artificially/rb induced/vbn immunity/nn in/in a/at target/nn population/nn ./.
A/at solid/jj immunity/nn is/bez the/at one/cd effective/jj circumstance/nn whereby/wrb attack/nn by/in a/at specific/jj agent/nn can/md be/be neutralized/vbn ./.
It/pps must/md be/be remembered/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, that/cs there/ex are/ber many/ap agents/nns for/in which/wdt there/ex is/bez no/at solid/jj immunity/nn and/cc a/at partial/jj or/cc low-grade/nn immunity/nn may/md be/be broken/vbn by/in an/at appropriate/jj dose/nn of/in agent/nn ./.


	There/ex is/bez a/at broad/jj spectrum/nn of/in organisms/nns from/in which/wdt selection/nn for/in a/at specified/vbn military/jj purpose/nn might/md be/be made/vbn ./.
An/at enemy/nn might/md choose/vb an/at acutely/ql debilitating/jj microorganism/nn ,/, a/at chronic/jj disease/nn producer/nn or/cc one/cd causing/vbg a/at high/jj rate/nn of/in lethality/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez possible/jj that/cs certain/ap mutational/jj forms/nns may/md be/be produced/vbn such/jj as/cs antibiotic/nn resistant/jj strains/nns ./.
Mutants/nns may/md also/rb be/be developed/vbn with/in changes/nns in/in biochemical/jj properties/nns that/wps are/ber of/in importance/nn in/in identification/nn ./.
All/abn of/in these/dts considerations/nns are/ber of/in critical/jj importance/nn in/in considering/vbg defense/nn and/cc medical/jj management/nn ./.


	Biological/jj agents/nns are/ber ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, highly/ql host-specific/jj ./.
They/ppss do/do not/* destroy/vb physical/jj structures/nns as/cs is/bez true/jj of/in high/jj explosives/nns ./.
This/dt may/md be/be of/in overriding/vbg importance/nn in/in considering/vbg military/jj objectives/nns ./.


	The/at question/nn of/in epidemic/nn disease/nn merits/vbz some/dti discussion/nn ./.
Only/rb a/at limited/vbn effort/nn has/hvz been/ben devoted/vbn to/in this/dt problem/nn ./.
Some/dti of/in those/dts who/wps question/vb the/at value/nn of/in BW/nn have/hv assumed/vbn that/cs the/at only/ap potential/nn would/md be/be in/in the/at establishment/nn of/in epidemics/nns ./.
They/ppss then/rb point/vb out/rp that/cs with/in our/pp$ present/jj lack/nn of/in knowledge/nn of/in all/abn the/at factors/nns concerned/vbn in/in the/at rise/nn and/cc fall/nn of/in epidemics/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez unlikely/jj that/cs a/at planned/vbn episode/nn could/md be/be initiated/vbn ./.
They/ppss argue/vb further/rbr (/( and/cc somewhat/ql contradictorily/rb )/) that/cs our/pp$ knowledge/nn and/cc resources/nns in/in preventive/jj medicine/nn would/md make/vb it/ppo possible/jj to/to control/vb such/abl an/at outbreak/nn of/in disease/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez why/wrb this/dt approach/nn to/in BW/nn defense/nn has/hvz not/* been/ben given/vbn major/jj attention/nn ./.


	Our/pp$ major/jj problem/nn is/bez what/wdt an/at enemy/nn might/md accomplish/vb in/in an/at initial/jj attack/nn on/in a/at target/nn ./.
This/dt ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, does/doz not/* eliminate/vb from/in consideration/nn for/in this/dt purpose/nn agents/nns that/wps are/ber associated/vbn naturally/rb with/in epidemic/nn disease/nn ./.
A/at hypothetical/jj example/nn will/md illustrate/vb this/dt point/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo assume/vb that/cs it/pps would/md be/be possible/jj for/cs an/at enemy/nn to/to create/vb an/at aerosol/nn of/in the/at causative/jj agent/nn of/in epidemic/nn typhus/nn (/( Rickettsia/np prowazwki/np )/) over/in City/nn-tl A/np-tl and/cc that/cs a/at large/jj number/nn of/in cases/nns of/in typhus/nn fever/nn resulted/vbd therefrom/rb ./.
No/at epidemic/nn was/bedz initiated/vbn nor/cc was/bedz one/cd expected/vbn because/cs the/at population/nn in/in City/nn-tl A/np-tl was/bedz not/* lousy/jj ./.
Lousiness/nn is/bez a/at prerequisite/nn for/in epidemic/nn typhus/nn ./.
In/in this/dt case/nn ,/, then/rb ,/, the/at military/jj objective/nn was/bedz accomplished/vbn with/in an/at epidemic/nn agent/nn solely/rb through/in the/at results/nns secured/vbn in/in the/at initial/jj attack/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz done/vbn with/in full/jj knowledge/nn that/cs there/ex would/md be/be no/at epidemic/nn ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, a/at similar/jj attack/nn might/md have/hv been/ben made/vbn on/in City/nn-tl B/nn whose/wp$ population/nn was/bedz known/vbn to/to be/be lousy/jj ./.
One/pn might/md expect/vb some/dti spread/nn of/in the/at disease/nn in/in this/dt case/nn resulting/vbg in/in increased/vbn effectiveness/nn of/in the/at attack/nn ./.


	The/at major/jj defensive/jj problems/nns are/ber concerned/vbn with/in the/at possibility/nn of/in overt/jj military/jj delivery/nn of/in biological/jj agents/nns from/in appropriate/jj disseminating/vbg devices/nns ./.
It/pps should/md be/be no/ql more/ql difficult/jj to/to deliver/vb such/jj devices/nns than/cs other/ap weapons/nns ./.
The/at same/ap delivery/nn vehicles/nns --/-- whether/cs they/ppss be/be airplanes/nns ,/, submarines/nns or/cc guided/vbn missiles/nns --/-- should/md be/be usable/jj ./.
If/cs it/pps is/bez possible/jj for/cs an/at enemy/nn to/to put/vb an/at atomic/jj bomb/nn on/in a/at city/nn ,/, it/pps should/md be/be equally/ql possible/jj to/to put/vb a/at cloud/nn of/in biological/jj agent/nn over/in that/dt city/nn ./.


	Biological/jj agents/nns are/ber ,/, moreover/rb ,/, suitable/jj for/in delivery/nn through/in enemy/nn sabotage/nn which/wdt imposes/vbz many/ap problems/nns in/in defense/nn ./.
A/at few/ap obvious/jj target/nn areas/nns of/in great/jj importance/nn might/md be/be mentioned/vbn ./.
The/at air/nn conditioning/nn and/cc ventilating/vbg systems/nns of/in large/jj buildings/nns are/ber subject/jj to/in attack/nn ./.
America/np is/bez rapidly/rb becoming/vbg a/at nation/nn that/wps uses/vbz processed/vbn ,/, precooked/vbn and/cc even/rb predigested/vbn foods/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez an/at enormous/jj industry/nn that/wps is/bez subject/jj to/in sabotage/nn ./.
One/pn must/md include/vb the/at preparation/nn of/in soft/jj drinks/nns and/cc the/at processing/nn of/in milk/nn and/cc milk/nn products/nns ./.
Huge/jj industries/nns are/ber involved/vbn also/rb in/in the/at production/nn of/in biological/jj products/nns ,/, drugs/nns and/cc cosmetics/nns which/wdt are/ber liable/jj to/in this/dt type/nn of/in attack/nn ./.



	A/at variety/nn of/in techniques/nns have/hv been/ben directed/vbn toward/in the/at isolation/nn and/cc study/nn of/in blood/nn group/nn antibodies/nns ./.
These/dts include/vb low-temperature/nn ethanol/nn (/( Cohn/np )/) fractionation/nn ,/, electrophoresis/nn ,/, ultracentrifugation/nn and/cc column/nn chromatography/nn on/in ion/nn exchange/nn celluloses/nns ./.
Modifications/nns of/in the/at last/ap technique/nn have/hv been/ben applied/vbn by/in several/ap groups/nns of/in investigators/nns ./.
Abelson/np and/cc Rawson/np ,/, using/vbg a/at stepwise/jj elution/nn scheme/nn ,/, fractionated/vbd whole/jj sera/nns containing/vbg ABO/nn and/cc Rh/nn antibodies/nns on/in diethylaminoethyl/nn DEAE/nn cellulose/nn and/cc carboxymethyl/nn cellulose/nn ./.
Speer/np and/cc coworkers/nns ,/, in/in a/at similar/jj study/nn of/in blood/nn group/nn antibodies/nns of/in whole/jj sera/nns ,/, used/vbd a/at series/nn of/in gradients/nns for/in elution/nn from/in Aj/nn ./.
Fahey/np and/cc Morrison/np used/vbd a/at single/ap ,/, continuous/jj gradient/nn at/in constant/jj pH/nn for/in the/at fractionation/nn of/in anti-A/jj and/cc anti-B/jj agglutinins/nns from/in preisolated/vbn **yg-globulin/nn samples/nns ./.


	In/in the/at present/jj work/nn whole/jj sera/nns have/hv been/ben fractionated/vbn by/in chromatography/nn on/in DEAE-cellulose/nn using/vbg single/ap gradients/nns similar/jj to/in those/dts described/vbn by/in Sober/np and/cc Peterson/np ,/, and/cc certain/ap chemical/jj and/cc serological/jj properties/nns of/in the/at fractions/nns containing/vbg antibodies/nns of/in the/at ABO/nn and/cc Rh/nn systems/nns have/hv been/ben described/vbn ./.



Materials/nns-hl and/cc-hl methods/nns-hl 
samples/nns-hl ./.-hl

Serum/nn samples/nns were/bed obtained/vbn from/in normal/jj group/nn A/nn ,/, group/nn B/nn and/cc group/nn O/nn donors/nns ./.
Three/cd of/in the/at anti-Rh/jj sera/nns used/vbn were/bed taken/vbn from/in recently/rb sensitized/vbn individuals/nns ./.
One/cd contained/vbd complete/jj antibody/nn and/cc had/hvd a/at titer/nn of/in 1/cd :/in 512/cd in/in saline/nn ./.
The/at second/od contained/vbd incomplete/jj antibody/nn and/cc showed/vbd titers/nns of/in 1/cd :/in 256/cd in/in albumin/nn and/cc 1/cd :/in 2048/cd by/in the/at indirect/jj Coombs/np test/nn ./.
The/at third/od ,/, containing/vbg the/at mixed/vbn type/nn of/in complete/jj and/cc incomplete/jj antibodies/nns ,/, had/hvd titers/nns of/in 1/cd :/in 256/cd in/in saline/nn ,/, 1/cd :/in 512/cd in/in albumin/nn and/cc 1/cd :/in 1024/cd by/in the/at indirect/jj Coombs/np test/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn one/cd serum/nn was/bedz obtained/vbn from/in a/at donor/nn (/( R./np E./np )/) who/wps had/hvd been/ben sensitized/vbn 6/cd years/nns previously/rb ./.
This/dt serum/nn exhibited/vbd titers/nns of/in 1/cd :/in 16/cd in/in albumin/nn and/cc 1/cd :/in 256/cd by/in the/at indirect/jj Coombs/np test/nn ./.
These/dts antibody/nn titers/nns were/bed determined/vbn by/in reaction/nn with/in homozygous/jj Af/nn red/jj cells/nns ./.
Serological/jj-hl technique/nn-hl ./.-hl

Anti-A/jj and/cc anti-B/jj activities/nns were/bed determined/vbn in/in fractions/nns from/in the/at sera/nns of/in group/nn A/nn ,/, group/nn B/nn or/cc group/nn O/nn donors/nns by/in the/at following/vbg tube/nn agglutination/nn methods/nns ./.
One/cd drop/nn of/in each/dt sample/nn was/bedz added/vbn to/in one/cd drop/nn of/in a/at 2%/nn suspension/nn of/in group/nn Af/nn or/cc group/nn B/nn red/jj cells/nns in/in a/at small/jj Af/nn test/nn tube/nn ./.
In/in several/ap instances/nns group/vb O/nn cells/nns were/bed also/rb used/vbn as/cs controls/nns ./.
The/at red/jj cells/nns were/bed used/vbn within/in 2/cd days/nns after/in donation/nn and/cc were/bed washed/vbn with/in large/jj amounts/vbz of/in saline/nn before/in use/nn ./.
The/at mixtures/nns of/in sample/nn plus/in cell/nn suspension/nn were/bed allowed/vbn to/to stand/vb at/in room/nn temperature/nn for/in 1/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at tubes/nns were/bed then/rb centrifuged/vbn at/in 1000/cd rpm/nn for/in 1/cd min/nn and/cc examined/vbn macroscopically/rb for/in agglutination/nn ./.
For/in the/at albumin/nn method/nn ,/, equal/jj volumes/nns of/in 30%/nn bovine/nn albumin/nn ,/, sample/nn and/cc 2%/nn cells/nns suspended/vbn in/in saline/nn were/bed allowed/vbn to/to stand/vb at/in room/nn temperature/nn for/in 1/cd hr/nn and/cc then/rb were/bed centrifuged/vbn at/in 1000/cd rpm/nn for/in 1/cd Aj/nn ./.
All/abn samples/nns were/bed tested/vbn by/in both/abx the/at saline/nn and/cc albumin/nn methods/nns ./.
The/at activities/nns of/in fractions/nns of/in sera/nns containing/vbg Rh/nn antibodies/nns were/bed tested/vbn by/in the/at saline/nn ,/, albumin/nn and/cc indirect/jj Coombs/np techniques/nns ./.
Homozygous/jj and/cc heterozygous/jj Af/nn cells/nns ,/, Af/nn and/cc homozygous/jj and/cc heterozygous/jj Af/nn cells/nns were/bed used/vbn to/to test/vb each/dt sample/nn ;/. ;/.
however/rb ,/, in/in the/at interest/nn of/in clarity/nn and/cc conciseness/nn only/rb the/at results/nns obtained/vbn with/in homozygous/jj Af/nn and/cc homozygous/jj Af/nn cells/nns will/md be/be presented/vbn here/rb ./.


	The/at saline/nn and/cc albumin/nn tests/nns were/bed performed/vbn as/cs described/vbn for/in the/at ABO/nn samples/nns except/in that/cs the/at mixture/nn was/bedz incubated/vbn for/in 1/cd hr/nn at/in 37-degrees-C/nns before/in centrifugation/nn ./.
The/at saline/nn tubes/nns were/bed saved/vbn and/cc used/vbn for/in the/at indirect/jj Coombs/np test/nn in/in the/at following/vbg manner/nn ./.
The/at cells/nns were/bed washed/vbn three/cd times/nns with/in saline/nn ,/, anti-human/jj serum/nn was/bedz added/vbn ,/, the/at cells/nns were/bed resuspended/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at mixture/nn was/bedz centrifuged/vbn at/in 1000/cd rpm/nn for/in 1/cd min/nn and/cc examined/vbn for/in agglutination/nn ./.
The/at anti-human/jj sera/nns used/vbn were/bed prepared/vbn by/in injecting/vbg whole/jj human/jj serum/nn into/in rabbits/nns ./.
Those/dts antisera/nns shown/vbn by/in immunoelectrophoresis/nn to/to be/be of/in the/at ``/`` broad/jj spectrum/nn ''/'' type/nn were/bed selected/vbn for/in use/nn in/in the/at present/jj study/nn ./.


	The/at red/jj cells/nns for/in the/at Rh/nn antibody/nn tests/nns were/bed used/vbn within/in 3/cd days/nns after/in drawing/vbg except/in for/in the/at Af/nn cells/nns ,/, which/wdt had/hvd been/ben glycerolized/vbn and/cc stored/vbn at/in -20-degrees-C/nns for/in approximately/rb 1/cd year/nn ./.
These/dts cells/nns were/bed thawed/vbn at/in 37-degrees-C/nns for/in 30/cd min/nn and/cc were/bed deglycerolized/vbn by/in alternately/rb centrifuging/vbg and/cc mixing/vbg with/in descending/vbg concentrations/nns of/in glycerol/nn solutions/nns (/( 20/cd ,/, 18/cd ,/, 10/cd ,/, 8/cd ,/, 4/cd and/cc 2%/nn )/) ./.
The/at cells/nns were/bed then/rb washed/vbn three/cd times/nns with/in saline/nn and/cc resuspended/vbn to/in 2%/nn in/in saline/nn ./.
Chromatography/nn-hl ./.-hl

Blood/nn samples/nns were/bed allowed/vbn to/to clot/vb at/in room/nn temperature/nn for/in 3/cd hr/nn ,/, centrifuged/vbn and/cc the/at serum/nn was/bedz removed/vbn ./.
The/at serum/nn was/bedz measured/vbn volumetrically/rb and/cc subsequently/rb dialyzed/vbn in/in the/at cold/jj for/in at/in least/ap 24/cd hr/nn against/in three/cd to/in four/cd changes/nns ,/, approximately/rb 750/cd ml/nn each/dt ,/, of/in ``/`` starting/vbg buffer/nn ''/'' ./.
This/dt buffer/nn ,/, pH/nn 8.6/cd ,/, was/bedz 0.005/cd M/nn in/in Af/nn and/cc 0.039/cd M/nn in/in tris(hydroxymethyl)-aminometha/nn (/( Tris/np )/) ./.
After/in dialysis/nn the/at sample/nn was/bedz centrifuged/vbn and/cc the/at supernatant/nn placed/vbn on/in a/at Af/nn cm/nn column/nn of/in EEAE-cellulose/nn equilibrated/vbn with/in starting/vbg buffer/nn ./.
The/at DEAE-cellulose/nn ,/, containing/vbg 0.78/cd mEq/nn of/in N/g/nn ,/, was/bedz prepared/vbn in/in our/pp$ laboratory/nn by/in the/at method/nn of/in Peterson/np and/cc Sober/np (/( 7/cd )/) from/in powdered/vbn cellulose/nn ,/, 100/cd -/in 230/cd mesh/nn ./.
The/at small/jj amount/nn of/in insoluble/jj material/nn which/wdt precipitated/vbd during/in dialysis/nn was/bedz suspended/vbn in/in approximately/rb 5/cd ml/nn of/in starting/vbg buffer/nn ,/, centrifuged/vbn ,/, resuspended/vbn in/in 2.5/cd ml/nn of/in isotonic/jj saline/nn and/cc tested/vbn for/in antibody/nn activity/nn ./.


	The/at chromatography/nn was/bedz done/vbn at/in 6-degrees-C/nns using/vbg gradient/nn elution/nn ,/, essentially/rb according/in to/in Sober/np and/cc Peterson/np ./.
The/at deep/jj concave/jj gradient/nn employed/vbn (/( fig./nn 2/cd )/) was/bedz obtained/vbn with/in a/at nine-chambered/jj gradient/nn elution/nn device/nn (/( ``/`` Varigrad/np ''/'' ,/, reference/nn (/( 8/cd )/) )/) and/cc has/hvz been/ben described/vbn elsewhere/rb ./.
The/at other/ap ,/, a/at shallow/jj concave/jj gradient/nn (/( Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ,/, was/bedz produced/vbn with/in a/at so-called/jj ``/`` cone-sphere/nn ''/'' apparatus/nn ,/, the/at ``/`` cone/nn ''/'' being/beg a/at 2-liter/jj Erlenmeyer/np flask/nn and/cc the/at ``/`` sphere/nn ,/, ''/'' a/at 2-liter/jj round-bottom/nn flask/nn ./.
Each/dt initially/rb contained/vbd 1700/cd ml/nn of/in buffer/nn ;/. ;/.
in/in the/at sphere/nn was/bedz starting/vbg buffer/nn and/cc in/in the/at cone/nn was/bedz final/jj buffer/nn ,/, 0.50/cd M/nn in/in both/abx Af/nn and/cc Tris/np ,/, pH/nn 4.1/cd ./.


	A/at flow/nn rate/nn of/in 72/cd Af/nn was/bedz used/vbn and/cc 12/cd ml/nn fractions/nns were/bed collected/vbn ./.
Approximately/rb 165/cd fractions/nns were/bed obtained/vbn from/in each/dt column/nn ./.
These/dts were/bed read/vbn at/in 280/cd m**ym/nn in/in a/at Beckman/np model/nn DU/nn spectrophotometer/nn and/cc tested/vbn for/in antibody/nn activity/nn as/cs described/vbn above/rb ./.
Paper/nn-hl electrophoresis/nn-hl ./.-hl

For/in protein/nn identification/nn ,/, fractions/nns from/in the/at column/nn were/bed concentrated/vbn by/in pervaporation/nn against/in a/at stream/nn of/in air/nn at/in 5-degrees-C/nns or/cc by/in negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn in/in an/at apparatus/nn which/wdt permitted/vbd simultaneous/jj concentration/nn of/in the/at protein/nn and/cc dialysis/nn against/in isotonic/jj saline/nn ./.
During/in the/at latter/ap procedure/nn the/at temperature/nn was/bedz maintained/vbn at/in 2-degrees-C/nns by/in surrounding/vbg the/at apparatus/nn with/in ice/nn ./.
Because/cs negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn gave/vbd better/jjr recovery/nn of/in proteins/nns ,/, permitted/vbd detection/nn of/in proteins/nns concentrated/vbn from/in very/ql dilute/jj solutions/nns and/cc was/bedz a/at gentler/jjr procedure/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz used/vbn in/in all/abn but/in the/at earliest/jjt experiments/nns ./.


	Paper/nn electrophoresis/nn was/bedz carried/vbn out/rp on/in the/at concentrated/vbn samples/nns in/in a/at Spinco/np model/nn R/nn cell/nn using/vbg barbital/nn buffer/nn ,/, pH/nn 8.6/cd ,/, ionic/jj strength/nn 0.075/cd ,/, at/in room/nn temperature/nn on/in Whatman/np 3MM/nn filter/nn paper/nn ./.
Five/cd milliamperes/cell/nns were/bed applied/vbn for/in 18/cd hr/nn ,/, after/in which/wdt the/at strips/nns were/bed stained/vbn with/in bromphenol/nn blue/nn and/cc densitometry/nn was/bedz carried/vbn out/rp using/vbg a/at Spinco/np Analytrol/np ./.


	When/wrb paper/nn electrophoresis/nn was/bedz to/to be/be used/vbn for/in preparation/nn ,/, eight/cd strips/nns of/in a/at whole/jj serum/nn sample/nn or/cc a/at chromatographic/jj fraction/nn concentrated/vbn by/in negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn were/bed run/chamber/vbn under/in the/at conditions/nns described/vbn above/rb ./.
At/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at run/nn ,/, the/at strips/nns in/in the/at third/od and/cc sixth/od positions/nns in/in each/dt chamber/nn were/bed dried/vbn ,/, stained/vbn for/in 1/cd hr/nn ,/, washed/vbn and/cc dried/vbn ,/, while/cs the/at other/ap strips/nns were/bed maintained/vbn in/in a/at horizontal/jj position/nn at/in 1-degree-C/nn ./.
The/at unstained/jj strips/nns were/bed then/rb marked/vbn ,/, using/vbg the/at stained/vbn ones/nns as/cs a/at guide/nn ,/, and/cc cut/vbn transversely/rb so/cs as/cs to/to separate/vb the/at various/jj protein/nn bands/nns ./.
The/at strip/nn sections/nns containing/vbg a/at given/vbn protein/nn were/bed pooled/vbn ,/, eluted/vbn with/in 0.5/cd ml/nn of/in isotonic/jj saline/nn ,/, and/cc the/at eluates/nns were/bed tested/vbn for/in antibody/nn activity/nn ./.
Ultracentrifugation/nn-hl ./.-hl

Fractions/nns from/in the/at column/nn which/wdt were/bed to/to be/be subjected/vbn to/in analytical/jj ultracentrifugation/nn were/bed concentrated/vbn by/in negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn and/cc dialyzed/vbn for/in 16/cd hr/nn in/in the/at cold/nn against/in at/in least/ap 500/cd volumes/nns of/in phosphate-buffered/jj saline/nn ,/, pH/nn 7.2/cd ,/, ionic/jj strength/nn 0.154/cd ./.
They/ppss were/bed then/rb centrifuged/vbn at/in 59,780/cd Pm/nn for/in 35/cd to/in 80/cd min/nn at/in 20-degrees-C/nns in/in a/at Spinco/np model/nn E/nn ultracentrifuge/nn at/in a/at protein/nn concentration/nn of/in 1.00/cd to/in 1.25%/nn ./.
Sedimentation/nn coefficients/nns were/bed computed/vbn as/cs Af/nn values/nns and/cc relative/jj amounts/nns of/in the/at various/jj components/nns were/bed calculated/vbn from/in the/at Schlieren/np patterns/nns ./.


	For/in preparative/jj ultracentrifugation/nn ,/, fractions/nns from/in the/at column/nn were/bed concentrated/vbn by/in negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn to/in volumes/nns of/in 1/cd ml/nn or/cc less/ap ,/, transferred/vbn to/in cellulose/nn tubes/nns and/cc diluted/vbn to/in 12/cd ml/nn with/in isotonic/jj saline/nn ./.
Ultracentrifugation/nn was/bedz then/rb carried/vbn out/rp in/in a/at Spinco/np model/nn L/nn ultracentrifuge/nn at/in 40,000/cd rpm/nn for/in 125/cd to/in 150/cd min/nn ,/, refrigeration/nn being/beg used/vbn throughout/in the/at run/nn ./.
Successive/jj 1-ml/nn fractions/nns were/bed then/rb drawn/vbn off/rp with/in a/at hypodermic/jj syringe/nn ,/, starting/vbg at/in the/at top/nn of/in the/at tube/nn ,/, and/cc tested/vbn for/in agglutinin/nn activity/nn ./.


	Other/ap methods/nns will/md be/be described/vbn below/rb ./.



Experimental/jj-hl and/cc-hl results/nns-hl 
The/at insoluble/jj material/nn which/wdt precipitated/vbd during/in dialysis/nn against/in starting/vbg buffer/nn always/rb showed/vbd intense/jj agglutinin/nn activity/nn ,/, regardless/rb of/in the/at blood/nn group/nn of/in the/at donor/nn ./.
With/in either/dtx of/in the/at gradients/nns described/vbn ,/, chromatography/nn on/in DEAE-cellulose/nn separated/vbn agglutinins/nns of/in the/at ABO/nn series/nn into/in at/in least/ap three/cd regions/nns (/( Figs./nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl )/) :/: one/cd of/in extremely/ql low/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn ,/, one/cd of/in low/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn and/cc one/cd of/in high/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn ./.
These/dts have/hv been/ben labeled/vbn Regions/nns-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, 2/cd-tl ,/, and/cc 4/cd ,/, respectively/rb ,/, in/in Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
When/wrb the/at early/jj part/nn of/in the/at gradient/nn was/bedz flattened/vbn ,/, either/cc by/in using/vbg the/at gradient/nn shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 2/cd-tl or/cc by/in allowing/vbg the/at ``/`` cone-sphere/nn ''/'' gradient/nn to/to become/vb established/vbn more/ql slowly/rb ,/, Region/nn-tl 2/cd-tl activity/nn could/md sometimes/rb be/be separated/vbn into/in two/cd areas/nns (/( donors/nns P./np J./np and/cc R./np S./np ,/, Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc E./np M./np ,/, Fig./nn-tl 2/cd )/) ./.
The/at latter/ap procedure/nn gave/vbd rise/nn to/in a/at small/jj active/jj protein/nn peak/nn (/( Region/nn-tl 1a/cd-tl )/) between/in Regions/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl ./.
In/in 2/cd of/in 15/cd experiments/nns on/in whole/jj serum/nn a/at region/nn of/in agglutinin/nn activity/nn with/in intermediate/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn was/bedz detected/vbn (/( Region/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, after/in concentration/nn using/vbg negative/jj pressure/nn dialysis/nn ,/, agglutinin/nn activity/nn could/md sometimes/rb be/be detected/vbn in/in the/at region/nn designated/vbn 2a/cd (/( donors/nns P./np J./np ,/, D./np A./np ,/, and/cc J./np F./np ,/, Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ./.


	Not/* all/abn these/dts regions/nns exhibited/vbd equal/jj agglutinating/vbg activity/nn ,/, as/cs evidenced/vbn by/in titer/nn and/cc the/at extent/nn of/in the/at active/jj areas/nns ./.
In/in all/abn cases/nns ,/, most/ap of/in the/at activity/nn lay/vbd in/in the/at region/nn of/in high/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz particularly/ql noticeable/jj in/in group/nn A/nn and/cc group/nn B/nn sera/nns ,/, in/in which/wdt cases/nns activity/nn in/in Regions/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl was/bedz usually/rb not/* detectable/jj without/in prior/jj concentration/nn and/cc occasionally/rb could/md not/* be/be detected/vbn at/in all/abn ./.
There/ex appeared/vbd to/to be/be no/at difference/nn in/in the/at distribution/nn of/in anti-A/jj and/cc anti-B/jj activity/nn in/in group/nn O/nn serum/nn ,/, though/cs in/in two/cd group/nn O/nn donors/nns (/( J./np F./np and/cc E./np M./np )/) only/rb one/cd type/nn of/in agglutinin/nn was/bedz found/vbn in/in the/at regions/nns of/in low/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn (/( Figs./nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl )/) ./.


	Several/ap samples/nns of/in citrated/jj plasma/nn were/bed fractionated/vbn in/in our/pp$ laboratory/nn by/in Method/nn-tl 6/cd-tl of/in Cohn/np et/fw-cc al/fw-nns ./.
These/dts fractions/nns were/bed tested/vbn for/in ABO/nn agglutinin/nn activity/nn ,/, using/vbg fractions/nns from/in group/nn AB/nn plasma/nn as/cs a/at control/nn ./.
As/cs expected/vbn ,/, most/ap of/in the/at activity/nn was/bedz found/vbn in/in Fraction/nn-tl Af/nn-tl ,/, with/in slight/jj activity/nn seen/vbn in/in Fraction/nn-tl 4-1/cd-tl ./.
A/at sample/nn of/in Fraction/nn-tl Af/nn-tl from/in group/nn O/nn plasma/nn was/bedz dissolved/vbn in/in starting/vbg buffer/nn ,/, dialyzed/vbn against/in this/dt buffer/nn and/cc subjected/vbn to/in chromatography/nn using/vbg the/at gradient/nn shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Once/rb again/rb ,/, both/abx anti-A/jj and/cc anti-B/jj activities/nns were/bed found/vbn in/in the/at insoluble/jj material/nn precipitated/vbn during/in dialysis/nn ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, both/abx types/nns of/in antibodies/nns were/bed found/vbn in/in three/cd regions/nns of/in the/at chromatographic/jj eluate/nn ,/, having/hvg extremely/ql low/jj ,/, low/jj ,/, and/cc high/jj anionic/jj binding/nn capacity/nn ,/, respectively/rb (/( Fig./nn-tl 3/cd-tl )/) ./.


	Chromatography/nn of/in whole/jj sera/nns revealed/vbd that/cs the/at areas/nns of/in Rh/nn antibody/nn activity/nn were/bed generally/rb continuous/jj and/cc wide/jj ./.
The/at incomplete/jj antibody/nn activity/nn appeared/vbd in/in the/at early/jj part/nn of/in the/at chromatogram/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at complete/jj ,/, in/in the/at latter/ap part/nn ./.
The/at serum/nn containing/vbg the/at mixed/vbn type/nn of/in complete/jj and/cc incomplete/jj antibodies/nns showed/vbd activity/nn in/in both/abx regions/nns (/( Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ./.
In/in all/abn cases/nns the/at activity/nn against/in Af/nn cells/nns was/bedz spread/vbn over/in a/at wider/jjr area/nn than/cs that/dt with/in Af/nn cells/nns ,/, regardless/rb of/in the/at type/nn of/in test/nn (/( saline/nn ,/, albumin/nn ,/, indirect/jj Coombs/np )/) used/vbn for/in comparison/nn ./.
The/at insoluble/jj material/nn resulting/vbg from/in dialysis/nn against/in starting/vbg buffer/nn always/rb showed/vbd strong/jj activity/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn agglutination/nn of/in Af/nn cells/nns in/in saline/nn could/md be/be produced/vbn by/in the/at insoluble/jj material/nn from/in sera/nns containing/vbg ``/`` only/ap ''/'' incomplete/jj antibody/nn activity/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz later/rbr known/vbn to/to be/be the/at result/nn of/in concentrating/vbg the/at minute/jj amount/nn of/in complete/jj antibody/nn found/vbn in/in these/dts sera/nns ;/. ;/.
when/wrb the/at insoluble/jj fraction/nn was/bedz suspended/vbn in/in a/at volume/nn of/in saline/nn equal/jj to/in that/dt of/in the/at original/jj serum/nn sample/nn ,/, no/at complete/jj antibody/nn activity/nn could/md be/be detected/vbn ./.



	Apart/rb from/in the/at honeybee/nn ,/, practically/rb all/abn bees/nns and/cc bumblebees/nns hibernate/vb in/in a/at state/nn of/in torpor/nn ./.
Occasionally/rb ,/, you/ppss may/md come/vb across/in one/cd or/cc two/cd bumblebees/nns in/in the/at cold/jj season/nn ,/, when/wrb you/ppss are/ber turning/vbg over/rp sods/nns in/in your/pp$ garden/nn ,/, but/cc you/ppss have/hv to/to be/be a/at really/ql keen/jj observer/nn to/to see/vb them/ppo at/in all/abn ./.
They/ppss keep/vb their/pp$ wings/nns and/cc feet/nns pressed/vbn tightly/rb against/in their/pp$ bodies/nns ,/, and/cc in/in spite/nn of/in their/pp$ often/rb colorful/jj attire/nn you/ppss may/md very/ql well/rb mistake/vb them/ppo for/in lumps/nns of/in dirt/nn ./.
I/ppss must/md add/vb at/in once/rb that/cs these/dts animals/nns are/ber what/wdt we/ppss call/vb ``/`` queens/nns ''/'' ,/, young/jj females/nns that/wps have/hv mated/vbn in/in the/at previous/jj summer/nn or/cc autumn/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez on/in them/ppo alone/rb that/cs the/at future/nn of/in their/pp$ race/nn depends/vbz ,/, for/cs all/abn their/pp$ relatives/nns (/( mothers/nns ,/, husbands/nns ,/, brothers/nns ,/, and/cc unmated/jj sisters/nns )/) have/hv perished/vbn with/in the/at arrival/nn of/in the/at cold/jj weather/nn ./.
Even/rb some/dti of/in the/at queens/nns will/md die/vb before/cs the/at winter/nn is/bez over/rp ,/, falling/vbg prey/nn to/in enemies/nns or/cc disease/nn ./.
The/at survivors/nns emerge/vb on/in some/dti nice/jj ,/, sunny/jj day/nn in/in March/np or/cc April/np ,/, when/wrb the/at temperature/nn is/bez close/rb to/in 50-degrees/nns and/cc there/ex is/bez not/* too/ql much/ap wind/nn ./.
Now/rb the/at thing/nn for/cs us/ppo to/to do/do is/bez to/to find/vb ourselves/ppls a/at couple/nn of/in those/dts wonderful/jj flowering/vbg currants/nns such/jj as/cs the/at red/jj Ribes/np sanguineum/np of/in our/pp$ Pacific/jj-tl Northwest/nn-tl ,/, or/cc otherwise/rb a/at good/jj sloe/nn tree/nn ,/, or/cc perhaps/rb some/dti nice/jj pussy/nn willow/nn in/in bloom/nn ,/, preferably/rb one/cd with/in male/jj or/cc staminate/jj catkins/nns ./.
The/at blooms/nns of/in Ribes/np and/cc of/in the/at willow/nn and/cc sloe/nn are/ber the/at places/nns where/wrb large/jj numbers/nns of/in our/pp$ early/jj insects/nns will/md assemble/vb :/: honeybees/nns ,/, bumblebees/nns ,/, and/cc other/ap wild/jj bees/nns ,/, and/cc also/rb various/jj kinds/nns of/in flies/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at happy/jj ,/, buzzing/vbg crowd/nn ./.


	Each/dt male/jj willow/nn catkin/nn is/bez composed/vbn of/in a/at large/jj number/nn of/in small/jj flowers/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* difficult/jj to/to see/vb that/cs the/at stamens/nns of/in the/at catkin/nn are/ber always/rb arranged/vbn in/in pairs/nns ,/, and/cc that/cs each/dt individual/jj flower/nn is/bez nothing/pn but/in one/cd such/jj pair/nn standing/vbg on/in a/at green/jj ,/, black-tipped/jj little/jj scale/nn ./.
By/in scrutinizing/vbg the/at flowers/nns ,/, one/pn can/md also/rb notice/vb that/cs the/at scale/nn bears/vbz one/cd or/cc two/cd tiny/jj warts/nns ./.
Those/dts are/ber the/at nectaries/nns or/cc honey/nn glands/nns (/( Fig./nn-tl 26/cd-tl ,/, page/nn 74/cd )/) ./.
The/at staminate/jj willow/nn catkins/nns ,/, then/rb ,/, provide/vb their/pp$ visitors/nns with/in both/abx nectar/nn and/cc pollen/nn ;/. ;/.
a/at marvelous/jj arrangement/nn ,/, for/cs it/pps provides/vbz exactly/rb what/wdt the/at bee/nn queens/nns need/vb to/to make/vb their/pp$ beebread/nn ,/, a/at combination/nn of/in honey/nn and/cc pollen/nn with/in which/wdt the/at young/jj of/in all/abn species/nns are/ber fed/vbn ./.
The/at only/ap exception/nn to/in this/dt is/bez certain/ap bees/nns that/wps have/hv become/vbn parasites/nns ./.
I/ppss will/md deal/vb with/in these/dts later/rbr on/rp ./.


	Quite/ql often/rb ,/, honeybees/nns form/vb a/at majority/nn on/in the/at willow/nn catkins/nns ./.
As/cs we/ppss have/hv already/rb seen/vbn in/in the/at first/od chapter/nn ,/, bumblebees/nns are/ber bigger/jjr ,/, hairier/jjr ,/, and/cc much/ql more/ql colorful/jj than/cs honeybees/nns ,/, exhibiting/vbg various/jj combinations/nns of/in black/nn ,/, yellow/nn ,/, white/nn and/cc orange/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo not/* try/vb to/to key/vb them/ppo out/rp at/in this/dt stage/nn of/in the/at game/nn ,/, and/cc let/vb us/ppo just/rb call/vb them/ppo Bombus/nn-tl ./.
There/ex must/md be/be several/ap dozen/nn species/nns in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl alone/rb ./.
If/cs you/ppss really/rb insist/vb on/in knowing/vbg their/pp$ names/nns ,/, an/at excellent/jj book/nn on/in the/at North/jj-tl American/jj-tl species/nn is/bez Bumblebees/nns-tl And/cc-tl Their/pp$-tl Ways/nns-tl by/in O./np E./np Plath/np ./.


	If/cs we/ppss manage/vb to/to keep/vb track/nn of/in a/at Bombus/nn-tl queen/nn after/cs she/pps has/hvz left/vbn her/pp$ feeding/vbg place/nn ,/, we/ppss may/md discover/vb the/at snug/jj little/jj hideout/nn which/wdt she/pps has/hvz fixed/vbn up/rp for/in herself/ppl when/wrb she/pps woke/vbd up/rp from/in her/pp$ winter/nn sleep/nn ./.
As/cs befits/vbz a/at queen/nn ,/, a/at bumblebee/nn female/nn is/bez rather/ql choosy/jj and/cc may/md spend/vb considerable/jj time/nn searching/vbg for/in a/at suitable/jj nesting/vbg place/nn ./.
Most/ap species/nns seem/vb to/to prefer/vb a/at ready-made/jj hollow/nn such/jj as/cs a/at deserted/vbn mouse/nn nest/nn ,/, a/at bird/nn house/nn ,/, or/cc the/at hole/nn made/vbn by/in a/at woodpecker/nn ;/. ;/.
some/dti show/vb a/at definite/jj liking/nn for/in making/vbg their/pp$ nest/nn in/in moss/nn ./.
Once/cs she/pps has/hvz made/vbn up/rp her/pp$ mind/nn ,/, the/at queen/nn starts/vbz out/rp by/in constructing/vbg ,/, in/in her/pp$ chosen/vbn abode/nn ,/, a/at small/jj ``/`` floor/nn ''/'' of/in dried/vbn grass/nn or/cc some/dti woolly/jj material/nn ./.
On/in this/dt ,/, she/pps builds/vbz an/at ``/`` egg/nn compartment/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` egg/nn cell/nn ''/'' which/wdt is/bez filled/vbn with/in that/dt famous/jj pollen-and-nectar/nn mixture/nn called/vbn beebread/nn ./.
She/pps also/rb builds/vbz one/cd or/cc two/cd waxen/jj cups/nns which/wdt she/pps fills/vbz with/in honey/nn ./.
Then/rb ,/, a/at group/nn of/in eggs/nns is/bez deposited/vbn in/in a/at cavity/nn in/in the/at beebread/nn loaf/nn and/cc the/at egg/nn compartment/nn is/bez closed/vbn ./.
The/at queen/nn afterward/rb keeps/vbz incubating/vbg and/cc guarding/vbg her/pp$ eggs/nns like/cs a/at mother/nn hen/nn ,/, taking/vbg a/at sip/nn from/in time/nn to/in time/nn from/in the/at rather/ql liquid/jj honey/nn in/in her/pp$ honey/nn pots/nns ./.
When/wrb the/at larvae/nns hatch/vb ,/, they/ppss feed/vb on/in the/at beebread/nn ,/, although/cs they/ppss also/rb receive/vb extra/jj honey/nn meals/nns from/in their/pp$ mother/nn ./.
She/pps continues/vbz to/to add/vb to/in the/at pollen/nn supply/nn as/cs needed/vbn ./.


	The/at larvae/nns ,/, kept/vbn warm/jj by/in the/at queen/nn ,/, are/ber full/rb grown/vbn in/in about/rb ten/cd days/nns ./.
Each/dt now/rb makes/vbz a/at tough/jj ,/, papery/jj cocoon/nn and/cc pupates/vbz ./.
After/in another/dt two/cd weeks/nns ,/, the/at first/od young/nn emerge/vb ,/, four/cd to/in eight/cd small/jj daughters/nns that/wps begin/vb to/to play/vb the/at role/nn of/in worker/nn bees/nns ,/, collecting/vbg pollen/nn and/cc nectar/nn in/in the/at field/nn and/cc caring/vbg for/in the/at new/jj young/jj generation/nn while/cs the/at queen/nn retires/vbz to/in a/at life/nn of/in egg/nn laying/nn ./.
The/at first/od worker/nn bees/nns do/do not/* mate/vb or/cc lay/vb eggs/nns ;/. ;/.
males/nns and/cc mating/vbg females/nns do/do not/* emerge/vb until/in later/rbr in/in the/at season/nn ./.
The/at broods/nns of/in workers/nns that/wps appear/vb later/rbr tend/vb to/to be/be bigger/jjr than/cs the/at first/od ones/nns ,/, probably/rb because/cs they/ppss are/ber better/rbr fed/vbn ./.
By/in the/at middle/nn of/in the/at summer/nn ,/, many/ap of/in the/at larvae/nns apparently/rb receive/vb such/abl a/at good/jj diet/nn that/cs it/pps is/bez ``/`` optimal/jj ''/'' ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez then/rb that/cs young/jj queens/nns begin/vb to/to appear/vb ./.
Simultaneously/rb ,/, males/nns or/cc drones/nns are/ber produced/vbn ,/, mostly/rb from/in the/at unfertilized/jj eggs/nns of/in workers/nns ,/, although/cs a/at few/ap may/md be/be produced/vbn by/in the/at queen/nn ./.
The/at young/jj queens/nns and/cc drones/nns leave/vb the/at nest/nn and/cc mate/vb ,/, and/cc after/in a/at short/jj period/nn of/in freedom/nn ,/, the/at fertilized/vbn young/jj queens/nns will/md begin/vb to/to dig/vb in/rp for/in the/at winter/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez an/at amazing/jj fact/nn that/cs in/in some/dti species/nns this/dt will/md happen/vb while/cs the/at summer/nn is/bez still/rb in/in full/jj swing/nn ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, in/in August/np ./.
The/at temperature/nn then/rb is/bez still/rb very/ql high/jj ./.
At/in the/at old/jj nest/nn ,/, the/at queen/nn will/md in/in the/at early/jj fall/nn cease/vb to/to lay/vb the/at fertilized/vbn eggs/nns that/wps will/md produce/vb females/nns ./.
As/cs a/at result/nn ,/, the/at proportion/nn of/in males/nns (/( which/wdt leave/vb the/at nest/nn )/) increases/vbz ,/, and/cc eventually/rb the/at old/jj colony/nn will/md die/vb out/rp completely/rb ./.
The/at nest/nn itself/ppl ,/, the/at structure/nn that/wps in/in some/dti cases/nns housed/vbd about/rb 2,000/cd individuals/nns when/wrb the/at season/nn was/bedz at/in its/pp$ peak/nn ,/, is/bez now/rb rapidly/rb destroyed/vbn by/in the/at scavenging/vbg larvae/nns of/in certain/jj beetles/nns and/cc moths/nns ./.


	Not/* always/rb ,/, though/rb ,/, does/doz the/at development/nn of/in a/at bumblebee/nn colony/nn take/vb place/nn in/in the/at smooth/jj fashion/nn we/ppss have/hv just/rb described/vbn ./.
Some/dti members/nns of/in the/at bee/nn family/nn have/hv become/vbn idlers/nns ,/, social/jj parasites/nns that/wps live/vb at/in the/at expense/nn of/in their/pp$ hardworking/jj relatives/nns ./.
Bumblebees/nns can/md thus/rb suffer/vb severely/rb from/in the/at onslaughts/nns of/in Psithyrus/np ,/, the/at ``/`` cuckoo-bumblebee/nn ''/'' as/cs it/pps is/bez called/vbn in/in some/dti European/jj countries/nns ./.
Female/jj individuals/nns of/in Psithyrus/np look/vb deceptively/rb like/cs the/at workers/nns and/cc queens/nns of/in the/at bumblebees/nns they/ppss victimize/vb ./.
The/at one/cd sure/jj way/nn to/to tell/vb victim/nn and/cc villain/nn apart/rb is/bez to/to examine/vb the/at hind/jj legs/nns which/wdt in/in the/at case/nn of/in the/at idler/nn ,/, Psithyrus/np ,/, lack/vb the/at pollen/nn baskets/nns --/-- naturally/rb !/. !/.
The/at female/jj parasite/nn spends/vbz much/ap time/nn in/in her/pp$ efforts/nns to/to find/vb a/at nest/nn of/in her/pp$ host/nn ./.
When/wrb she/pps succeeds/vbz ,/, she/pps usually/rb manages/vbz to/to slip/vb in/rp unobtrusively/rb ,/, to/to deposit/vb an/at egg/nn on/in a/at completed/vbn loaf/nn of/in beebread/nn before/cs the/at bumblebees/nns seal/vb the/at egg/nn compartment/nn ./.
The/at hosts/nns never/rb seem/vb to/to recognize/vb that/cs something/pn is/bez amiss/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at compartment/nn afterward/rb is/bez sealed/vbn normally/rb ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at larvae/nns of/in the/at intruder/nn can/md develop/vb at/in the/at expense/nn of/in the/at rightful/jj inhabitants/nns and/cc the/at store/nn of/in beebread/nn ./.
Later/rbr on/rp ,/, they/ppss and/cc the/at mother/nn Psithyrus/np are/ber fed/vbn by/in the/at Bombus/nn workers/nns ./.
Worse/jjr still/rb ,/, in/in a/at number/nn of/in cases/nns it/pps has/hvz been/ben claimed/vbn that/cs the/at Psithyrus/np female/nn kills/vbz the/at Bombus/nn queen/nn ./.


	But/cc let/vb us/ppo return/vb ,/, after/in this/dt gruesome/jj interlude/nn ,/, to/in our/pp$ willow/nn catkins/nns in/in the/at spring/nn ;/. ;/.
there/ex are/ber other/ap wild/jj bees/nns that/wps command/vb our/pp$ attention/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez almost/ql certain/jj that/cs some/dti of/in these/dts ,/, usually/rb a/at trifle/nn smaller/jjr than/cs the/at honeybees/nns ,/, are/ber andrenas/nns or/cc mining/vbg bees/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber about/rb 200/cd different/jj kinds/nns of/in Andrena/np in/in Europe/np alone/rb ./.
One/cd of/in my/pp$ favorites/nns is/bez A./np armata/np ,/, a/at species/nn very/ql common/jj in/in England/np ,/, where/wrb it/pps is/bez sometimes/rb referred/vbn to/in as/cs the/at lawn/nn bee/nn ./.
The/at females/nns like/vb to/to burrow/vb in/in the/at short/jj turf/nn of/in well-kept/jj lawns/nns ,/, where/wrb their/pp$ little/jj mounds/nns of/in earth/nn often/rb appear/vb by/in the/at hundreds/nns ./.
Almost/ql equal/jj in/in size/nn to/in a/at honeybee/nn ,/, A./np armata/np is/bez much/ql more/ql beautiful/jj in/in color/nn ,/, at/in least/ap in/in the/at female/nn of/in the/at species/nn :/: a/at rich/jj ,/, velvety/jj ,/, rusty/jj red/nn ./.
The/at males/nns are/ber much/ql duller/jjr ./.


	After/cs having/hvg mated/vbn ,/, an/at Andrena/np female/nn digs/vbz a/at hole/nn straight/rb down/rp into/in the/at ground/nn ,/, forming/vbg a/at burrow/nn about/rb the/at size/nn of/in a/at lead/nn pencil/nn ./.
The/at bottom/nn part/nn of/in a/at burrow/nn has/hvz a/at number/nn of/in side/nn tunnels/nns or/cc ``/`` cells/nns ''/'' ,/, each/dt of/in which/wdt is/bez provided/vbn with/in an/at egg/nn plus/cc a/at store/nn of/in beebread/nn ./.
The/at development/nn of/in the/at Andrena/np larvae/nns is/bez very/ql rapid/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs by/in the/at end/nn of/in spring/nn they/ppss have/hv already/rb pupated/vbn and/cc become/vbn adults/nns ./.
But/cc they/ppss are/ber still/rb enclosed/vbn in/in their/pp$ larval/jj cells/nns and/cc remain/vb there/rb throughout/in the/at summer/nn ,/, fall/nn ,/, and/cc winter/nn ./.
Their/pp$ appearance/nn ,/, next/ap spring/nn ,/, coincides/vbz in/in an/at almost/ql uncanny/jj way/nn with/in the/at flowering/nn of/in their/pp$ host/nn plants/nns ./.
In/in the/at Sacramento/np valley/nn in/in California/np ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, it/pps has/hvz been/ben observed/vbn that/cs there/ex was/bedz not/* one/cd day's/nn$ difference/nn between/in the/at emergence/nn of/in the/at andrenas/nns and/cc the/at opening/nn of/in the/at willow/nn catkins/nns ./.
This/dt must/md be/be due/jj to/in a/at completely/ql identical/jj response/nn to/in the/at weather/nn ,/, in/in the/at plant/nn and/cc the/at animal/nn ./.


	After/cs the/at male/jj and/cc female/jj andrenas/nns have/hv mated/vbn ,/, the/at cycle/nn is/bez repeated/vbn ./.
Although/cs Andrena/np is/bez gregarious/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs we/ppss may/md find/vb hundreds/nns and/cc hundreds/nns of/in burrows/nns together/rb ,/, we/ppss must/md still/rb call/vb it/ppo a/at solitary/jj bee/nn ./.
Its/pp$ life/nn history/nn is/bez much/ql simpler/jjr than/cs that/dt of/in the/at truly/rb colonial/jj bumblebees/nns and/cc can/md serve/vb as/cs an/at example/nn of/in the/at life/nn cycle/nn of/in many/ap other/ap species/nns ./.
After/in all/abn ,/, social/jj life/nn in/in the/at group/nn of/in the/at bees/nns is/bez by/in no/at means/nns general/jj ,/, although/cs it/pps certainly/rb is/bez a/at striking/jj feature/nn ./.
On/in the/at basis/nn of/in its/pp$ life/nn history/nn ,/, we/ppss like/vb to/to think/vb that/cs Andrena/np is/bez more/ql primitive/jj than/cs the/at bumblebees/nns ./.
The/at way/nn in/in which/wdt it/pps transports/vbz its/pp$ pollen/nn is/bez not/* so/ql perfect/jj ,/, either/rb ./.
It/pps lacks/vbz pollen/nn baskets/nns and/cc possesses/vbz only/rb a/at large/jj number/nn of/in long/jj ,/, branched/vbn hairs/nns on/in its/pp$ legs/nns ,/, on/in which/wdt the/at pollen/nn grains/nns will/md collect/vb ./.
Still/rb Andrena/np will/md do/do a/at reasonably/ql good/jj job/nn ,/, so/cs that/cs an/at animal/nn with/in a/at full/jj pollen/nn load/nn looks/vbz like/cs a/at gay/jj little/jj piece/nn of/in yellow/jj down/nn floating/vbg in/in the/at wind/nn ./.


	Closely/rb related/vbn to/in the/at andrenas/nns are/ber the/at nomias/nns or/cc alkali/nn bees/nns ./.
Nomia/np melanderi/np can/md be/be found/vbn in/in tremendous/jj numbers/nns in/in certain/ap parts/nns of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl west/nr of/in the/at Great/jj-tl Plains/nns-tl ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, in/in Utah/np and/cc central/jj Washington/np ./.
In/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Agriculture's/nn$-tl Yearbook/nn-tl Of/in-tl Agriculture/nn-tl ,/, 1952/cd ,/, which/wdt is/bez devoted/vbn entirely/rb to/in insects/nns ,/, George/np E./np Bohart/np mentions/vbz a/at site/nn in/in Utah/np which/wdt was/bedz estimated/vbn to/to contain/vb 200,000/cd nesting/vbg females/nns ./.
Often/rb the/at burrows/nns are/ber only/rb an/at inch/nn or/cc two/cd apart/rb ,/, and/cc the/at bee/nn cities/nns cover/vb several/ap acres/nns ./.
The/at life/nn history/nn of/in the/at alkali/nn bee/nn is/bez similar/jj to/in that/dt of/in Andrena/nn ,/, but/cc the/at first/od activity/nn of/in the/at adults/nns does/doz not/* take/vb place/nn until/in summer/nn ,/, and/cc the/at individuals/nns hibernate/vb in/in the/at prepupal/jj stage/nn ./.
In/in most/ap places/nns ,/, there/ex are/ber two/cd generations/nns a/at year/nn ,/, a/at second/od brood/nn of/in adults/nns appearing/vbg late/rb in/in the/at summer/nn ./.


	I/ppss must/md plead/vb guilty/jj to/in a/at special/jj sympathy/nn for/in nomias/nns ./.
This/dt may/md just/rb be/be pride/nn in/in my/pp$ adopted/vbn State/nn-tl of/in-tl Washington/np-tl ,/, but/cc certainly/rb I/ppss love/vb to/to visit/vb their/pp$ mound/nn cities/nns near/in Yakima/np and/cc Prosser/np in/in July/np or/cc August/np ,/, when/wrb the/at bees/nns are/ber in/in their/pp$ most/ql active/jj period/nn ./.
The/at name/nn ``/`` alkali/nn bee/nn ''/'' indicates/vbz that/cs one/pn has/hvz to/to look/vb for/in them/ppo in/in rather/ql inhospitable/jj places/nns ./.
Sometimes/rb ,/, although/cs by/in no/at means/nns always/rb ,/, these/dts are/ber indeed/rb alkaline/jj ./.
The/at thing/nn is/bez that/cs these/dts bees/nns love/vb a/at fine-grained/jj soil/nn that/wps is/bez moist/jj ;/. ;/.
yet/cc the/at water/nn in/in the/at ground/nn should/md not/* be/be stagnant/jj either/rb ./.
They/ppss dislike/vb dense/jj vegetation/nn ./.
Where/wrb does/doz one/pn find/vb such/jj conditions/nns ?/. ?/.
The/at best/jjt chance/nn ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, is/bez offered/vbn by/in gently/rb sloping/vbg terrain/nn where/wrb the/at water/nn remains/vbz close/rb to/in the/at surface/nn and/cc where/wrb the/at air/nn is/bez dry/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs a/at high/jj evaporation/nn leaves/vbz salty/jj deposits/nns which/wdt permit/vb only/ap sparse/jj plant/nn growth/nn ./.

Many/ap other/ap (/( probably/rb nearly/ql all/abn )/) snakes/nns at/in maturity/nn are/ber already/rb more/ap than/cs half/abn their/pp$ final/jj length/nn ./.
Laurence/np M./np Klauber/np put/vbd length/nn at/in maturity/nn at/in two/cd thirds/nns the/at ultimate/jj length/nn for/in some/dti rattlesnakes/nns ,/, and/cc Charles/np C./np Carpenter's/np$ data/nns on/in Michigan/np garter/nn and/cc ribbon/nn snakes/nns (/( Thamnophis/np )/) show/vb that/cs the/at smallest/jjt gravid/jj females/nns are/ber more/ap than/cs half/abn as/cs long/jj as/cs the/at biggest/jjt adults/nns ./.
Felix/np Kopstein/np states/vbz that/cs ``/`` when/wrb the/at snake/nn reaches/vbz its/pp$ maturity/nn it/pps has/hvz already/rb reached/vbn about/rb its/pp$ maximal/jj length/nn ''/'' ,/, but/cc goes/vbz on/rp to/to cite/vb the/at reticulate/jj python/nn as/cs an/at exception/nn ,/, with/in maximum/jj length/nn approximately/rb three/cd times/nns that/dt at/in maturity/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez hard/jj to/to understand/vb how/wrb he/pps concluded/vbd that/cs most/ap snakes/nns do/do not/* grow/vb appreciably/rb after/cs attaining/vbg maturity/nn ;/. ;/.
he/pps was/bedz working/vbg with/in species/nns of/in Java/np ,/, so/rb perhaps/rb some/dti tropical/jj snakes/nns are/ber unusual/jj in/in this/dt respect/nn ./.
Certain/ap individual/jj giants/nns recorded/vbn later/rbr did/dod fail/vb to/to show/vb a/at reasonable/jj difference/nn after/in maturity/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez impossible/jj to/to know/vb whether/cs this/dt is/bez due/jj to/in captive/jj conditions/nns ./.
Additional/jj records/nns of/in slow/jj growth/nn have/hv been/ben omitted/vbn ./.


	It/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to make/vb a/at few/ap generalizations/nns about/in the/at six/cd giants/nns themselves/ppls ./.
There/ex seems/vbz to/to be/be a/at rough/jj correlation/nn between/in the/at initial/jj and/cc ultimate/jj lengths/nns ,/, starting/vbg with/in the/at smallest/jjt (/( boa/nn constrictor/nn )/) and/cc ending/vbg with/in the/at largest/jjt (/( anaconda/nn )/) ./.
Data/nns on/in the/at former/ap are/ber scanty/jj ,/, but/cc there/ex can/md be/be little/ap doubt/nn that/cs the/at latter/ap is/bez sometimes/rb born/vbn at/in a/at length/nn greater/jjr than/cs that/dt of/in any/dti of/in the/at others/nns ,/, thereby/rb lending/vbg support/nn to/in the/at belief/nn that/cs the/at anaconda/nn does/doz ,/, indeed/rb ,/, attain/vb the/at greatest/jjt length/nn ./.
For/in four/cd of/in the/at six/cd (/( the/at anaconda/nn and/cc the/at amethystine/nn python/nn cannot/md* be/be included/vbn for/in lack/nn of/in data/nn )/) there/ex is/bez also/rb a/at correlation/nn between/in size/nn at/in maturity/nn and/cc maximum/jj length/nn ,/, the/at boa/nn constrictor/nn being/beg the/at smallest/jjt and/cc the/at Indian/jj python/nn the/at next/ap in/in size/nn at/in the/at former/ap stage/nn ./.


	Let/vb us/ppo speculate/vb a/at little/jj on/in the/at maximum/jj size/nn of/in the/at anaconda/nn ./.
If/cs ,/, in/in a/at certain/ap part/nn of/in the/at range/nn ,/, it/pps starts/vbz life/nn 1/cd foot/nn longer/jjr than/cs do/do any/dti of/in the/at other/ap (/( relatively/ql large/jj )/) giants/nns ,/, and/cc reaches/vbz maturity/nn at/in ,/, let/vb us/ppo guess/vb ,/, 18/cd inches/nns longer/jjr than/cs the/at others/nns ,/, a/at quadrupling/nn of/in the/at maturity/nn length/nn would/md result/vb in/in a/at maximum/jj of/in (/( nearly/rb )/) 40/cd feet/nns ./.


	When/wrb it/pps comes/vbz to/in rate/nn of/in early/jj growth/nn ,/, the/at Indian/jj python/nn leads/vbz with/in a/at figure/nn of/in about/rb 3/cd feet/nns 6/cd inches/nns per/in year/nn for/in the/at first/od two/cd years/nns ,/, more/ap or/cc less/ap ./.
The/at African/jj rock/nn python/nn ,/, a/at close/jj second/od ,/, is/bez followed/vbn in/in turn/nn by/in the/at reticulate/jj python/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber few/ap data/nns on/in the/at boa/nn constrictor/nn ,/, those/dts for/in the/at anaconda/nn are/ber unconvincing/jj ,/, and/cc there/ex is/bez nothing/pn at/in all/abn on/in the/at amethystine/nn python/nn ./.
It/pps seems/vbz likely/jj that/cs the/at Indian/jj python/nn comes/vbz out/rp ahead/rb because/cs records/nns of/in its/pp$ growth/nn have/hv been/ben made/vbn more/ql carefully/rb and/cc frequently/rb ;/. ;/.
it/pps responds/vbz exceptionally/ql well/rb to/in captivity/nn and/cc does/doz not/* reach/vb proportions/nns that/wps make/vb it/ppo hard/jj to/to keep/vb ./.


	I/ppss cannot/md* make/vb sense/nn out/rp of/in the/at figures/nns for/in post/in maturity/nn growth/nn ;/. ;/.
at/in best/jjt the/at annual/jj increase/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be a/at matter/nn of/in inches/nns rather/rb than/in feet/nns ./.
Until/cs better/jjr records/nns have/hv been/ben kept/vbn over/in longer/jjr periods/nns of/in time/nn and/cc much/ql more/ap is/bez known/vbn about/in the/at maximum/jj dimensions/nns ,/, it/pps will/md be/be wise/jj to/to refrain/vb from/in drawing/vbg conclusions/nns ./.


	It/pps is/bez often/rb stated/vbn that/cs the/at largest/jjt snakes/nns require/vb five/cd years/nns to/to attain/vb maturity/nn ,/, but/cc this/dt apparently/rb is/bez an/at overestimation/nn ./.
The/at best/jjt way/nn to/to determine/vb the/at correct/jj figure/nn (/( in/in captives/nns )/) is/bez by/in direct/jj observation/nn of/in pairs/nns isolated/vbn from/in birth/nn ,/, a/at method/nn that/wps produced/vbd surprising/vbg results/nns :/: maturing/vbg of/in a/at male/jj Indian/jj python/nn in/in less/ap than/in two/cd years/nns ,/, his/pp$ mate/nn in/in less/ap than/in three/cd ;/. ;/.
data/nns on/in the/at boa/nn constrictor/nn about/rb match/vb this/dt ./.


	Another/dt approach/nn is/bez to/to estimate/vb from/in the/at rate/nn of/in growth/nn and/cc the/at smallest/jjt size/nn at/in maturity/nn ./.
Results/nns from/in this/dt approach/nn amply/rb confirm/vb the/at direct/jj observations/nns :/: about/rb three/cd years/nns are/ber required/vbn ,/, there/ex being/beg a/at possible/jj slight/jj difference/nn between/in males/nns and/cc females/nns in/in the/at time/nn required/vbn ./.
Only/rb the/at amethystine/nn python/nn and/cc the/at anaconda/nn must/md be/be excluded/vbn for/in lack/nn or/cc paucity/nn of/in data/nn ./.


	The/at following/vbg information/nn on/in snakes/nns varying/vbg greatly/rb in/in size/nn (/( but/cc all/abn with/in less/ap than/in a/at 10-foot/jj maximum/nn )/) shows/vbz ,/, when/wrb considered/vbn with/in the/at foregoing/nn ,/, that/cs there/ex is/bez probably/rb no/at correlation/nn between/in the/at length/nn of/in a/at snake/nn and/cc the/at time/nn required/vbn for/in it/ppo to/to mature/vb ./.
Oliver/np ,/, in/in his/pp$ summary/nn of/in the/at habits/nns of/in the/at snakes/nns of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, could/md supply/vb data/nn on/in the/at maturing/vbg period/nn for/in only/rb three/cd species/nns in/in addition/nn to/in the/at rattlers/nns ,/, which/wdt I/ppss shall/md consider/vb separately/rb ./.
These/dts three/cd were/bed much/ql alike/jj :/: lined/vbn snake/nn (/( Tropidoclonion/nn )/) ,/, one/cd year/nn and/cc nine/cd months/nns ;/. ;/.
red-bellied/jj snake/nn (/( Storeria/np )/) ,/, two/cd years/nns ;/. ;/.
cottonmouth/nn (/( Ancistrodon/np )/) ,/, two/cd years/nns ./.
Klauber/np investigated/vbd the/at rattlesnakes/nns carefully/rb himself/ppl and/cc also/rb summarized/vbd what/wdt others/nns have/hv found/vbn ./.
He/pps concluded/vbd that/cs in/in the/at southern/jj species/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber rapidly/rb growing/vbg types/nns ,/, females/nns mate/vb at/in the/at age/nn of/in two/cd and/cc a/at half/abn and/cc bear/vb the/at first/od young/jj when/wrb they/ppss are/ber three/cd ./.
Other/ap herpetologists/nns have/hv ascertained/vbn that/cs in/in the/at northern/jj United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl the/at prairie/nn rattlesnake/nn may/md not/* give/vb first/od birth/nn until/cs it/pps is/bez four/cd or/cc even/rb five/cd years/nns old/jj ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at young/jj may/md be/be born/vbn every/at other/ap year/nn ,/, rather/rb than/in annually/rb ./.
Carpenter's/np$ study/nn showed/vbd that/cs female/jj common/jj garter/nn and/cc ribbon/nn snakes/nns of/in Michigan/np mature/vb at/in about/rb the/at age/nn of/in two/cd ./.



Maximum/jj-hl length/nn-hl 
Oversized/jj monsters/nns are/ber never/rb brought/vbn home/nr either/cc alive/jj or/cc preserved/vbn ,/, and/cc field/nn measurements/nns are/ber obviously/rb open/jj to/in doubt/nn because/rb of/in the/at universal/jj tendency/nn to/to exaggerate/vb dimensions/nns ./.
Measurements/nns of/in skins/nns are/ber of/in little/ap value/nn ;/. ;/.
every/at snake/nn hide/nn is/bez noticeably/rb longer/jjr than/cs its/pp$ carcass/nn and/cc intentional/jj stretching/nn presents/vbz no/at difficulty/nn to/in the/at unscrupulous/jj explorer/nn ./.


	In/in spite/nn of/in all/abn the/at pitfalls/nns ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at certain/ap amount/nn of/in agreement/nn on/in some/dti of/in the/at giants/nns ./.
The/at anaconda/nn proves/vbz to/to be/be the/at fly/nn in/in the/at ointment/nn ,/, but/cc the/at reason/nn for/in this/dt is/bez not/* clear/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at relatively/ql wild/jj conditions/nns still/rb found/vbn in/in tropical/jj South/jj-tl America/np-tl might/md be/be responsible/jj ./.


	There/ex are/ber three/cd levels/nns on/in which/wdt to/to treat/vb the/at subject/nn ./.
The/at first/od is/bez the/at strictly/ql scientific/jj ,/, which/wdt demands/vbz concrete/jj proof/nn and/cc therefore/rb may/md err/vb on/in the/at conservative/jj side/nn by/in waiting/vbg for/in evidence/nn in/in the/at flesh/nn ./.
This/dt approach/nn rejects/vbz virtually/rb all/abn field/nn measurements/nns ./.
The/at next/ap level/nn attempts/vbz to/to weigh/vb varied/vbn evidence/nn and/cc come/vb to/in a/at balanced/vbn ,/, sensible/jj conclusion/nn ;/. ;/.
field/nn measurements/nns by/in experienced/vbn explorers/nns are/ber not/* rejected/vbn ,/, and/cc even/rb reports/nns of/in a/at less/ql scientific/jj nature/nn are/ber duly/rb evaluated/vbn ./.
The/at third/od level/nn leans/vbz on/in a/at belief/nn that/cs a/at lot/nn of/in smoke/nn means/vbz some/dti fire/nn ./.
The/at argument/nn against/in this/dt last/ap approach/nn is/bez comparable/jj to/in that/dt which/wdt rejects/vbz stories/nns about/in hoop/nn snakes/nns ,/, about/in snakes/nns that/wps break/vb themselves/ppls into/in many/ap pieces/nns and/cc join/vb up/rp again/rb ,/, or/cc even/rb of/in ghosts/nns that/wps chase/vb people/nns out/rp of/in graveyards/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at mere/jj piling/vbg up/rp of/in testimony/nn does/doz not/* prove/vb ,/, to/in the/at scientific/jj mind/nn ,/, the/at existence/nn of/in hoop/nn snakes/nns ,/, joint/nn snakes/nns ,/, or/cc ghosts/nns ./.


	Oliver/np has/hvz recently/rb used/vbn the/at second-level/nn approach/nn with/in the/at largest/jjt snakes/nns ,/, and/cc has/hvz come/vbn to/in these/dts conclusions/nns :/: the/at anaconda/nn reaches/vbz a/at length/nn of/in at/in least/ap 37/cd feet/nns ,/, the/at reticulate/jj python/nn 33/cd ,/, the/at African/jj rock/nn python/nn 25/cd ,/, the/at amethystine/nn python/nn at/in least/ap 22/cd ,/, the/at Indian/jj python/nn 20/cd ,/, and/cc the/at boa/nn constrictor/nn 18-1/2/cd ./.


	Bernard/np Heuvelmans/np also/rb treats/vbz of/in the/at largest/jjt snakes/nns ,/, but/cc on/in the/at third/od level/nn ,/, and/cc is/bez chiefly/rb concerned/vbn with/in the/at anaconda/nn ./.
He/pps reasons/vbz that/cs as/cs anacondas/nns 30/cd feet/nns long/jj are/ber often/rb found/vbn ,/, some/dti might/md be/be 38/cd ,/, and/cc occasional/jj ``/`` monstrous/jj freaks/nns ''/'' over/in 50/cd ./.
He/pps rejects/vbz dimensions/nns of/in 70/cd feet/nns and/cc more/ap ./.
His/pp$ thirteenth/od chapter/nn includes/vbz many/ap exciting/jj accounts/nns of/in huge/jj serpents/nns with/in prodigious/jj strength/nn ,/, but/cc these/dts seem/vb to/to be/be given/vbn to/to complete/vb his/pp$ picture/nn ,/, not/* to/to be/be believed/vbn ./.


	Detailed/vbn information/nn on/in record/nn lengths/nns of/in the/at giants/nns is/bez given/vbn in/in the/at section/nn that/wps follows/vbz ./.



Growth/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl six/cd-hl giants/nns-hl 
Discussions/nns of/in the/at giants/nns one/cd by/in one/cd will/md include/vb ,/, as/ql far/rb as/cs possible/jj ,/, data/nns on/in these/dts aspects/nns of/in growth/nn :/: size/nn at/in which/wdt life/nn is/bez started/vbn and/cc at/in which/wdt sexual/jj maturity/nn is/bez reached/vbn ;/. ;/.
time/nn required/vbn to/to reach/vb maturity/nn ;/. ;/.
rate/nn of/in growth/nn both/abx before/in and/cc after/in this/dt crucial/jj stage/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc maximum/jj length/nn ,/, with/in confirmation/nn or/cc amplification/nn of/in Oliver's/np$ figures/nns ./.
Definite/jj information/nn on/in the/at growth/nn of/in senile/jj individuals/nns is/bez lacking/vbg ./.
Anaconda/nn-hl :/:-hl 
At/in birth/nn ,/, this/dt species/nn varies/vbz considerably/rb in/in size/nn ./.
A/at brood/nn of/in twenty-eight/cd born/vbn at/in Brookfield/np-tl Zoo/nn-tl ,/, near/in Chicago/np ,/, ranged/vbd in/in length/nn from/in 22/cd to/in 33-1/2/cd inches/nns and/cc averaged/vbd 29/cd inches/nns ./.
Lawrence/np E./np Griffin/np gives/vbz measurements/nns of/in nineteen/cd young/jj anacondas/nns ,/, presumably/rb members/nns of/in a/at brood/nn ,/, from/in ``/`` South/jj-tl America/np-tl ''/'' ;/. ;/.
the/at extreme/jj measurements/nns of/in these/dts fall/vb between/in the/at lower/jjr limit/nn of/in the/at Brookfield/np brood/nn and/cc its/pp$ average/nn ./.
Raymond/np L./np Ditmars/np had/hvd two/cd broods/nns that/wps averaged/vbd 27/cd inches/nns ./.
R./np R./np Mole/np and/cc F./np W./np Urich/np give/vb approximately/rb 20/cd inches/nns as/cs the/at average/jj length/nn of/in a/at brood/nn of/in thirty/cd from/in the/at region/nn of/in the/at Orinoco/np estuaries/nns ./.
William/np Beebe/np reports/vbz 26/cd inches/nns and/cc 2.4/cd ounces/nns (/( this/dt snake/nn must/md have/hv been/ben emaciated/jj )/) for/in the/at length/nn and/cc the/at weight/nn of/in a/at young/jj anaconda/nn from/in British/jj-tl Guiana/np-tl ./.
In/in contrast/nn ,/, Ditmars/np recorded/vbd the/at average/jj length/nn of/in seventy-two/cd young/jj of/in a/at 19-foot/jj female/nn as/cs 38/cd inches/nns ,/, and/cc four/cd young/jj were/bed born/vbn in/in London/np at/in a/at length/nn of/in 35/cd or/cc 36/cd inches/nns and/cc a/at weight/nn of/in from/in 14/cd to/in 16/cd ounces/nns ./.
Beebe/np had/hvd a/at 3-foot/jj anaconda/nn that/wps weighed/vbd only/rb 9.8/cd ounces/nns ./.
A/at difference/nn between/in subspecies/nns might/md explain/vb the/at great/jj range/nn in/in size/nn ./.


	I/ppss have/hv little/ap information/nn on/in the/at anaconda's/nn$ rate/nn of/in growth/nn ./.
Hans/np Schweizer/np had/hvd one/cd that/wps increased/vbd from/in 19-1/2/cd inches/nns to/in 5/cd feet/nns 3/cd inches/nns in/in five/cd years/nns ,/, and/cc J./np J./np Quelch/np records/vbz a/at growth/nn of/in from/in less/ap than/in 4/cd feet/nns to/in nearly/rb 10/cd in/in about/rb six/cd years/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez very/ql unlikely/jj that/cs either/dtx of/in these/dts anacondas/nns was/bedz growing/vbg at/in a/at normal/jj rate/nn ./.


	In/in 1948/cd ,/, Afranio/np Do/np Amaral/np ,/, the/at noted/vbn Brazilian/jj herpetologist/nn ,/, wrote/vbd a/at technical/jj paper/nn on/in the/at giant/jj snakes/nns ./.
He/pps concluded/vbd that/cs the/at anaconda's/nn$ maximum/jj length/nn is/bez 12/cd or/cc 13/cd (/( perhaps/rb 14/cd )/) meters/nns ,/, which/wdt would/md approximate/vb from/in 39/cd to/in 42/cd feet/nns (/( 14/cd meters/nns is/bez slightly/rb less/ap than/in 46/cd feet/nns )/) ./.
Thus/rb ,/, his/pp$ estimate/nn lies/vbz between/in Oliver's/np$ suggestion/nn of/in at/in least/ap 37/cd feet/nns and/cc the/at 50-foot/jj ``/`` monstrous/jj freaks/nns ''/'' intimated/vbn by/in Heuvelmans/np ./.


	The/at most/ql convincing/jj recent/jj measurement/nn of/in an/at anaconda/nn was/bedz made/vbn in/in eastern/jj Colombia/np by/in Roberto/np Lamon/np ,/, a/at petroleum/nn geologist/nn of/in the/at Richmond/np-tl Oil/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ,/, and/cc reported/vbn in/in 1944/cd by/in Emmett/np R./np Dunn/np ./.
However/rb ,/, as/cs a/at field/nn measurement/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez open/jj to/in question/nn ./.
Oliver's/np$ 37-1/2/cd feet/nns is/bez partly/rb based/vbn on/in this/dt report/nn and/cc can/md be/be accepted/vbn as/cs probable/jj ./.
However/rb ,/, many/ap herpetologists/nns remain/vb skeptical/jj and/cc would/md prefer/vb a/at tentative/jj maximum/nn of/in about/rb 30/cd feet/nns ./.


	It/pps is/bez possible/jj that/cs especially/ql large/jj anacondas/nns will/md prove/vb to/to belong/vb to/in subspecies/nns limited/vbn to/in a/at small/jj area/nn ./.
In/in snakes/nns difference/nn in/in size/nn is/bez a/at common/jj characteristic/nn of/in subspecies/nns ./.
Boa/nn-hl constrictor/nn-hl :/:-hl 
A/at Colombian/jj female's/nn$ brood/nn of/in sixteen/cd boa/nn constrictors/nns born/vbn in/in the/at Staten/np-tl Island/nn-tl Zoo/nn-tl averaged/vbd 20/cd inches/nns ./.
This/dt birth/nn length/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be typical/jj ./.
When/wrb some/rb thirteen/cd records/nns of/in newly/rb and/cc recently/rb born/vbn individuals/nns are/ber collated/vbn ,/, little/ap or/cc no/at correlation/nn between/in length/nn and/cc distribution/nn can/md be/be detected/vbn ./.
The/at range/nn is/bez from/in 14/cd to/in 25/cd inches/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at former/ap figure/nn is/bez based/vbn on/in a/at somewhat/ql unusual/jj birth/nn of/in four/cd by/in a/at Central/jj-tl American/jj-tl female/nn (/( see/vb chapter/nn on/in Laying/nn-tl ,/, Brooding/vbg-tl ,/, Hatching/vbg-tl ,/, and/cc Birth/nn-tl )/) ,/, the/at latter/ap on/in a/at ``/`` normal/jj ''/'' newly/rb born/vbn individual/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, as/cs so/ql many/ap of/in the/at records/nns are/ber not/* certainly/rb based/vbn on/in newborn/jj snakes/nns ,/, these/dts data/nns must/md be/be taken/vbn tentatively/rb ;/. ;/.
final/jj conclusions/nns will/md have/hv to/to await/vb the/at measurements/nns of/in broods/nns from/in definite/jj localities/nns ./.


	Alphonse/np R./np Hoge's/np$ measurements/nns of/in several/ap very/ql young/jj specimens/nns from/in Brazil/np suggest/vb that/cs at/in birth/nn the/at female/nn is/bez slightly/ql larger/jjr than/cs the/at male/nn ./.


	I/ppss have/hv surprisingly/rb little/ap information/nn on/in the/at size/nn and/cc age/nn at/in maturity/nn ./.
Carl/np Kauffeld/np has/hvz written/vbn to/in me/ppo of/in sexual/jj activity/nn in/in February/np 1943/cd of/in young/jj born/vbn in/in March/np 1940/cd ./.
One/cd female/nn ,/, collected/vbn on/in an/at island/nn off/in the/at coast/nn of/in Nicaragua/np ,/, was/bedz gravid/jj and/cc measured/vbd 4/cd feet/nns 8/cd inches/nns from/in snout/nn to/in vent/nn (/( her/pp$ tail/nn should/md be/be between/in 6/cd and/cc 7/cd inches/nns long/jj )/) ./.
The/at female/nn from/in Central/jj-tl America/np-tl which/wdt gave/vbd birth/nn to/in four/cd was/bedz only/rb 3/cd feet/nns 11/cd inches/nns long/jj ./.


	What/wdt data/nns there/ex are/ber on/in growth/nn indicate/vb considerable/jj variation/nn in/in rate/nn ;/. ;/.
unfortunately/rb ,/, no/at one/pn has/hvz kept/vbn complete/jj records/nns of/in one/cd individual/nn ,/, whereas/cs many/ap have/hv been/ben made/vbn for/in a/at very/ql short/jj period/nn of/in time/nn ./.
The/at results/nns are/ber too/ql varied/vbn to/to allow/vb generalization/nn ./.

The/at bronchus/nn and/cc pulmonary/jj artery/nn in/in this/dt lung/nn type/nn maintain/vb a/at close/jj relationship/nn throughout/rb ./.
The/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, without/in the/at limiting/vbg supportive/jj tissue/nn septa/nns as/cs in/in type/nn 1/cd ,/, ,/, follows/vbz a/at more/ql direct/jj path/nn to/in the/at hilum/nn and/cc does/doz not/* maintain/vb this/dt close/jj relationship/nn (/( figs./nns 8/cd ,/, 22/cd )/) ./.
Another/dt marked/vbn difference/nn is/bez noted/vbn here/rb ./.
The/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn ,/, in/in addition/nn to/in supplying/vbg the/at distal/jj portion/nn of/in the/at respiratory/jj bronchiole/nn ,/, the/at alveolar/jj duct/nn ,/, and/cc the/at alveoli/nns ,/, continues/vbz on/rp and/cc directly/rb supplies/vbz the/at thin/jj pleura/nn (/( fig./nn 8/cd )/) ./.
The/at bronchial/jj artery/nn ,/, except/in for/in a/at small/jj number/nn of/in short/jj branches/nns in/in the/at hilum/nn ,/, contributes/vbz none/pn of/in the/at pleural/jj blood/nn supply/nn ./.
It/pps does/doz ,/, as/cs in/in type/nn 1/cd ,/, ,/, supply/vb the/at hilar/jj lymph/nn nodes/nns ,/, the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn ,/, the/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn ,/, the/at bronchi/nns ,/, and/cc the/at bronchioles/nns --/-- terminating/vbg in/in a/at common/jj capillary/nn bed/nn with/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn at/in the/at level/nn of/in the/at respiratory/jj bronchiole/nn ./.
No/at bronchial/jj artery-pulmonary/nn artery/nn anastomoses/nns were/bed noted/vbn in/in this/dt group/nn ./.


	Lung/nn type/nn 3/cd (/( (/( fig./nn 3/cd )/) is/bez to/in some/dti degree/nn a/at composite/nn of/in types/nns 1/cd ,/, and/cc 2/cd ./.
It/pps is/bez characterized/vbn by/in the/at presence/nn of/in incompletely/rb developed/vbn secondary/jj lobules/nns ;/. ;/.
well/rb defined/vbn ,/, but/cc haphazardly/rb arranged/vbn ,/, interlobular/jj septa/nns and/cc a/at thick/jj ,/, remarkably/rb vascular/jj pleura/nn (/( fig./nn 9/cd )/) ./.
The/at most/ql distal/jj airways/nns are/ber similar/jj to/in those/dts found/vbn in/in type/nn 1/cd ,/, ,/, being/beg composed/vbn of/in numerous/jj ,/, apparently/rb true/jj terminal/jj bronchioles/nns and/cc occasional/jj ,/, poorly/rb developed/vbn respiratory/jj bronchioles/nns (/( figs./nns 14/cd ,/, 15/cd )/) ./.
In/in this/dt instance/nn ,/, because/rb of/in incomplete/jj septation/nn ,/, the/at secondary/jj lobule/nn does/doz not/* constitute/vb in/in itself/ppl what/wdt appears/vbz to/to be/be a/at small/jj individual/jj lung/nn as/cs in/in type/nn 1/cd ./.
Air-drifts/nns from/in one/cd area/nn to/in another/dt are/ber ,/, therefore/rb ,/, conceivable/jj ./.
Distally/rb the/at bronchus/nn is/bez situated/vbn between/in a/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn on/in one/cd side/nn and/cc a/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn on/in the/at other/ap ,/, as/cs in/in type/nn 1/cd (/( (/( fig./nn 24/cd )/) ./.
This/dt relationship/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez not/* maintained/vbn centrally/rb ./.
Here/rb the/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn ,/, as/cs in/in type/nn 2/cd ,/, ,/, is/bez noted/vbn to/to draw/vb away/rb from/in the/at bronchus/nn ,/, and/cc to/to follow/vb a/at more/ql direct/jj ,/, independent/jj course/nn to/in the/at hilum/nn (/( figs./nns 23/cd ,/, 24/cd )/) ./.
The/at bronchial/jj artery/nn in/in its/pp$ course/nn and/cc distribution/nn differs/vbz somewhat/rb from/in that/dt found/vbn in/in other/ap mammals/nns ./.
As/cs seen/vbn in/in types/nns 1/cd ,/, and/cc 2/cd ,/, ,/, it/pps supplies/vbz the/at hilar/jj lymph/nn nodes/nns ,/, vasa/nn vasorum/nn to/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn and/cc vein/nn ,/, the/at bronchi/nns and/cc the/at terminal/jj bronchioles/nns ./.
As/cs in/in type/nn 1/cd ,/, ,/, it/pps provides/vbz arterial/jj blood/nn to/in the/at interlobular/jj septa/nns ,/, and/cc an/at extremely/ql rich/jj anastomotic/jj pleural/jj supply/nn is/bez seen/vbn (/( figs./nns 9/cd ,/, 10/cd )/) ./.
This/dt pleural/jj supply/nn is/bez derived/vbn both/abx from/in hilar/jj and/cc interlobular/jj bronchial/jj artery/nn branches/nns ./.
Such/abl a/at dual/jj derivation/nn was/bedz strikingly/rb demonstrated/vbn during/in the/at injection/nn process/nn where/wrb initial/jj filling/vbg would/md be/be noted/vbn to/to occur/vb in/in several/ap isolated/vbn pleural/jj vessels/nns at/in once/rb ./.
Some/dti of/in these/dts were/bed obviously/rb filling/vbg from/in interlobular/jj branches/nns of/in the/at bronchial/jj arteries/nns while/cs others/nns were/bed filling/vbg from/in direct/jj hilar/jj branches/nns following/vbg along/in the/at pleural/jj surface/nn ./.
With/in completion/nn of/in filling/vbg ,/, net-like/jj anastomoses/nns were/bed noted/vbn to/to be/be present/jj between/in these/dts separately/rb derived/vbn branches/nns ./.
An/at unusual/jj increase/nn in/in the/at number/nn of/in bronchial/jj arteries/nns present/rb within/in the/at substance/nn of/in the/at lung/nn was/bedz noted/vbn ./.
This/dt was/bedz accounted/vbn for/in primarily/rb by/in the/at presence/nn of/in a/at bronchial/jj artery/nn closely/rb following/vbg the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn ./.
The/at diameter/nn of/in this/dt bronchial/jj artery/nn was/bedz much/ql too/ql large/jj for/in it/ppo to/to be/be a/at mere/jj vasa/nn vasorum/nn (/( figs./nns 16/cd ,/, 23/cd ,/, 24/cd )/) ./.
In/in distal/jj regions/nns its/pp$ diameter/nn would/md be/be one-fourth/nn to/in one-fifth/nn that/dt of/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn ./.
This/dt vessel/nn could/md be/be followed/vbn to/in the/at parenchyma/nn where/wrb it/pps directly/rb provided/vbd bronchial/jj arterial/jj blood/nn to/in the/at alveolar/jj capillary/nn bed/nn (/( figs./nns 17/cd ,/, 18/cd )/) ./.
Also/rb three/cd other/ap direct/jj pathways/nns of/in alveolar/jj bronchial/jj arterial/jj supply/nn were/bed noted/vbn :/: via/in the/at pleura/nn ;/. ;/.
through/in the/at interlobular/jj septa/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc along/in the/at terminal/jj bronchiole/nn (/( figs./nns 14/cd ,/, 17/cd ,/, 18/cd ,/, 19/cd )/) ./.
One/cd bronchial/jj arteriolar-pulmonary/jj arteriolar/jj anastomosis/nn was/bedz noted/vbn at/in the/at terminal/jj bronchiolar/jj level/nn (/( fig./nn 26/cd )/) ./.



Discussion/nn-hl 
It/pps is/bez evident/jj that/cs many/ap marked/vbn and/cc striking/jj differences/nns exist/vb between/in lungs/nns when/wrb an/at inter-species/jj comparison/nn is/bez made/vbn ./.
The/at significance/nn of/in these/dts differences/nns has/hvz not/* been/ben studied/vbn nor/cc has/hvz the/at existence/nn of/in corresponding/jj physiologic/jj differences/nns been/ben determined/vbn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at dynamics/nns of/in airflow/nn ,/, from/in morphologic/jj considerations/nns alone/rb ,/, may/md conceivably/rb be/be different/jj in/in the/at monkey/nn than/cs in/in the/at horse/nn ./.
The/at volume/nn and/cc ,/, perhaps/rb ,/, even/rb the/at characteristics/nns of/in bronchial/jj arterial/jj blood/nn flow/nn might/md be/be different/jj in/in the/at dog/nn than/cs in/in the/at horse/nn ./.
Also/rb ,/, interlobular/jj air/nn drifts/nns may/md be/be all/abn but/in nonexistent/jj in/in the/at cow/nn ;/. ;/.
probably/rb occur/vb in/in the/at horse/nn much/rb as/cs in/in the/at human/jj being/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc ,/, in/in contrast/nn ,/, are/ber present/jj to/in a/at relatively/ql immense/jj degree/nn on/in a/at segmental/jj basis/nn in/in the/at dog/nn where/wrb lobules/nns are/ber absent/jj (/( Van/np Allen/np and/cc Lindskog/np ,/, '31/cd )/) ./.
A/at reason/nn for/in such/ql wide/jj variation/nn in/in the/at pulmonary/jj morphology/nn is/bez entirely/rb lacking/vbg at/in present/nn ./.


	Within/in certain/ap wide/jj limits/nns anatomy/nn dictates/vbz function/nn and/cc ,/, if/cs one/pn is/bez permitted/vbn to/to speculate/vb ,/, potential/jj pathology/nn should/md be/be included/vbn in/in this/dt statement/nn as/ql well/rb ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at marked/vbn susceptibility/nn of/in the/at monkey/nn to/in respiratory/jj infection/nn might/md be/be related/vbn to/in its/pp$ delicate/jj ,/, long/jj alveolar/jj ducts/nns and/cc short/jj ,/, large/jj bronchioles/nns situated/vbn within/in a/at parenchyma/nn entirely/rb lacking/vbg in/in protective/jj supportive/jj tissue/nn barriers/nns such/jj as/cs those/dts found/vbn in/in types/nns 1/cd ,/, and/cc 3/cd ./.
One/pn might/md also/rb wonder/vb if/cs monkeys/nns are/ber capable/jj of/in developing/vbg bronchiolitis/nn as/cs we/ppss know/vb it/ppo in/in man/nn or/cc the/at horse/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, it/pps would/md be/be difficult/jj to/to imagine/vb chronic/jj generalized/vbn emphysema/nn occurring/vbg in/in a/at cow/nn ,/, considering/in its/pp$ marked/vbn lobular/jj development/nn but/cc ,/, conversely/rb ,/, not/* difficult/jj to/to imagine/vb this/dt occurring/vbg in/in the/at horse/nn or/cc the/at dog/nn ./.


	Anatomically/rb ,/, the/at horse/nn lung/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be remarkably/rb like/jj that/dt of/in man/nn ,/, insofar/rb as/cs this/dt can/md be/be ascertained/vbn from/in comparison/nn of/in our/pp$ findings/nns in/in the/at horse/nn with/in those/dts of/in others/nns (/( Birnbaum/np ,/, '54/cd )/) in/in the/at human/jj being/nn ./.
The/at only/ap area/nn in/in which/wdt one/pn might/md find/vb major/jj disagreement/nn in/in this/dt matter/nn is/bez in/in regard/nn to/in the/at alveolar/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at bronchial/jj arteries/nns ./.
As/ql early/rb as/cs 1858/cd ,/, Le/np Fort/np claimed/vbd an/at alveolar/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at bronchial/jj arteries/nns in/in human/jj beings/nns ./.
In/in 1951/cd ,/, this/dt was/bedz reaffirmed/vbn by/in Cudkowicz/np ./.
The/at opposition/nn to/in this/dt point/nn of/in view/nn has/hvz its/pp$ staunchest/jjt support/nn in/in the/at work/nn of/in Miller/np (/( '50/cd )/) ./.
Apparently/rb ,/, however/rb ,/, Miller/np has/hvz relied/vbn heavily/rb on/in the/at anatomy/nn in/in dogs/nns and/cc cats/nns ,/, and/cc he/pps has/hvz been/ben criticized/vbn for/in using/vbg pathologic/jj human/jj material/nn in/in his/pp$ normal/jj study/nn (/( Loosli/np ,/, '38/cd )/) ./.
Although/cs Miller/np noted/vbd in/in 1907/cd that/cs a/at difference/nn in/in the/at pleural/jj blood/nn supply/nn existed/vbd between/in animals/nns ,/, nowhere/rb in/in his/pp$ published/vbn works/nns is/bez it/pps found/vbn that/cs he/pps did/dod a/at comparative/jj study/nn of/in the/at intrapulmonary/jj features/nns of/in various/jj mammalian/jj lungs/nns other/ap than/cs in/in the/at dog/nn and/cc cat/nn (/( Miller/np ,/, '13/cd ;/. ;/.
'25/cd )/) ./.


	The/at meaning/nn of/in this/dt variation/nn in/in distribution/nn of/in the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn as/cs found/vbn in/in the/at horse/nn is/bez not/* clear/jj ./.
However/rb ,/, this/dt artery/nn is/bez known/vbn to/to be/be a/at nutrient/jj vessel/nn with/in a/at distribution/nn primarily/rb to/in the/at proximal/jj airways/nns and/cc supportive/jj tissues/nns of/in the/at lung/nn ./.
The/at alveoli/nns and/cc respiratory/jj bronchioles/nns are/ber primarily/rb diffusing/vbg tissues/nns ./.
Theoretically/rb ,/, they/ppss are/ber capable/jj of/in extracting/vbg their/pp$ required/vbn oxygen/nn either/dtx from/in the/at surrounding/vbg air/nn (/( Ghoreyeb/np and/cc Karsner/np ,/, '13/cd )/) or/cc from/in pulmonary/jj arterial/jj blood/nn (/( Comroe/np ,/, '58/cd )/) ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, an/at explanation/nn of/in this/dt alveolar/jj bronchial/jj artery/nn supply/nn might/md be/be the/at nutritive/jj requirement/nn of/in an/at increased/vbn amount/nn of/in supportive/jj tissue/nn ,/, not/* primarily/rb diffusing/vbg in/in nature/nn ,/, in/in the/at region/nn of/in the/at alveolus/nn ./.
If/cs this/dt be/be true/jj ,/, the/at possibility/nn exists/vbz that/cs an/at occlusive/jj lesion/nn of/in the/at bronchial/jj arteries/nns might/md cause/vb widespread/jj degeneration/nn of/in supportive/jj tissue/nn similar/jj to/in that/dt seen/vbn in/in generalized/vbn emphysema/nn ./.
One/pn would/md not/* expect/vb such/abl an/at event/nn to/to occur/vb in/in animals/nns possessing/vbg lungs/nns of/in types/nns 1/cd ,/, or/cc 2/cd ./.


	The/at presence/nn of/in normally/rb occurring/vbg bronchial/jj artery-pulmonary/jj artery/nn anastomoses/nns was/bedz first/rb noted/vbn in/in 1721/cd by/in Ruysch/np ,/, and/cc thereafter/rb by/in many/ap others/nns ./.
Nakamura/np (/( '58/cd )/) ,/, Verloop/np (/( '48/jj )/) ,/, Marchand/np ,/, Gilroy/np and/cc Watson/np (/( '50/cd )/) ,/, Von/np Hayek/np (/( '53/cd )/) ,/, and/cc Tobin/np (/( '52/cd )/) have/hv all/abn claimed/vbn their/pp$ normal/jj but/cc relatively/ql nonfunctional/jj existence/nn in/in the/at human/jj being/nn ./.
Miller/np (/( '50/cd )/) is/bez the/at principal/jjs antagonist/nn of/in this/dt viewpoint/nn ./.
In/in criticism/nn of/in the/at latter's/nn$ views/nns ,/, his/pp$ conclusions/nns were/bed based/vbn upon/in dog/nn lung/nn injection/nn studies/nns in/in which/wdt all/abn of/in the/at vascular/jj channels/nns were/bed first/rb filled/vbn with/in a/at solution/nn under/in pressure/nn and/cc then/rb were/bed injected/vbn with/in various/jj sized/jj colored/vbn particles/nns designed/vbn to/to stop/vb at/in the/at arteriolar/jj level/nn ./.
As/ql early/rb as/cs 1913/cd Ghoreyeb/np and/cc Karsner/np demonstrated/vbd with/in perfusion/nn studies/nns in/in dogs/nns that/cs bronchial/jj artery/nn flow/nn would/md remain/vb constant/jj at/in a/at certain/ap low/jj level/nn when/wrb pressure/nn was/bedz maintained/vbn in/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn and/cc vein/nn ,/, but/cc that/cs increases/nns in/in bronchial/jj artery/nn flow/nn would/md occur/vb in/in response/nn to/in a/at relative/jj drop/nn in/in pulmonary/jj artery/nn pressure/nn ./.
Berry/np ,/, Brailsford/np and/cc Daly/np in/in 1931/cd and/cc Nakamura/np in/in 1958/cd reaffirmed/vbd this/dt ./.
Our/pp$ own/jj studies/nns in/in which/wdt bronchial/jj artery-pulmonary/jj artery/nn anastomoses/nns were/bed demonstrated/vbn ,/, were/bed accomplished/vbn by/in injecting/vbg the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn first/rb with/in no/at pressure/nn on/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn or/cc vein/nn ,/, and/cc then/rb by/in injecting/vbg the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn and/cc vein/nn afterwards/rb ./.
It/pps is/bez distinctly/rb possible/jj ,/, therefore/rb ,/, that/cs simultaneous/jj pressures/nns in/in all/abn three/cd vessels/nns would/md have/hv rendered/vbn the/at shunts/nns inoperable/jj and/cc hence/rb ,/, uninjectable/jj ./.
This/dt viewpoint/nn is/bez further/rbr supported/vbn by/in Verloop's/np$ (/( '48/cd )/) demonstration/nn of/in thickened/vbn bronchial/jj artery/nn and/cc arteriolar/jj muscular/jj coats/nns which/wdt are/ber capable/jj of/in acting/vbg as/cs valves/nns ./.
In/in other/ap words/nns ,/, the/at anastomoses/nns between/in the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn and/cc pulmonary/jj artery/nn should/md be/be considered/vbn as/cs functional/jj or/cc demand/nn shunts/nns ./.


	In/in addition/nn ,/, little/ap work/nn has/hvz been/ben done/vbn on/in a/at comparative/jj basis/nn in/in regard/nn to/in the/at normal/jj existence/nn of/in bronchial/jj artery-pulmonary/jj artery/nn anastomoses/nns ./.
Verloop/np (/( '48/cd ;/. ;/.
'49/cd )/) found/vbn these/dts shunts/nns in/in the/at human/jj being/nn but/cc was/bedz unable/jj to/to find/vb them/ppo in/in rats/nns ./.
Ellis/np ,/, Grindlay/np and/cc Edwards/np (/( '52/cd )/) also/rb were/bed unable/jj to/to find/vb them/ppo in/in rats/nns ./.
Nakamura/np (/( '58/cd )/) was/bedz unable/jj to/to demonstrate/vb their/pp$ existence/nn ,/, either/cc by/in anatomic/jj or/cc physiologic/jj methods/nns ,/, in/in dogs/nns ./.
The/at possibility/nn that/cs the/at absence/nn or/cc presence/nn of/in these/dts shunts/nns is/bez species-dependent/jj is/bez therefore/rb inferred/vbn ./.
Certainly/rb ,/, the/at mere/jj fact/nn of/in failing/vbg to/to demonstrate/vb them/ppo in/in one/cd or/cc another/dt species/nn does/doz not/* conclusively/rb deny/vb their/pp$ existence/nn in/in that/dt species/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez ,/, however/rb ,/, highly/ql suggestive/jj and/cc agrees/vbz well/rb with/in our/pp$ own/jj findings/nns in/in which/wdt we/ppss also/rb failed/vbd to/to demonstrate/vb normally/rb occurring/vbg bronchial/jj artery-pulmonary/jj artery/nn shunts/nns in/in certain/ap species/nns ,/, especially/rb the/at dog/nn ./.


	In/in conclusion/nn ,/, these/dts findings/nns suggest/vb the/at need/nn for/in a/at comparative/jj physiology/nn ,/, pathology/nn ,/, and/cc histology/nn of/in mammalian/jj lungs/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, a/at detailed/vbn interspecies/jj survey/nn of/in the/at incidence/nn of/in generalized/vbn pulmonary/jj emphysema/nn in/in mammals/nns would/md be/be interesting/jj and/cc pertinent/jj ./.
Also/rb ,/, for/in the/at present/nn ,/, great/jj caution/nn should/md be/be exercised/vbn in/in the/at choice/nn of/in an/at experimental/jj animal/nn for/in pulmonary/jj studies/nns if/cs they/ppss are/ber to/to be/be applied/vbn to/to man/vb ./.
This/dt is/bez especially/rb so/rb if/cs the/at dog/nn ,/, cat/nn or/cc monkey/nn are/ber to/to be/be used/vbn ,/, in/in view/nn of/in their/pp$ marked/vbn anatomical/jj differences/nns from/in man/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez suggested/vbn that/cs in/in many/ap respects/nns the/at horse/nn lung/nn may/md be/be anatomically/rb more/ql comparable/jj to/in that/dt of/in the/at human/jj than/cs any/dti other/ap presently/rb known/vbn species/nn ./.



Summary/nn-hl 
The/at main/jjs subgross/jj anatomical/jj features/nns of/in the/at lungs/nns of/in various/jj mammals/nns are/ber presented/vbn ./.
A/at tabulation/nn of/in these/dts features/nns permits/vbz the/at lungs/nns to/to be/be grouped/vbn into/in three/cd distinctive/jj subgross/jj types/nns ./.
Type/nn 1/cd ,/, is/bez represented/vbn by/in the/at cow/nn ,/, sheep/nn ,/, and/cc pig/nn ;/. ;/.
type/nn 2/cd ,/, ,/, by/in the/at dog/nn ,/, cat/nn ,/, and/cc monkey/nn ;/. ;/.
type/nn 3/cd ,/, ,/, by/in the/at horse/nn ./.
Lobularity/nn is/bez extremely/ql well/rb developed/vbn in/in type/nn 1/cd ;/. ;/.
absent/jj in/in type/nn 2/cd ;/. ;/.
imperfectly/rb developed/vbn in/in type/nn 3/cd ./.
The/at pleura/nn and/cc interlobular/jj septa/nns are/ber thick/jj in/in types/nns 1/cd and/cc 3/cd ./.
The/at pleura/nn is/bez extremely/ql thin/jj in/in type/nn 2/cd and/cc septa/nns are/ber absent/jj ./.
Arterial/jj supply/nn to/in the/at pleura/nn in/in types/nns 1/cd and/cc 3/cd is/bez provided/vbn by/in the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn ,/, and/cc in/in type/nn 2/cd ,/, by/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn ./.
In/in types/nns 1/cd ,/, 2/cd and/cc 3/cd the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn terminates/vbz in/in a/at capillary/nn bed/nn shared/vbn in/in common/jj with/in the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn at/in the/at level/nn of/in the/at distal/jj bronchiole/nn ./.
In/in type/nn 3/cd the/at bronchial/jj artery/nn also/rb provides/vbz blood/nn directly/rb to/in the/at alveolar/jj capillary/nn bed/nn ./.
True/jj terminal/jj bronchioles/nns comprise/vb the/at most/ql frequent/jj form/nn taken/vbn by/in the/at distal/jj airways/nns in/in types/nns 1/cd and/cc 3/cd ,/, although/cs small/jj numbers/nns of/in poorly/rb developed/vbn respiratory/jj bronchioles/nns are/ber present/rb ./.
Well/rb developed/vbn respiratory/jj bronchioles/nns ,/, on/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, appear/vb to/to be/be the/at only/ap form/nn taken/vbn by/in the/at distal/jj airways/nns in/in type/nn 2/cd ./.
In/in type/nn 1/cd the/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn closely/rb follows/vbz the/at course/nn of/in the/at bronchus/nn and/cc the/at pulmonary/jj artery/nn from/in the/at periphery/nn to/in the/at hilum/nn ./.
This/dt may/md be/be due/jj to/in the/at heavy/jj interlobular/jj connective/jj tissue/nn barriers/nns present/rb ./.
In/in type/nn 3/cd ,/, this/dt general/jj relationship/nn is/bez maintained/vbn peripherally/rb but/cc not/* centrally/rb where/wrb the/at pulmonary/jj vein/nn follows/vbz a/at more/ql independent/jj path/nn to/in the/at hilum/nn as/cs is/bez the/at case/nn throughout/in the/at lung/nn in/in type/nn 2/cd ./.



	Some/dti of/in the/at features/nns of/in the/at top/jjs portions/nns of/in Figure/nn-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl were/bed mentioned/vbn in/in discussing/vbg Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
First/rb ,/, the/at Onset/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl spreads/vbz across/in approximately/rb 12/cd years/nns for/in boys/nns and/cc 10/cd years/nns for/in girls/nns ./.
In/in contrast/nn ,/, 20/cd of/in the/at 21/cd lines/nns in/in the/at Completion/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl (/( excluding/in center/jj 5/cd for/in boys/nns and/cc 4/cd for/in girls/nns )/) are/ber bunched/vbn and/cc extend/vb over/in a/at much/ql shorter/jjr period/nn ,/, approximately/rb 30/cd months/nns for/in boys/nns and/cc 40/cd months/nns for/in girls/nns ./.
The/at Maturity/nn-tl Chart/nn-tl for/in each/dt sex/nn demonstrates/vbz clearly/rb that/cs Onset/nn-tl is/bez a/at phenomenon/nn of/in infancy/nn and/cc early/jj childhood/nn whereas/cs Completion/nn-tl is/bez a/at phenomenon/nn of/in the/at later/jjr portion/nn of/in adolescence/nn ./.
Second/rb ,/, for/in both/abx sexes/nns ,/, the/at 21/cd transverse/jj lines/nns in/in the/at Onset/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl vary/vb more/rbr in/in individual/jj spread/nn than/cs those/dts in/in the/at Completion/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl ./.
Although/cs the/at standard/jj deviation/nn values/nns on/in which/wdt spread/nn of/in the/at lines/nns is/bez based/vbn are/ber relatively/ql larger/jjr for/in those/dts centers/nns which/wdt begin/vb to/to ossify/vb early/rb (/( Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ,/, there/ex are/ber considerable/jj differences/nns in/in this/dt value/nn between/in centers/nns having/hvg the/at closely/rb timed/vbn Onsets/nns-tl ./.
Third/rb ,/, the/at process/nn of/in calcification/nn is/bez seen/vbn to/to begin/vb later/rbr and/cc to/to continue/vb much/ql longer/jjr for/in these/dts boys/nns than/cs for/in the/at girls/nns ,/, a/at fact/nn which/wdt confirms/vbz data/nn for/in other/ap groups/nns of/in children/nns ./.


	The/at Onset/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl are/ber constructed/vbn to/to serve/vb as/cs norms/nns for/in children/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez convenient/jj to/to classify/vb a/at child's/nn$ onset/nn ages/nns and/cc completion/nn ages/nns as/cs ``/`` advanced/vbn ''/'' ,/, ``/`` moderate/jj ''/'' (/( modal/jj )/) ,/, or/cc ``/`` delayed/vbn ''/'' according/in to/in whether/cs the/at child's/nn$ age/nn equivalent/nn ``/`` dots/nns ''/'' appeared/vbd to/in the/at left/nr of/in ,/, upon/in ,/, or/cc to/in the/at right/nr of/in the/at appropriate/jj short/jj transverse/jj line/nn ./.
When/wrb a/at dot/nn appears/vbz close/rb to/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at transverse/jj line/nn ,/, the/at ``/`` moderate/jj ''/'' rating/nn may/md be/be further/rbr classified/vbn according/in to/in the/at position/nn of/in the/at dot/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at vertical/jj marking/nn denoting/vbg the/at mean/jj age/nn ./.
Such/jj classifications/nns may/md be/be called/vbn ``/`` somewhat/ql advanced/vbn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` somewhat/ql delayed/vbn ''/'' ,/, as/cs the/at case/nn may/md be/be ,/, reserving/vbg ``/`` moderate/jj ''/'' for/in dots/nns upon/in or/cc close/rb to/in the/at mean/nn ./.


	In/in the/at lower/jjr portion/nn of/in each/dt Chart/nn-tl ,/, the/at Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl (/( Hand/nn-tl )/) of/in boy/nn 34/cd and/cc girl/nn 2/cd may/md be/be similarly/rb classified/vbn ./.
There/rb the/at middle/jj one/cd of/in the/at three/cd curves/nns denotes/vbz ``/`` mean/jj Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl ''/'' for/in the/at Maturity/nn-tl Series/nn-tl boys/nns and/cc girls/nns ./.
The/at upper/jjr curve/nn denotes/vbz the/at mean/nn plus/in one/cd standard/jj deviation/nn ,/, and/cc the/at lower/jjr curve/nn represents/vbz the/at mean/nn minus/in one/cd standard/jj deviation/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, a/at child's/nn$ Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl ``/`` dots/nns ''/'' may/md be/be classified/vbn as/cs ``/`` advanced/vbn ''/'' when/wrb they/ppss appear/vb above/in the/at middle/jj curve/nn ,/, ``/`` moderate/jj ''/'' when/wrb they/ppss appear/vb immediately/ql above/in or/cc below/in the/at middle/jj curve/nn ,/, and/cc ``/`` delayed/vbn ''/'' when/wrb they/ppss appear/vb below/in the/at lower/jjr curve/nn ./.


	To/to summarize/vb the/at purpose/nn of/in the/at Skeletal/jj-tl Maturity/nn-tl Chart/nn-tl :/: each/dt contains/vbz two/cd kinds/nns of/in skeletal/jj maturity/nn norms/nns which/wdt show/vb two/cd quite/ql different/jj methods/nns of/in depicting/vbg developmental/jj level/nn of/in growth/nn centers/nns ./.
First/rb ,/, the/at upper/jjr portion/nn requires/vbz series/nns of/in films/nns for/in every/at child/nn ,/, consisting/vbg of/in those/dts from/in Hand/nn-tl ,/, Elbow/nn-tl ,/, Shoulder/nn ,/, Knee/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Foot/nn-tl ./.
The/at lower/jjr portion/nn necessitates/vbz only/ap films/nns of/in Hand/nn-tl ./.
Second/rb ,/, the/at upper/jjr portion/nn permits/vbz comparison/nn of/in maturity/nn levels/nns of/in an/at equal/jj number/nn of/in growth/nn centers/nns from/in the/at long/jj ,/, short/jj ,/, and/cc round/jj bones/nns of/in the/at five/cd regions/nns ./.
The/at lower/jjr portion/nn permits/vbz comparison/nn of/in maturity/nn levels/nns of/in short/jj and/cc round/jj bones/nns predominantly/rb ,/, since/cs only/rb two/cd long/jj bones/nns are/ber included/vbn in/in Hand/nn-tl and/cc Wrist/nn-tl as/cs a/at region/nn ./.
Third/rb ,/, the/at upper/jjr portion/nn deals/vbz with/in only/rb two/cd indicators/nns of/in developmental/jj level/nn ,/, Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ./.
The/at lower/jjr portion/nn utilizes/vbz the/at full/jj complement/nn of/in intermediate/jj maturity/nn indicators/nns of/in each/dt Hand/nn-tl center/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs their/pp$ Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ./.
Fourth/rb ,/, the/at two/cd indicators/nns are/ber for/in the/at most/ap part/nn widely/rb separated/vbn chronologically/rb ,/, with/in the/at extensive/jj age/nn gap/nn occurring/vbg during/in childhood/nn for/in all/abn but/in one/cd growth/nn center/nn ./.
The/at lower/jjr portion/nn provides/vbz a/at rating/nn at/in any/dti stage/nn between/in infancy/nn and/cc adulthood/nn ./.


	Onsets/nns-tl ,/, Completions/nns-tl ,/, and/cc Skeletal/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl (/( Hand/nn-tl )/) of/in boy/nn 34/cd and/cc girl/nn 2/cd may/md be/be directly/rb compared/vbn and/cc classified/vbn ,/, using/vbg only/rb those/dts Skeletal/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl which/wdt appear/vb immediately/ql below/in the/at Onset/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl and/cc the/at Completion/nn-tl Profile/nn-tl ./.
It/pps may/md be/be assumed/vbn that/cs differences/nns in/in ratings/nns due/jj to/in selection/nn of/in growth/nn centers/nns from/in specific/jj regions/nns of/in the/at body/nn will/md be/be small/jj ,/, according/in to/in existing/vbg tables/nns of/in onset/nn age/nn and/cc completion/nn age/nn for/in centers/nns throughout/in the/at body/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, maturity/nn level/nn ratings/nns by/in means/nns of/in the/at upper/jjr portion/nn and/cc lower/jjr portion/nn of/in the/at Chart/nn-tl ,/, respectively/rb ,/, should/md be/be somewhat/ql similar/jj since/cs Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl assessments/nns are/ber dependent/jj upon/in Onsets/nns-tl during/in infancy/nn and/cc upon/in Completions/nns-tl during/in adolescence/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs there/ex are/ber some/dti differences/nns in/in the/at ratings/nns ,/, but/cc there/ex is/bez substantial/jj agreement/nn ./.
Since/cs a/at Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl rating/nn can/md be/be made/vbn at/in any/dti age/nn during/in growth/nn ,/, from/in Elbow/nn-tl ,/, Shoulder/nn ,/, Knee/nn-tl ,/, or/cc Foot/nn-tl as/ql well/rb as/cs Hand/nn-tl ,/, it/pps seems/vbz to/to be/be the/at method/nn of/in choice/nn when/wrb one/pn wishes/vbz to/to study/vb most/ap aspects/nns of/in skeletal/jj developmental/jj progress/nn during/in childhood/nn ./.
As/cs stated/vbn earlier/rbr in/in the/at paper/nn ,/, Onsets/nns-tl and/cc Completions/nns-tl --/-- particularly/rb the/at former/ap --/-- provide/vb a/at different/jj tool/nn or/cc indicator/nn of/in expectancy/nn in/in osseous/jj development/nn ,/, each/dt within/in a/at limited/vbn age/nn period/nn ./.
Such/abl an/at indicator/nn ,/, or/cc indicators/nns ,/, are/ber needed/vbn as/cs means/nns of/in recognizing/vbg specific/jj periods/nns of/in delay/nn in/in skeletal/jj developmental/jj progress/nn ./.


	It/pps was/bedz stated/vbn earlier/rbr that/cs one/cd purpose/nn of/in this/dt study/nn was/bedz to/to extend/vb the/at analysis/nn of/in variability/nn of/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl in/in each/dt of/in the/at 21/cd growth/nn centers/nns somewhat/ql beyond/in that/dt provided/vbn by/in the/at data/nns in/in Tables/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl ./.
As/cs one/cd approach/nn to/in doing/vbg this/dt ,/, Figures/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl have/hv be/be constructed/vbn from/in the/at mean/jj ages/nns and/cc the/at individual/jj onset/nn and/cc completion/nn ages/nns for/in boy/nn 34/cd and/cc girl/nn 2/cd ./.
The/at differences/nns between/in onset/nn age/nn and/cc completion/nn age/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at corresponding/jj mean/jj age/nn have/hv been/ben brought/vbn into/in juxtaposition/nn by/in means/nn of/in a/at series/nn of/in arrows/nns ./.
The/at data/nns for/in boy/nn 34/cd appear/vb in/in Figure/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, and/cc for/in girl/nn 2/cd in/in Figure/nn-tl 4/cd-tl ./.
The/at numbering/vbg system/nn used/vbn in/in Tables/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl and/cc Figures/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl was/bedz continued/vbn for/in the/at 21/cd growth/nn centers/nns ./.


	The/at ``/`` dot/nn ''/'' on/in one/cd end/nn of/in each/dt arrow/nn indicates/vbz extent/nn of/in difference/nn in/in months/nns between/in the/at child's/nn$ onset/nn age/nn and/cc the/at corresponding/jj mean/jj age/nn for/in the/at growth/nn center/nn ./.
The/at ``/`` tip/nn ''/'' of/in the/at arrow/nn represents/vbz extent/nn of/in difference/nn between/in the/at child's/nn$ completion/nn age/nn and/cc the/at corresponding/jj mean/jj age/nn for/in the/at growth/nn center/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at alignment/nn of/in the/at ``/`` dots/nns ''/'' and/cc ``/`` tips/nns ''/'' ,/, respectively/rb ,/, indicate/vb individual/jj variability/nn of/in the/at 21/cd growth/nn centers/nns of/in each/dt child/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at mean/jj values/nns for/in these/dts boys/nns and/cc girls/nns ./.
The/at direction/nn in/in which/wdt the/at arrow/nn points/vbz shows/vbz how/wrb the/at maturity/nn level/nn of/in the/at growth/nn center/nn was/bedz changed/vbn at/in Completion/nn-tl from/in the/at level/nn at/in Onset/nn-tl ./.
When/wrb the/at ``/`` dot/nn ''/'' and/cc ``/`` tip/nn ''/'' coincide/vb ,/, the/at classification/nn used/vbn in/in this/dt paper/nn is/bez ``/`` Same/ap-tl schedule/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at length/nn of/in the/at arrow/nn indicates/vbz amount/nn of/in slowing/vbg or/cc acceleration/nn at/in Completion/nn-tl over/in that/dt at/in Onset/nn-tl ,/, and/cc the/at difference/nn in/in months/nns can/md be/be read/vbn roughly/rb by/in referring/vbg the/at arrow/nn to/in the/at age/nn scale/nn along/in the/at base/nn of/in each/dt figure/nn ,/, or/cc more/ql precisely/rb by/in referring/vbg to/in the/at original/jj data/nn in/in the/at appropriate/jj tables/nns ./.


	The/at difference/nn between/in the/at sequence/nn of/in Onset/nn-tl of/in ossification/nn for/in the/at sexes/nns governs/vbz the/at numbering/vbg sequence/nn in/in Figures/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl ./.
This/dt difference/nn is/bez readily/rb clarified/vbn by/in referring/vbg to/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, arrow/nn 17/cd in/in Figure/nn-tl 3/cd-tl portrays/vbz the/at proximal/jj radial/jj epiphysis/nn for/in boy/nn 34/cd ,/, whereas/cs the/at same/ap epiphysis/nn for/in girl/nn 2/cd is/bez portrayed/vbn by/in arrow/nn 18/cd in/in Figure/nn-tl 4/cd-tl ./.
For/in the/at boy/nn ,/, this/dt epiphysis/nn was/bedz markedly/rb delayed/vbn at/in Onset/nn-tl but/cc near/in the/at mean/nn at/in Completion/nn-tl ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at Span/nn of/in its/pp$ ossification/nn was/bedz shortened/vbn and/cc the/at center's/nn$ ability/nn to/to ``/`` catch/vb up/rp ''/'' in/in ossification/nn is/bez demonstrated/vbn ./.
In/in contrast/nn ,/, for/in the/at girl/nn the/at epiphysis/nn was/bedz slightly/rb advanced/vbn at/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc delayed/vbn at/in Completion/nn-tl ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, the/at slowing/nn for/in her/ppo may/md have/hv occurred/vbn at/in any/dti point/nn between/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ./.
The/at Skeletal/jj-tl Age/nn-tl curve/nn in/in the/at lower/jjr portion/nn of/in Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl shows/vbz that/cs slowing/vbg may/md have/hv occurred/vbn for/in her/ppo during/in the/at prepubescent/jj period/nn ./.
Length/nn of/in the/at shaft/nn of/in these/dts arrows/nns may/md be/be evaluated/vbn according/in to/in the/at standard/jj deviation/nn values/nns for/in each/dt center/nn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.


	We/ppss have/hv attempted/vbn to/to simplify/vb the/at extensive/jj task/nn of/in analyzing/vbg onset/nn ages/nns and/cc completion/nn ages/nns of/in each/dt child/nn --/-- more/ap than/in 1700/cd values/nns for/in the/at entire/jj group/nn --/-- by/in constructing/vbg figures/nns for/in each/dt of/in the/at 21/cd centers/nns so/cs that/cs the/at data/nns for/in all/abn 34/cd boys/nns and/cc 34/cd of/in the/at girls/nns will/md appear/vb together/rb for/in each/dt growth/nn center/nn ./.
Figures/nns-tl 5/cd-tl and/cc 6/cd-tl are/ber examples/nns of/in our/pp$ method/nn of/in analyzing/vbg the/at results/nns for/in each/dt growth/nn center/nn ./.
Forty/cd other/ap figures/nns similar/jj to/in 5/cd and/cc 6/cd and/cc the/at original/jj data/nns used/vbn in/in the/at construction/nn of/in all/abn figures/nns and/cc tables/nns in/in this/dt monograph/nn have/hv been/ben included/vbn in/in the/at Appendix/nn-tl ./.


	The/at principles/nns used/vbn in/in making/vbg each/dt arrow/nn for/in Figures/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl were/bed applied/vbn to/in the/at construction/nn of/in Figures/nns-tl 5/cd-tl and/cc 6/cd-tl as/ql well/rb as/cs all/abn figures/nns in/in the/at Appendix/nn-tl ./.
One/cd growth/nn center/nn in/in a/at short/jj bone/nn --/-- distal/jj phalanx/nn of/in the/at second/od finger/nn --/-- was/bedz chosen/vbn as/cs an/at example/nn for/in discussion/nn here/rb ,/, primarily/rb because/cs epiphyseal-diaphyseal/jj fusion/nn ,/, the/at maturity/nn indicator/nn for/in Completion/nn-tl in/in long/jj and/cc short/jj bones/nns ,/, occurs/vbz in/in this/dt center/nn for/in girls/nns near/vb the/at menarche/nn and/cc for/in boys/nns near/vb their/pp$ comparable/jj pubescent/jj stage/nn ./.
Its/pp$ Completion/nn-tl thus/rb becomes/vbz one/cd of/in the/at convenient/jj maturity/nn indicators/nns to/to include/vb in/in studies/nns of/in growth/nn ,/, dietary/jj patterns/nns ,/, and/cc health/nn during/in adolescence/nn ./.


	The/at following/vbg summary/nn ,/, based/vbn on/in Figures/nns-tl 5/cd-tl and/cc 6/cd-tl ,/, is/bez an/at example/nn of/in one/cd way/nn of/in interpreting/vbg the/at 42/cd figures/nns constructed/vbn from/in onset/nn ages/nns and/cc completion/nn ages/nns of/in individual/jj children/nns with/in respect/nn to/in the/at appropriate/jj mean/jj age/nn for/in each/dt growth/nn center/nn ./.
At/in the/at top/nn of/in Figure/nn-tl 5/cd-tl ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, the/at Onset/nn-tl range/nn and/cc Completion/nn-tl range/nn lines/nns for/in the/at chosen/vbn growth/nn center/nn have/hv been/ben drawn/vbn for/in girls/nns according/in to/in their/pp$ mean/nn and/cc standard/jj deviation/nn values/nns in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
The/at 34/cd arrows/nns ,/, denoting/vbg onset/nn age/nn plus/in completion/nn age/nn deviations/nns ,/, have/hv been/ben arrayed/vbn in/in an/at Onset/nn-tl sequence/nn which/wdt begins/vbz with/in girl/nn 18/cd who/wps had/hvd the/at earliest/jjt Onset/nn-tl of/in the/at 34/cd girls/nns ./.
The/at growth/nn center/nn depicted/vbn here/rb ,/, in/in the/at distal/jj phalanx/nn of/in the/at second/od finger/nn ,/, is/bez listed/vbn as/cs the/at fifth/od of/in those/dts in/in the/at seven/cd short/jj bones/nns ./.
The/at mean/jj onset/nn age/nn was/bedz 25.3/cd months/nns (/( Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ,/, and/cc the/at average/jj Span/nn of/in the/at osseous/jj stage/nn was/bedz 133/cd months/nns ./.
The/at correlation/nn (/( Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) between/in onset/nn age/nn and/cc completion/nn age/nn was/bedz -.50/cd ,/, and/cc that/dt between/in onset/nn age/nn and/cc Span/nn was/bedz -.10/cd ./.
With/in due/jj consideration/nn for/in the/at limits/nns of/in precision/nn in/in assessing/vbg ,/, expected/vbn rate/nn of/in change/nn in/in ossification/nn of/in girls/nns age/vb 2/cd years/nns ,/, and/cc the/at known/vbn variations/nns in/in rate/nn of/in ossification/nn of/in these/dts children/nns as/cs described/vbn in/in our/pp$ preceding/vbg paper/nn in/in the/at Supplement/nn-tl ,/, each/dt arrow/nn with/in a/at ``/`` shaft/nn length/nn ''/'' of/in four/cd months/nns or/cc less/ap was/bedz selected/vbn as/cs indicating/vbg ``/`` same/ap schedule/nn ''/'' at/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ,/, for/in this/dt particular/nn epiphysis/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, girls/nns 31/cd ,/, 29/cd ,/, 33/cd ,/, 21/cd ,/, 26/cd ,/, 13/cd ,/, 3/cd ,/, 4/cd ,/, 14/cd ,/, 32/cd ,/, 24/cd ,/, 25/cd ,/, 34/cd ,/, 23/cd ,/, 6/cd ,/, 15/cd ,/, 22/cd ,/, and/cc 16/cd may/md be/be said/vbn to/to have/hv the/at ``/`` same/ap schedule/nn ''/'' at/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ./.


	It/pps seems/vbz clear/jj ,/, from/in the/at counter-balanced/jj shape/nn of/in the/at series/nn of/in arrows/nns in/in Figure/nn-tl 5/cd-tl that/cs there/ex was/bedz about/rb an/at equal/jj number/nn of/in early/jj and/cc late/jj Onsets/nns-tl and/cc Completions/nns-tl for/in the/at 34/cd girls/nns ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, if/cs epiphyseal-diaphyseal/jj fusion/nn occurs/vbz in/in this/dt phalanx/nn near/in menarche/nn ,/, early/jj and/cc late/jj menarches/nns might/md have/hv been/ben forecast/vbn rather/ql precisely/rb at/in the/at time/nn of/in Onset/nn-tl of/in ossification/nn for/in the/at 18/cd girls/nns with/in ``/`` same/ap schedule/nn ''/'' ./.
As/cs an/at example/nn of/in the/at interpretation/nn of/in an/at arrow/nn in/in the/at figure/nn which/wdt exceeds/vbz four/cd months/nns in/in shaft/nn length/nn in/in conjunction/nn with/in its/pp$ position/nn in/in the/at figure/nn :/: girl/nn 2/cd had/hvd a/at delayed/vbn Onset/nn-tl and/cc further/rbr delayed/vbn Completion/nn-tl ./.
It/pps is/bez of/in interest/nn that/cs her/pp$ menarche/nn was/bedz somewhat/ql later/rbr than/cs the/at average/nn for/in the/at girls/nns in/in this/dt group/nn ./.


	A/at similar/jj analysis/nn of/in Figure/nn-tl 6/cd-tl for/in the/at 34/cd boys/nns would/md necessitate/vb quite/abl a/at different/jj conclusion/nn about/in the/at predictive/jj value/nn of/in onset/nn age/nn in/in forecasting/vbg their/pp$ attainment/nn of/in the/at pubescent/jj stage/nn ./.
Boys/nns 32/cd ,/, 23/cd ,/, 31/cd ,/, 17/cd ,/, 30/cd ,/, 19/cd ,/, and/cc 24/cd had/hvd ``/`` same/ap schedule/nn ''/'' at/in Onset/nn-tl and/cc Completion/nn-tl ;/. ;/.
thus/rb early/jj forecasting/nn of/in the/at pubescent/jj stage/nn would/md appear/vb possible/jj for/in only/rb seven/cd boys/nns ./.
Boy/nn 34/cd ,/, like/jj girl/nn 2/cd ,/, did/dod not/* have/hv ``/`` same/ap schedule/nn ''/'' ;/. ;/.
his/pp$ arrow/nn crosses/vbz the/at line/nn denoting/vbg the/at mean/nn ./.
The/at ``/`` dot/nn ''/'' on/in his/pp$ arrow/nn indicates/vbz early/jj Onset/nn-tl and/cc the/at ``/`` tip/nn ''/'' indicates/vbz relatively/ql later/rbr Completion/nn-tl ./.


	After/cs the/at 42/cd figures/nns had/hvd been/ben drawn/vbn like/cs Figures/nns-tl 5/cd-tl and/cc 6/cd-tl ,/, classifications/nns of/in the/at onset/nn ages/nns and/cc completion/nn ages/nns were/bed summarized/vbn from/in them/ppo ./.

Interestingly/rb enough/qlp ,/, the/at effect/nn of/in the/at digitalis/nn glycosides/nns is/bez inhibited/vbn by/in a/at high/jj concentration/nn of/in potassium/nn in/in the/at incubation/nn medium/nn and/cc is/bez enhanced/vbn by/in the/at absence/nn of/in potassium/nn (/( Wolff/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
B/np-hl ./.-hl
Organification/nn-hl of/in-hl iodine/nn-hl 
The/at precise/jj mechanism/nn for/in organification/nn of/in iodine/nn in/in the/at thyroid/nn is/bez not/* as/ql yet/rb completely/rb understood/vbn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at formation/nn of/in organically/rb bound/vbn iodine/nn ,/, mainly/rb mono-iodotyrosine/nn ,/, can/md be/be accomplished/vbn in/in cell-free/jj systems/nns ./.
In/in the/at absence/nn of/in additions/nns to/in the/at homogenate/nn ,/, the/at product/nn formed/vbn is/bez an/at iodinated/vbn particulate/jj protein/nn (/( Fawcett/np and/cc Kirkwood/np ,/, 1953/cd ;/. ;/.
Taurog/np ,/, Potter/np and/cc Chaikoff/np ,/, 1955/cd ;/. ;/.
Taurog/np ,/, Potter/np ,/, Tong/np ,/, and/cc Chaikoff/np ,/, 1956/cd ;/. ;/.
Serif/np and/cc Kirkwood/np ,/, 1958/cd ;/. ;/.
De/np Groot/np and/cc Carvalho/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
This/dt iodoprotein/nn does/doz not/* appear/vb to/to be/be the/at same/ap as/cs what/wdt is/bez normally/rb present/rb in/in the/at thyroid/nn ,/, and/cc there/ex is/bez no/at evidence/nn so/ql far/rb that/cs thyroglobulin/nn can/md be/be iodinated/vbn in/in vitro/nn by/in cell-free/jj systems/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at iodoamino/nn acid/nn formed/vbn in/in largest/jjt quantity/nn in/in the/at intact/jj thyroid/nn is/bez di-iodotyrosine/nn ./.
If/cs tyrosine/nn and/cc a/at system/nn generating/vbg hydrogen/nn peroxide/nn are/ber added/vbn to/in a/at cell-free/jj homogenate/nn of/in the/at thyroid/nn ,/, large/jj quantities/nns of/in free/jj mono-iodotyrosine/nn can/md be/be formed/vbn (/( Alexander/np ,/, 1959/cd )/) ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* clear/jj whether/cs this/dt system/nn bears/vbz any/dti resemblance/nn to/in the/at in/in vivo/nn iodinating/vbg mechanism/nn ,/, and/cc a/at system/nn generating/vbg peroxide/nn has/hvz not/* been/ben identified/vbn in/in thyroid/nn tissue/nn ./.
On/in chemical/jj grounds/nns it/pps seems/vbz most/ql likely/jj that/cs iodide/nn is/bez first/rb converted/vbn to/in Af/nn and/cc then/rb to/in Af/nn as/cs the/at active/jj iodinating/vbg species/nn ./.
In/in the/at thyroid/nn gland/nn it/pps appears/vbz that/cs proteins/nns (/( chiefly/rb thyroglobulin/nn )/) are/ber iodinated/vbn and/cc that/cs free/jj tyrosine/nn and/cc thyronine/nn are/ber not/* iodinated/vbn ./.
Iodination/nn of/in tyrosine/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez not/* enough/ap for/in the/at synthesis/nn of/in hormone/nn ./.
The/at mono-/jj and/cc di-iodotyrosine/nn must/md be/be coupled/vbn to/to form/vb tri-iodothyronine/nn and/cc thyroxine/nn ./.
The/at mechanism/nn of/in this/dt coupling/nn has/hvz been/ben studied/vbn in/in some/dti detail/nn with/in non-enzymatic/jj systems/nns in/in vitro/nn and/cc can/md be/be simulated/vbn by/in certain/jj di-iodotyrosine/nn analogues/nns (/( Pitt-Rivers/np and/cc James/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.
There/ex is/bez so/ql far/rb no/at evidence/nn to/to indicate/vb conclusively/rb that/cs this/dt coupling/nn is/bez under/in enzymatic/jj control/nn ./.


	The/at chemical/jj nature/nn of/in the/at iodocompounds/nns is/bez discussed/vbn below/rb (/( pp./nns 76/cd et/fw-cc seq./fw-vbg )/) ./.
C/np-hl ./.-hl
Thyroglobulin/nn-hl synthesis/nn-hl 
Little/ap is/bez known/vbn of/in the/at synthetic/jj mechanisms/nns for/in formation/nn of/in thyroglobulin/nn ./.
Its/pp$ synthesis/nn has/hvz not/* been/ben demonstrated/vbn in/in cell-free/jj systems/nns ,/, nor/cc has/hvz its/pp$ synthesis/nn by/in systems/nns with/in intact/jj thyroid/nn cells/nns in/in vitro/nn been/ben unequivocally/rb proven/vbn ./.
There/ex is/bez some/dti reason/nn to/to think/vb that/cs thyroglobulin/nn synthesis/nn may/md proceed/vb independently/rb of/in iodination/nn ,/, for/cs in/in certain/ap transplantable/jj tumours/nns of/in the/at rat/nn thyroid/nn containing/vbg essentially/rb no/at iodinated/vbn thyroglobulin/nn ,/, a/at protein/nn that/wps appears/vbz to/to be/be thyroglobulin/nn has/hvz been/ben observed/vbn in/in ultracentrifuge/nn experiments/nns (/( Wolff/np ,/, Robbins/np and/cc Rall/np ,/, 1959/cd )/) ./.
Similar/jj findings/nns have/hv been/ben noted/vbn in/in a/at patient/nn with/in congenital/jj absence/nn of/in the/at organification/nn enzymes/nns ,/, whose/wp$ thyroid/nn tissue/nn could/md only/rb concentrate/vb iodide/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, depending/in on/in availability/nn of/in dietary/jj iodine/nn ,/, thyroglobulin/nn may/md contain/vb varying/vbg quantities/nns of/in iodine/nn ./.
D/np-hl ./.-hl
Secretion/nn-hl 
Since/cs the/at circulating/vbg thyroid/nn hormones/nns are/ber the/at amino/nn acids/nns thyroxine/nn and/cc tri-iodothyronine/nn (/( cf./vb Section/nn-tl C/np-tl )/) ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs some/dti mechanism/nn must/md exist/vb in/in the/at thyroid/nn gland/nn for/in their/pp$ release/nn from/in proteins/nns before/in secretion/nn ./.
The/at presence/nn of/in several/ap proteases/nns and/cc peptidases/nns has/hvz been/ben demonstrated/vbn in/in the/at thyroid/nn ./.
One/cd of/in the/at proteases/nns has/hvz pH/nn optimum/nn of/in about/rb 3.7/cd and/cc another/dt of/in about/rb 5.7/cd (/( McQuillan/np ,/, Stanley/np and/cc Trikojus/np ,/, 1954/cd ;/. ;/.
Alpers/np ,/, Robbins/np and/cc Rall/np ,/, 1955/cd )/) ./.
The/at finding/nn that/cs the/at concentration/nn of/in one/cd of/in these/dts proteases/nns is/bez increased/vbn in/in thyroid/nn glands/nns from/in TSH-treated/nn animals/nns suggests/vbz that/cs this/dt protease/nn may/md be/be active/jj in/in vivo/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez no/at conclusive/jj evidence/nn yet/rb that/cs either/dtx of/in the/at proteases/nns has/hvz been/ben prepared/vbn in/in highly/ql purified/vbn form/nn nor/cc is/bez their/pp$ specificity/nn known/vbn ./.
A/at study/nn of/in their/pp$ activity/nn on/in thyroglobulin/nn has/hvz shown/vbn that/dt thyroxine/nn is/bez not/* preferentially/rb released/vbn and/cc that/cs the/at degradation/nn proceeds/vbz stepwise/rb with/in the/at formation/nn of/in macromolecular/jj intermediates/nns (/( Alpers/np ,/, Petermann/np and/cc Rall/np ,/, 1956/cd )/) ./.
Besides/in proteolytic/jj enzymes/nns the/at thyroid/nn possesses/vbz de-iodinating/vbg enzymes/nns ./.
A/at microsomal/jj de-iodinase/nn with/in a/at pH/nn optimum/nn of/in around/rb 8/cd ,/, and/cc requiring/vbg reduced/vbn triphosphopyridine/nn nucleotide/nn for/in activity/nn ,/, has/hvz been/ben identified/vbn in/in the/at thyroid/nn (/( Stanbury/np ,/, 1957/cd )/) ./.
This/dt de-iodinating/vbg enzyme/nn is/bez effective/jj against/in mono-/jj and/cc di-iodotyrosine/nn ,/, but/cc does/doz not/* de-iodinate/vb thyroxine/nn or/cc tri-iodothyronine/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez assumed/vbn that/cs the/at iodine/nn released/vbn from/in the/at iodotyrosines/nns remains/vbz in/in the/at iodide/nn pool/nn of/in the/at thyroid/nn ,/, where/wrb it/pps is/bez oxidised/vbn and/cc re-incorporated/vbn into/in thyroglobulin/nn ./.
The/at thyroxine/nn and/cc tri-iodothyronine/nn released/vbn by/in proteolysis/nn and/cc so/rb escaping/vbg de-iodination/nn presumably/rb diffuse/vb into/in the/at blood/nn stream/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben shown/vbn that/cs thyroglobulin/nn binds/vbz thyroxine/nn ,/, but/cc the/at binding/nn does/doz not/* appear/vb to/to be/be particularly/ql strong/jj ./.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben suggested/vbn that/cs the/at plasma/nn thyroxine-binding/jj proteins/nns ,/, which/wdt have/hv an/at extremely/ql high/jj affinity/nn for/in thyroxine/nn ,/, compete/vb with/in thyroglobulin/nn for/in thyroxine/nn (/( Ingbar/np and/cc Freinkel/np ,/, 1957/cd )/) ./.
E/np-hl ./.-hl
Antithyroid/jj-hl drugs/nns-hl 
Antithyroid/jj drugs/nns are/ber of/in two/cd general/jj types/nns ./.
One/cd type/nn has/hvz a/at small/jj univalent/jj anion/nn of/in the/at thiocyanate-perchlorate-fluoro/nn type/nn ./.
This/dt ion/nn inhibits/vbz thyroid/nn hormone/nn synthesis/nn by/in interfering/vbg with/in iodide/nn concentration/nn in/in the/at thyroid/nn ./.
It/pps does/doz not/* appear/vb to/to affect/vb the/at iodinating/vbg mechanism/nn as/cs such/jj ./.
The/at other/ap group/nn of/in antithyroid/jj agents/nns or/cc drugs/nns is/bez typified/vbn by/in thiouracil/nn ./.
These/dts drugs/nns have/hv no/at effect/nn on/in the/at iodide/nn concentrating/vbg mechanism/nn ,/, but/cc they/ppss inhibit/vb organification/nn ./.
The/at mechanism/nn of/in action/nn of/in these/dts drugs/nns has/hvz not/* been/ben completely/rb worked/vbn out/rp ,/, but/cc certain/ap of/in them/ppo appear/vb to/to act/vb by/in reducing/vbg the/at oxidised/vbn form/nn of/in iodine/nn before/cs it/pps can/md iodinate/vb thyroglobulin/nn (/( Astwood/np ,/, 1954/cd )/) ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, there/ex are/ber a/at few/ap antithyroid/jj drugs/nns of/in this/dt same/ap general/jj type/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs resorcinol/nn ,/, possessing/vbg no/at reducing/vbg activity/nn and/cc possibly/rb acting/vbg through/in formation/nn of/in a/at complex/nn with/in molecular/jj iodine/nn ./.
Any/dti of/in the/at antithyroid/jj drugs/nns ,/, of/in either/dtx type/nn ,/, if/cs given/vbn in/in large/jj enough/qlp doses/nns for/in a/at long/jj period/nn of/in time/nn will/md cause/vb goitre/nn ,/, owing/vbg to/in inhibition/nn of/in thyroid/nn hormone/nn synthesis/nn ,/, with/in production/nn of/in hypothyroidism/nn ./.
The/at anterior/jj lobe/nn of/in the/at pituitary/nn then/rb responds/vbz by/in an/at increased/vbn output/nn of/in TSH/nn ,/, causing/vbg the/at thyroid/nn to/to enlarge/vb ./.
The/at effect/nn of/in drugs/nns that/wps act/vb on/in the/at iodide-concentrating/jj mechanism/nn can/md be/be counteracted/vbn by/in addition/nn of/in relatively/ql large/jj amounts/nns of/in iodine/nn to/in the/at diet/nn ./.
The/at antithyroid/jj drugs/nns of/in the/at thiouracil/nn type/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, are/ber not/* antagonised/vbn by/in such/jj means/nns ./.
Besides/in those/dts of/in the/at thiouracil/nn and/cc resorcinol/nn types/nns ,/, certain/ap antithyroid/jj drugs/nns have/hv been/ben found/vbn in/in naturally/rb occurring/vbg foods/nns ./.
The/at most/ql conclusively/rb identified/vbn is/bez L-5-vinyl-2-thio-oxazolidone/np ,/, which/wdt was/bedz isolated/vbn from/in rutabaga/nn (/( Greer/np ,/, 1950/cd )/) ./.
It/pps is/bez presumed/vbn to/to occur/vb in/in other/ap members/nns of/in the/at Brassica/np family/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez some/dti evidence/nn that/cs naturally/rb occurring/vbg goitrogens/nns may/md play/vb a/at role/nn in/in the/at development/nn of/in goitre/nn ,/, particularly/rb in/in Tasmania/np and/cc Australia/np (/( Clements/np and/cc Wishart/np ,/, 1956/cd )/) ./.
There/rb it/pps seems/vbz that/cs the/at goitrogen/nn ingested/vbn by/in dairy/nn animals/nns is/bez itself/ppl inactive/jj but/cc is/bez converted/vbn in/in the/at animal/nn to/in an/at active/jj goitrogen/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez then/rb secreted/vbn in/in the/at milk/nn ./.
F/np-hl ./.-hl
Dietary/jj-hl influences/nns-hl 
Besides/in the/at presence/nn of/in goitrogens/nns in/in the/at diet/nn ,/, the/at level/nn of/in iodine/nn itself/ppl in/in the/at diet/nn plays/vbz a/at major/jj role/nn in/in governing/vbg the/at activity/nn of/in the/at thyroid/nn gland/nn ./.
In/in the/at experimental/jj animal/nn and/cc in/in man/nn gross/jj deficiency/nn in/in dietary/jj iodine/nn causes/vbz thyroid/nn hyperplasia/nn ,/, hypertrophy/nn and/cc increased/vbn thyroid/nn activity/nn (/( Money/nn ,/, Rall/np and/cc Rawson/np ,/, 1952/cd ;/. ;/.
Stanbury/np ,/, Brownell/np ,/, Riggs/np ,/, Perinetti/np ,/, Itoiz/np ,/, and/cc Del/np Castillo/np ,/, 1954/cd )/) ./.
In/in man/nn the/at normal/jj level/nn of/in iodine/nn in/in the/at diet/nn and/cc the/at level/nn necessary/jj to/to prevent/vb development/nn of/in goitre/nn is/bez about/rb 100/cd **ymg/nn per/in day/nn ./.
With/in lower/jjr levels/nns ,/, thyroid/nn hypertrophy/nn and/cc increased/vbn thyroid/nn blood-flow/nn enable/vb the/at thyroid/nn to/to accumulate/vb a/at larger/jjr proportion/nn of/in the/at daily/jj intake/nn of/in iodine/nn ./.
Further/rbr ,/, the/at gland/nn is/bez able/jj to/to re-use/vb a/at larger/jjr fraction/nn of/in the/at thyroid/nn hormone/nn de-iodinated/vbn peripherally/rb ./.
In/in the/at presence/nn of/in a/at low/jj iodine/nn intake/nn ,/, thyroglobulin/nn labelled/vbn in/in vivo/nn with/in Af/nn is/bez found/vbn to/to contain/vb more/ap mono-iodotyrosine/nn than/cs normal/jj ,/, the/at amounts/nns of/in di-iodotyrosine/nn and/cc iodothyronines/nns being/beg correspondingly/rb reduced/vbn ./.
This/dt appears/vbz to/to result/vb from/in both/abx a/at reduced/vbn amount/nn of/in the/at iodine/nn substrate/nn and/cc a/at more/ql rapid/jj secretion/nn of/in newly/rb iodinated/vbn thyroglobulin/nn ./.
If/cs the/at deficiency/nn persists/vbz long/rb enough/qlp ,/, it/pps is/bez reasonable/jj to/to suppose/vb that/cs the/at Af/nn label/nn will/md reflect/vb the/at Af/nn distribution/nn in/in the/at thyroglobulin/nn ./.
Similar/jj results/nns might/md be/be expected/vbn from/in the/at influence/nn of/in drugs/nns or/cc pathological/jj conditions/nns that/wps limit/vb iodide/nn trapping/vbg ,/, or/cc organification/nn ,/, or/cc accelerate/vb thyroglobulin/nn proteolysis/nn ./.



B/np-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl thyroid-stimulating/jj-hl hormone/nn-hl 
The/at name/nn thyroid-stimulating/jj hormone/nn (/( TSH/np )/) has/hvz been/ben given/vbn to/in a/at substance/nn found/vbn in/in the/at anterior/jj pituitary/jj gland/nn of/in all/abn species/nns of/in animal/nn so/rb tested/vbn for/in its/pp$ presence/nn ./.
The/at hormone/nn has/hvz also/rb been/ben called/vbn thyrotrophin/np or/cc thyrotrophic/jj hormone/nn ./.
At/in the/at present/jj time/nn we/ppss do/do not/* know/vb by/in what/wdt biochemical/jj mechanism/nn TSH/nn acts/vbz on/in the/at thyroid/nn ,/, but/cc for/in bio-assay/nn of/in the/at hormone/nn there/ex are/ber a/at number/nn of/in properties/nns by/in which/wdt its/pp$ activity/nn may/md be/be estimated/vbn ,/, including/in release/nn of/in iodine/nn from/in the/at thyroid/nn ,/, increase/nn in/in thyroid/nn weight/nn ,/, increase/nn in/in mean/jj height/nn of/in the/at follicular/jj cells/nns and/cc increase/nn in/in the/at thyroidal/jj uptake/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Here/rb we/ppss shall/md restrict/vb discussion/nn to/in those/dts methods/nns that/wps appear/vb sufficiently/ql sensitive/jj and/cc precise/jj for/in determining/vbg the/at concentration/nn of/in TSH/nn in/in blood/nn ./.
Brown/np (/( 1959/cd )/) has/hvz reviewed/vbn generally/rb the/at various/jj methods/nns of/in assaying/vbg TSH/nn ,/, and/cc the/at reader/nn is/bez referred/vbn to/in her/pp$ paper/nn for/in further/ap information/nn on/in the/at subject/nn ./.



1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Chemical/nn-hl constitution/nn-hl and/cc-hl physical/jj-hl properties/nns-hl of/in-hl pituitary/jj-hl tsh/nn-hl 
As/ql long/rb ago/rb as/cs 1851/cd it/pps was/bedz pointed/vbn out/rp by/in Niepce/np (/( 1851/cd )/) that/cs there/ex is/bez a/at connection/nn between/in the/at pituitary/nn and/cc the/at thyroid/nn ./.
This/dt connection/nn was/bedz clarified/vbn by/in Smith/np and/cc Smith/np (/( 1922/cd )/) ,/, who/wps showed/vbd that/cs saline/nn extracts/nns of/in fresh/jj bovine/jj pituitary/jj glands/nns could/md re-activate/vb the/at atrophied/vbn thyroids/nns of/in hypophysectomised/vbn tadpoles/nns ./.
The/at first/od attempts/nns to/to isolate/vb TSH/nn came/vbd a/at decade/nn later/rbr ,/, when/wrb Janssen/np and/cc Loeser/np (/( 1931/cd )/) used/vbn trichloroacetic/jj acid/nn to/to separate/vb the/at soluble/jj TSH/nn from/in insoluble/jj impurities/nns ./.
After/cs their/pp$ work/nn other/ap investigators/nns applied/vbd salt-fractionation/nn techniques/nns to/in the/at problem/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs fractionation/nn with/in organic/jj solvents/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs acetone/nn ./.
Albert/np (/( 1949/cd )/) has/hvz concluded/vbn that/cs the/at most/ql active/jj preparations/nns of/in TSH/nn made/vbn during/in this/dt period/nn ,/, from/in 1931/cd to/in 1945/cd ,/, were/bed probably/rb about/rb 100/cd to/in 300/cd times/nns as/ql potent/jj as/cs the/at starting/vbg material/nn ./.
Much/ap of/in this/dt work/nn has/hvz been/ben reviewed/vbn by/in White/np (/( 1944/cd )/) and/cc by/in Albert/np (/( 1949/cd )/) ./.
Developments/nns up/rp to/in about/rb 1957/cd have/hv been/ben discussed/vbn by/in Sonenberg/np (/( 1958/cd )/) ./.


	In/in the/at last/ap few/ap years/nns ,/, the/at application/nn of/in chromatographic/jj and/cc other/ap modern/jj techniques/nns to/in the/at problem/nn of/in isolating/vbg TSH/nn has/hvz led/vbn to/in further/ap purification/nn (/( Bates/np and/cc Condliffe/np ,/, 1960/cd ;/. ;/.
Pierce/np ,/, Carsten/np and/cc Wynston/np ,/, 1960/cd )/) ./.
The/at most/ql active/jj preparations/nns obtained/vbn by/in these/dts two/cd groups/nns of/in investigators/nns appear/vb to/to be/be similar/jj in/in potency/nn ,/, composition/nn and/cc physical/jj properties/nns ./.


	Two/cd problems/nns present/vb themselves/ppls in/in considering/vbg any/dti hormone/nn in/in blood/nn ./.
First/rb ,/, is/bez the/at circulating/vbg form/nn of/in the/at hormone/nn the/at same/ap as/cs that/dt found/vbn in/in the/at gland/nn where/wrb it/pps is/bez synthesised/vbn and/cc stored/vbn ?/. ?/.
Second/rb ,/, what/wdt is/bez its/pp$ concentration/nn in/in normal/jj circumstances/nns and/cc in/in what/wdt circumstances/nns will/md this/dt concentration/nn depart/vb from/in the/at normal/jj level/nn and/cc in/in which/wdt direction/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps is/bez therefore/rb necessary/jj to/to consider/vb the/at properties/nns of/in pituitary/jj TSH/nn if/cs the/at fragmentary/jj chemical/nn information/nn about/in blood/nn TSH/nn is/bez to/to be/be discussed/vbn rationally/rb ./.
The/at importance/nn of/in knowing/vbg in/in what/wdt chemical/nn forms/nns the/at hormone/nn may/md exist/vb is/bez accentuated/vbn by/in the/at recent/jj observation/nn that/cs there/ex exists/vbz an/at abnormally/ql long-acting/jj TSH/nn in/in blood/nn drawn/vbn from/in many/ap thyrotoxic/jj patients/nns (/( Adams/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.
Whether/cs this/dt abnormal/jj TSH/nn differs/vbz chemically/rb from/in pituitary/jj TSH/nn ,/, or/cc is/bez ,/, alternatively/rb ,/, normal/jj TSH/nn with/in its/pp$ period/nn of/in effectiveness/nn modified/vbn by/in some/dti other/ap blood/nn constituent/nn ,/, cannot/md* be/be decided/vbn without/in chemical/nn study/nn of/in the/at activity/nn in/in the/at blood/nn of/in these/dts patients/nns and/cc a/at comparison/nn of/in the/at substance/nn responsible/jj for/in the/at blood/nn activity/nn with/in pituitary/jj Aj/nn ./.


	In/in evaluating/vbg data/nn on/in the/at concentration/nn of/in TSH/nn in/in blood/nn ,/, one/pn must/md examine/vb critically/rb the/at bio-assay/nn methods/nns used/vbn to/to obtain/vb them/ppo ./.
The/at introduction/nn of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Pharmacopoeia/nn-tl reference/nn standard/nn in/in 1952/cd and/cc the/at redefinition/nn and/cc equating/nn of/in the/at USP/nn and/cc international/jj units/nns of/in thyroid-stimulating/jj activity/nn have/hv made/vbn it/ppo possible/jj to/to compare/vb results/nns published/vbn by/in different/jj investigators/nns since/in that/dt time/nn ./.
We/ppss should/md like/vb to/to re-emphasise/vb the/at importance/nn of/in stating/vbg results/nns solely/rb in/in terms/nns of/in international/jj units/nns of/in TSH/nn activity/nn and/cc of/in avoiding/vbg the/at re-introduction/nn of/in biological/jj units/nns ./.
For/in the/at most/ap part/nn ,/, this/dt discussion/nn will/md be/be confined/vbn to/in results/nns obtained/vbn since/in the/at introduction/nn of/in the/at reference/nn standard/nn ./.
A/np-hl ./.-hl
Standard/jj-hl preparations/nns-hl and/cc-hl units/nns-hl of/in-hl thyroid-stimulating/jj-hl activity/nn-hl 
The/at international/jj unit/nn (/( u./nn )/) ,/, adopted/vbn to/to make/vb possible/jj the/at comparison/nn of/in results/nns from/in different/jj laboratories/nns (/( Mussett/np and/cc Perry/np ,/, 1955/cd )/) ,/, has/hvz been/ben defined/vbn as/cs the/at amount/nn of/in activity/nn present/rb in/in 13.5/cd mg/nn of/in the/at International/jj-tl Standard/jj-tl Preparation/nn-tl ./.
The/at international/jj unit/nn is/bez equipotent/jj with/in the/at USP/nn unit/nn adopted/vbn in/in 1952/cd ,/, which/wdt was/bedz defined/vbn as/cs the/at amount/nn of/in activity/nn present/rb in/in 20/cd mg/nn of/in the/at USP/nn reference/nn substance/nn ./.




Introduction/nn-hl 
Muscle/nn weakness/nn is/bez now/rb recognized/vbn as/cs an/at uncommon/jj though/cc serious/jj complication/nn of/in steroid/nn therapy/nn ,/, with/in most/ap of/in the/at synthetic/jj adrenal/jj corticosteroids/nns in/in clinical/jj use/nn ./.
Although/cs biopsies/nns have/hv shown/vbn structural/jj changes/nns in/in some/dti of/in the/at reported/vbn cases/nns of/in steroid-induced/jj weakness/nn ,/, this/dt case/nn provides/vbz the/at only/ap example/nn known/vbn to/in us/ppo in/in which/wdt necropsy/nn afforded/vbd the/at opportunity/nn for/in extensive/jj study/nn of/in multiple/jj muscle/nn groups/nns ./.
The/at case/nn described/vbn in/in this/dt paper/nn is/bez that/dt of/in an/at older/jjr man/nn who/wps developed/vbd disabling/vbg muscular/jj weakness/nn while/cs receiving/vbg a/at variety/nn of/in steroids/nns for/in a/at refractory/jj anemia/nn ./.



Report/nn-hl of/in-hl case/nn-hl 
This/dt patient/nn was/bedz a/at 65-year-old/jj white/jj male/jj accountant/nn who/wps entered/vbd the/at New/jj-tl York/np-tl Hospital/nn-tl for/in his/pp$ fourth/od and/cc terminal/jj admission/nn on/in June/np 26/cd ,/, 1959/cd ,/, because/rb of/in disabling/vbg weakness/nn and/cc general/jj debility/nn ./.


	In/in 1953/cd the/at patient/nn developed/vbd an/at unexplained/jj anemia/nn for/in which/wdt 15/cd blood/nn transfusions/nns were/bed given/vbn over/in a/at period/nn of/in 4/cd years/nns ./.
Splenomegaly/nn was/bedz first/rb noted/vbn in/in 1956/cd ,/, and/cc a/at sternal/jj marrow/nn biopsy/nn at/in that/dt time/nn showed/vbd ``/`` scattered/vbn foci/nns of/in fibrosis/nn ''/'' suggestive/jj of/in myelofibrosis/nn ./.
No/at additional/jj transfusions/nns were/bed necessary/jj after/in the/at institution/nn of/in prednisone/nn in/in July/np ,/, 1957/cd ,/, in/in an/at initial/jj dose/nn of/in 40/cd mg./nns daily/rb with/in gradual/jj tapering/vbg to/in 10/cd mg./nns daily/rb ./.
This/dt medication/nn was/bedz continued/vbn until/in February/np ,/, 1958/cd ./.


	In/in February/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, the/at patient/nn suffered/vbd a/at myocardial/jj infarction/nn complicated/vbn by/in pulmonary/jj edema/nn ./.
Additional/jj findings/nns at/in this/dt time/nn included/vbd cardiomegaly/nn ,/, peripheral/jj arteriosclerosis/nn obliterans/fw-vbg-tl ,/, and/cc cholelithiasis/nn ./.
The/at hemoglobin/nn was/bedz 11.6/cd gm./nns ./.
Therapy/nn included/vbd digitalization/nn and/cc anticoagulation/nn ./.
Later/rbr ,/, chlorothiazide/nn and/cc salt/nn restriction/nn became/vbd necessary/jj to/to control/vb the/at edema/nn of/in chronic/jj congestive/jj failure/nn ./.


	Because/rb of/in increasing/vbg anemia/nn ,/, triamcinolone/nn ,/, 8/cd mg./nns daily/rb ,/, was/bedz started/vbn on/in Feb./np 23/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, and/cc was/bedz continued/vbn until/in July/np ,/, 1958/cd ./.
In/in September/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, the/at patient/nn developed/vbd generalized/vbn weakness/nn and/cc fatigue/nn which/wdt was/bedz concurrent/jj with/in exacerbation/nn of/in his/pp$ anemia/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at hemoglobin/nn was/bedz 10.6/cd gm./nns ./.
In/in an/at attempt/nn to/to reverse/vb the/at downhill/jj trend/nn by/in stimulating/vbg the/at bone/nn marrow/nn and/cc controlling/vbg any/dti hemolytic/jj component/nn ,/, triamcinolone/nn ,/, 16/cd mg./nns daily/rb ,/, was/bedz begun/vbn on/in Sept./np 26/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, and/cc continued/vbn until/in Feb./np 18/cd ,/, 1959/cd ./.
At/in first/rb the/at patient/nn felt/vbd stronger/jjr ,/, and/cc the/at hemoglobin/nn rose/vbd to/in 13.8/cd gm./nns ,/, but/cc on/in Oct./np 20/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, he/pps complained/vbd of/in ``/`` caving/vbg in/rp ''/'' in/in his/pp$ knees/nns ./.
By/in Nov./np 8/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, weakness/nn ,/, specifically/rb involving/vbg the/at pelvic/jj and/cc thigh/nn musculature/nn ,/, was/bedz pronounced/vbn ,/, and/cc a/at common/jj complaint/nn was/bedz ``/`` difficulty/nn in/in stepping/vbg up/rp on/rp to/in curbs/nns ''/'' ./.
Prednisone/nn ,/, 30/cd mg./nns daily/rb ,/, was/bedz substituted/vbn for/in triamcinolone/nn from/in Nov./np 22/cd until/in Dec./np 1/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, without/in any/dti improvement/nn in/in the/at weakness/nn ./.
Serum/nn potassium/nn at/in this/dt time/nn was/bedz 3.8/cd mEq./nn per/in liter/nn ,/, and/cc the/at hemoglobin/nn was/bedz 13.9/cd gm./nns By/in Dec./np 1/cd ,/, 1958/cd ,/, the/at weakness/nn in/in the/at pelvic/jj and/cc quadriceps/nn muscle/nn groups/nns was/bedz appreciably/ql worse/jjr ,/, and/cc it/pps became/vbd difficult/jj for/in the/at patient/nn to/to rise/vb unaided/jj from/in a/at sitting/vbg or/cc reclining/vbg position/nn ./.
Triamcinolone/nn ,/, 16/cd mg./nns daily/rb ,/, was/bedz resumed/vbn and/cc maintained/vbn until/in Feb./np 18/cd ,/, 1959/cd ./.
Chlorothiazide/nn was/bedz omitted/vbn for/in a/at 2-week/jj period/nn ,/, but/cc there/ex was/bedz no/at change/nn in/in the/at muscle/nn weakness/nn ./.


	At/in this/dt time/nn a/at detailed/vbn neuromuscular/jj examination/nn revealed/vbd diffuse/jj muscle/nn atrophy/nn that/wps was/bedz moderate/jj in/in the/at hands/nns and/cc feet/nns ,/, but/cc marked/vbn in/in the/at shoulders/nns ,/, hips/nns ,/, and/cc pelvic/jj girdle/nn ,/, with/in hypoactive/jj deep-tendon/nn reflexes/nns ./.
No/at fasciculations/nns or/cc sensory/jj defects/nns were/bed found/vbn ./.
Electromyography/nn revealed/vbd no/at evidence/nn of/in lower/jjr motor/nn neuron/nn disease/nn ./.
Thyroid/nn function/nn tests/nns yielded/vbd normal/jj results/nns ./.
The/at protein-bound/jj iodine/nn was/bedz 6.6/cd mg./nns ,/, and/cc the/at radioactive/jj iodine/nn uptake/nn over/in the/at thyroid/nn gland/nn was/bedz 46%/nn in/in 24/cd hours/nns ,/, with/in a/at conversion/nn ratio/nn of/in 12%/nn ./.
A/at Schilling/np test/nn demonstrated/vbd normal/jj absorption/nn of/in vitamin/nn Af/nn ./.
In/in February/np ,/, 1959/cd ,/, during/in the/at second/od admission/nn to/in The/at-tl New/jj-tl York/np-tl Hospital/nn-tl ,/, a/at biopsy/nn specimen/nn of/in the/at left/jj gastrocnemius/nn showed/vbd striking/jj increase/nn in/in the/at sarcolemmal/jj sheath/nn nuclei/nns and/cc shrunken/vbn muscle/nn fibers/nns in/in several/ap sections/nns ./.
Serial/nn serum/nn potassium/nn levels/nns remained/vbd normal/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at serum/nn glutamic/jj oxaloacetic/jj transaminase/nn was/bedz 10/cd units/nns per/in ml./nn per/in min./nn ./.
The/at clinical/jj impression/nn at/in this/dt time/nn was/bedz either/cc muscular/jj dystrophy/nn or/cc polymyositis/nn ./.


	On/in Feb./np 12/cd ,/, 1959/cd ,/, purified/vbn corticotropin/nn (/( ACTH/np Gel/nn-tl )/) ,/, 20/cd units/nns daily/rb intramuscularly/rb ,/, was/bedz started/vbn but/cc had/hvd to/to be/be discontinued/vbn 3/cd weeks/nns later/rbr because/rb of/in excessive/jj fluid/nn retention/nn ./.
From/in March/np 3/cd to/in May/np 1/cd ,/, 1949/cd ,/, the/at patient/nn was/bedz maintained/vbn on/in dexamethasone/nn ,/, 3/cd to/in 6/cd mg./nns daily/rb ./.
In/in May/np 1959/cd ,/, prednisone/nn ,/, 30/cd mg./nns daily/rb ,/, replaced/vbd the/at dexamethasone/nn ./.
Muscle/nn weakness/nn did/dod not/* improve/vb ,/, and/cc the/at patient/nn needed/vbd first/rb a/at cane/nn ,/, then/rb crutches/nns ./.
In/in spite/nn of/in normal/jj thyroid/nn function/nn tests/nns ,/, a/at trial/nn of/in propylthiouracil/nn ,/, 400/cd mg./nns daily/rb for/in one/cd week/nn ,/, was/bedz given/vbn but/cc served/vbd only/rb to/to intensify/vb muscle/nn weakness/nn ./.
Repeated/vbn attempts/nns to/to withdraw/vb steroids/nns entirely/rb were/bed unsuccessful/jj because/cs increased/vbn muscle/nn weakness/nn resulted/vbd ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs fever/nn ,/, malaise/nn ,/, anorexia/nn ,/, anxiety/nn ,/, and/cc an/at exacerbation/nn of/in the/at anemia/nn ./.
These/dts reactions/nns were/bed interpreted/vbn as/cs being/beg manifestations/nns of/in hypoadrenocorticism/nn ./.


	Severe/jj back/nn pain/nn in/in June/np ,/, 1959/cd ,/, prompted/vbd a/at third/od hospital/nn admission/nn ./.
Extensive/jj osteoporosis/nn with/in partial/jj collapse/nn of/in D8/nn was/bedz found/vbn ./.
A/at high-protein/nn diet/nn ,/, calcium/nn lactate/nn supplements/nns ,/, and/cc norethandrolone/nn failed/vbd to/to change/vb the/at skeletal/jj complaint/nn or/cc the/at severe/jj muscle/nn weakness/nn ./.


	The/at terminal/jj hospital/nn admission/nn on/in June/np 27/cd ,/, 1959/cd ,/, was/bedz necessitated/vbn by/in continued/vbn weakness/nn and/cc debility/nn complicated/vbn by/in urinary/jj retention/nn and/cc painful/jj thrombosed/jj hemorrhoids/nns ./.
X-ray/nn films/nns of/in the/at vertebral/jj column/nn showed/vbd progression/nn of/in the/at demineralization/nn ./.
On/in July/np 4/cd ,/, 1959/cd ,/, the/at patient/nn developed/vbd marked/vbn abdominal/jj pain/nn and/cc distension/nn ,/, went/vbd into/in shock/nn ,/, and/cc died/vbd ./.



Findings/nns-hl at/in-hl necropsy/nn-hl 
The/at body/nn was/bedz that/dt of/in a/at well-developed/jj ,/, somewhat/ql debilitated/vbn white/jj man/nn weighing/vbg 108/cd lb./nns ./.
There/ex were/bed bilateral/jj pterygia/nn and/cc arcus/nn senilis/jj ,/, and/cc the/at mouth/nn was/bedz edentulous/jj ./.


	The/at heart/nn weighed/vbd 510/cd gm./nns ,/, and/cc at/in the/at outflow/nn tracts/nns the/at left/jj and/cc right/jj ventricles/nns measured/vbd 19/cd and/cc 3/cd mm./nns ,/, respectively/rb ./.
The/at coronary/jj arteries/nns were/bed sclerotic/jj and/cc diffusely/rb narrowed/vbn throughout/in their/pp$ courses/nns ,/, and/cc the/at right/jj coronary/jj artery/nn was/bedz virtually/rb occluded/vbn by/in a/at yellow/jj atheromatous/jj plaque/nn 1.5/cd cm./nns distal/jj to/in its/pp$ origin/nn ./.
The/at myocardium/nn of/in the/at posterior/jj base/nn of/in the/at left/jj ventricle/nn was/bedz replaced/vbn by/in gray/jj scar/nn tissue/nn over/in a/at 7.5/cd cm./nn area/nn ./.
The/at valves/nns were/bed normal/jj except/in for/in thin/jj yellow/jj plaques/nns on/in the/at inferior/jj surface/nn of/in the/at mitral/jj leaflets/nns ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, sections/nns from/in the/at posterior/jj base/nn of/in the/at left/jj ventricle/nn of/in the/at heart/nn showed/vbd several/ap large/jj areas/nns of/in replacement/nn of/in muscle/nn by/in fibrous/jj tissue/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, other/ap sections/nns contained/vbd focal/jj areas/nns of/in recent/jj myocardial/jj necrosis/nn that/wps were/bed infiltrated/vbn with/in neutrophils/nns ./.
Many/ap of/in the/at myocardial/jj fibers/nns were/bed hypertrophied/vbn and/cc had/hvd large/jj ,/, irregular/jj ,/, basophilic/jj nuclei/nns ./.
The/at intima/nn of/in the/at larger/jjr coronary/jj arteries/nns was/bedz thickened/vbn by/in fibrous/jj tissue/nn containing/vbg fusiform/jj clefts/nns and/cc mononuclear/jj cells/nns ./.


	The/at intimal/jj surface/nn of/in the/at aorta/nn was/bedz covered/vbn with/in confluent/jj ,/, yellow-brown/jj ,/, hard/jj ,/, friable/jj plaques/nns along/in its/pp$ entire/jj course/nn ,/, and/cc there/ex was/bedz a/at marked/vbn narrowing/nn of/in the/at orifices/nns of/in the/at large/jj major/jj visceral/jj arteries/nns ./.
In/in particular/jj ,/, the/at orifices/nns of/in the/at right/jj renal/jj and/cc celiac/jj arteries/nns were/bed virtually/ql occluded/vbn ,/, and/cc both/abx calcified/vbn common/jj iliac/jj arteries/nns were/bed completely/ql occluded/vbn ./.


	The/at lungs/nns weighed/vbd together/rb 950/cd gm./nns ./.
On/in the/at surfaces/nns of/in both/abx lungs/nns there/ex were/bed emphysematous/jj blebs/nns measuring/vbg up/rp to/in 3/cd cm./nns in/in diameter/nn ./.
The/at parenchyma/nn was/bedz slightly/ql hyperemic/jj in/in the/at apex/nn of/in the/at left/jj lung/nn ,/, and/cc there/ex were/bed several/ap firm/jj ,/, gray/jj ,/, fibrocalcific/jj nodules/nns measuring/vbg as/ql large/jj as/cs 3/cd mm./nns ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, there/ex was/bedz emphysema/nn ,/, fibrosis/nn ,/, and/cc vascular/jj congestion/nn ./.
Macrophages/nns laden/jj with/in brown/jj pigment/nn were/bed seen/vbn in/in some/dti of/in the/at alveoli/nns ,/, and/cc the/at intima/nn of/in some/dti of/in the/at small/jj arteries/nns was/bedz thickened/vbn by/in fibrous/jj tissue/nn ./.


	The/at firm/jj red/jj spleen/nn weighed/vbd 410/cd gm./nns ,/, and/cc its/pp$ surface/nn was/bedz mottled/vbn by/in discrete/jj ,/, small/jj patches/nns of/in white/jj material/nn ./.
The/at endothelial/jj cells/nns lining/vbg the/at sinusoids/nns were/bed prominent/jj ,/, and/cc many/ap contained/vbn large/jj quantities/nns of/in hemosiderin/nn ./.
Some/dti of/in the/at sinusoids/nns contained/vbd large/jj numbers/nns of/in nucleated/vbn red/jj cells/nns ,/, and/cc cells/nns of/in the/at granulocytic/jj series/nns were/bed found/vbn in/in small/jj numbers/nns ./.
There/ex were/bed slight/jj fibrosis/nn and/cc marked/vbn arteriolosclerosis/nn ./.


	The/at liver/nn weighed/vbd 2,090/cd gm./nns ,/, was/bedz brown/jj in/in color/nn ,/, and/cc the/at cut/vbn surface/nn was/bedz mottled/vbn by/in irregular/jj pale/jj areas/nns ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, there/ex was/bedz hyperemia/nn of/in the/at central/jj veins/nns ,/, and/cc there/ex was/bedz some/dti atrophy/nn of/in adjacent/jj parenchyma/nn ./.
Some/dti liver/nn cord/nn cells/nns contained/vbd vacuolated/vbn cytoplasm/nn ,/, while/cs others/nns had/hvd small/jj amounts/nns of/in brown/jj hemosiderin/nn pigment/nn ./.


	The/at gallbladder/nn contained/vbd about/rb 40/cd cc./nns of/in green-brown/jj bile/nn and/cc 3/cd smooth/jj ,/, dark-green/jj calculi/nns measuring/vbg up/rp to/in 1/cd cm./nn in/in diameter/nn ./.


	The/at mucosa/nn of/in the/at stomach/nn was/bedz atrophic/jj and/cc irregularly/rb blackened/vbn over/in a/at 14/cd cm./nn area/nn ./.
The/at small/jj and/cc large/jj intestines/nns were/bed filled/vbn with/in gas/nn ,/, and/cc the/at jejunum/nn was/bedz dilated/vbn to/in about/rb 2/cd times/nns its/pp$ normal/jj circumference/nn ./.
The/at small/jj intestine/nn and/cc colon/nn contained/vbd approximately/rb 300/cd cc./nns of/in foul-smelling/jj ,/, sanguineous/jj material/nn ,/, and/cc the/at mucosa/nn throughout/rb was/bedz hyperemic/jj and/cc mottled/vbn green-brown/jj ./.
A/at careful/jj search/nn failed/vbd to/to show/vb occlusion/nn of/in any/dti of/in the/at mesenteric/jj vessels/nns ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, the/at mucosa/nn of/in the/at stomach/nn showed/vbd extensive/jj cytolysis/nn and/cc contained/vbd large/jj numbers/nns of/in Gram-negative/jj bacterial/jj rods/nns ./.
The/at submucosa/nn was/bedz focally/rb infiltrated/vbn with/in neutrophils/nns ./.
The/at mucosa/nn of/in the/at jejunum/nn and/cc ileum/nn showed/vbd similar/jj changes/nns ,/, and/cc in/in some/dti areas/nns the/at submucosa/nn was/bedz edematous/jj and/cc contained/vbd considerable/jj numbers/nns of/in neutrophils/nns ./.
Some/dti of/in the/at small/jj vessels/nns were/bed filled/vbn with/in fibrin/nn thrombi/nns ,/, and/cc there/ex was/bedz extensive/jj interstitial/jj hemorrhage/nn ./.
A/at section/nn of/in the/at colon/nn revealed/vbd intense/jj hyperemia/nn and/cc extensive/jj focal/jj ulcerations/nns of/in the/at mucosa/nn ,/, associated/vbn with/in much/ap fibrin/nn and/cc many/ap neutrophils/nns ./.
Cultures/nns taken/vbn from/in the/at jejunum/nn yielded/vbd Monilia/np albicans/np ,/, Pseudomonas/np pyocanea/np ,/, Aerobacter/np aerogenes/np ,/, and/cc Streptococcus/np anhemolyticus/np ./.


	The/at kidneys/nns were/bed pale/jj and/cc weighed/vbd right/jj ,/, 110/cd gm./nns ,/, and/cc left/jj ,/, 230/cd gm./nns ./.
The/at surfaces/nns were/bed coarsely/rb and/cc finely/rb granular/jj and/cc punctuated/vbn by/in clear/jj ,/, fluid-filled/jj cysts/nns measuring/vbg up/rp to/in 3/cd cm./nns in/in diameter/nn ./.
On/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at right/jj kidney/nn there/ex were/bed also/rb 2/cd yellow/jj ,/, firm/jj ,/, friable/jj raised/vbn areas/nns measuring/vbg up/rp to/in 2/cd cm./nns in/in diameter/nn ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, both/abx kidneys/nns showed/vbd many/ap small/jj cortical/jj scars/nns in/in which/wdt there/ex was/bedz glomerular/jj and/cc interstitial/jj fibrosis/nn ,/, tubular/jj atrophy/nn ,/, and/cc an/at infiltration/nn of/in lymphocytes/nns and/cc plasma/nn cells/nns ./.
Occasional/jj tubules/nns contained/vbd hyaline/nn casts/nns admixed/vbn with/in neutrophils/nns ./.
Throughout/rb ,/, there/ex were/bed marked/vbn arteriolosclerosis/nn and/cc hyalinization/nn of/in afferent/jj glomerular/jj arterioles/nns ./.
These/dts changes/nns were/bed more/ql marked/vbn in/in the/at atrophic/jj right/jj kidney/nn than/cs in/in the/at left/nr ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, there/ex were/bed 2/cd small/jj papillary/jj adenomas/nns in/in the/at right/jj kidney/nn ./.


	The/at bone/nn of/in the/at vertebral/jj bodies/nns ,/, ribs/nns ,/, and/cc sternum/nn was/bedz soft/jj and/cc was/bedz easily/rb compressed/vbn ./.
The/at marrow/nn of/in the/at vertebral/jj bodies/nns was/bedz pale/jj and/cc showed/vbd areas/nns of/in fatty/jj replacement/nn ./.
Microscopically/rb ,/, there/ex were/bed many/ap areas/nns of/in hypercellularity/nn alternating/vbg with/in areas/nns of/in hypocellularity/nn ./.
The/at cells/nns of/in the/at erythroid/jj ,/, myeloid/jj ,/, and/cc megakaryocytic/jj series/nns were/bed normal/jj except/in for/in their/pp$ numbers/nns ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at evidence/nn of/in fibrosis/nn ./.
The/at muscles/nns of/in the/at extremities/nns ,/, chest/nn wall/nn ,/, neck/nn ,/, and/cc abdominal/jj wall/nn were/bed soft/jj ,/, pale/jj ,/, and/cc atrophic/jj ./.


	Microscopic/jj studies/nns of/in the/at gastrocnemius/nn ,/, pectoralis/nn major/jj ,/, transversus/nn abdominis/nn ,/, biceps/nn brachii/nn$ ,/, and/cc diaphragm/nn showed/vbd atrophy/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs varying/vbg degrees/nns of/in injury/nn ranging/vbg from/in swelling/vbg and/cc vacuolization/nn to/in focal/jj necrosis/nn of/in the/at muscle/nn fibers/nns ./.
These/dts changes/nns were/bed most/ql marked/vbn in/in the/at gastrocnemius/nn and/cc biceps/nn and/cc less/ql evident/jj in/in the/at pectoralis/nn ,/, diaphragm/nn ,/, and/cc transversus/nn ./.


	In/in the/at gastrocnemius/nn and/cc biceps/nn there/ex were/bed many/ap swollen/jj and/cc homogeneous/jj necrotic/jj fibers/nns such/jj as/cs that/dt shown/vbn in/in Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Such/jj swollen/jj fibers/nns were/bed deeply/rb eosinophilic/jj ,/, contained/vbd a/at few/ap pyknotic/jj nuclei/nns ,/, and/cc showed/vbd loss/nn of/in cross-striations/nns ,/, obliteration/nn of/in myofibrils/nns ,/, and/cc prominent/jj vacuolization/nn ./.
The/at necrosis/nn often/rb involved/vbd only/rb a/at portion/nn of/in the/at length/nn of/in a/at given/vbn fiber/nn ,/, and/cc usually/rb the/at immediately/rb adjacent/jj fibers/nns were/bed normal/jj ./.
As/cs shown/vbn in/in Figure/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, the/at protoplasm/nn of/in other/ap fibers/nns was/bedz pale/jj ,/, granular/jj ,/, or/cc flocculated/vbn and/cc invaded/vbn by/in phagocytes/nns ./.
Inflammatory/jj cells/nns were/bed strikingly/rb absent/jj ./.
In/in association/nn with/in these/dts changes/nns in/in the/at fibers/nns ,/, there/ex were/bed striking/jj alterations/nns in/in the/at muscle/nn nuclei/nns ./.
These/dts were/bed increased/vbn both/abx in/in number/nn and/cc in/in size/nn ,/, contained/vbd prominent/jj nucleoli/nns ,/, and/cc were/bed distributed/vbn throughout/in the/at fiber/nn (/( Figs./nns-tl 2/cd-tl -/in 5/cd-tl )/) ./.
In/in contrast/nn to/in the/at nuclear/jj changes/nns described/vbn above/rb ,/, another/dt change/nn in/in muscle/nn nuclei/nns was/bedz seen/vbn ,/, usually/rb occurring/vbg in/in fibers/nns that/wps were/bed somewhat/ql smaller/jjr than/cs normal/jj but/cc that/wps showed/vbd distinct/jj cross-striations/nns and/cc myofibrillae/nns ./.
The/at nuclei/nns of/in these/dts fibers/nns ,/, as/cs is/bez shown/vbn in/in Figures/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl ,/, showed/vbd remarkable/jj proliferation/nn and/cc were/bed closely/rb approximated/vbn ,/, forming/vbg a/at chainlike/jj structure/nn at/in either/cc the/at center/nn or/cc the/at periphery/nn of/in the/at fiber/nn ./.
Individual/jj nuclei/nns were/bed usually/rb oval/jj to/in round/jj ,/, though/cs occasionally/rb elongated/vbn ,/, and/cc frequently/rb small/jj and/cc somewhat/ql pyknotic/jj ./.
At/in times/nns ,/, clumps/nns of/in 10/cd to/in 15/cd closely-packed/jj nuclei/nns were/bed also/rb observed/vbn ./.
Occasionally/rb there/ex were/bed small/jj basophilic/jj fibers/nns that/wps were/bed devoid/jj of/in myofibrillae/nns and/cc contained/vbd many/ap vesicular/jj nuclei/nns with/in prominent/jj nucleoli/nns (/( Fig./nn-tl 5/cd-tl )/) ./.
These/dts were/bed thought/vbn to/to represent/vb regenerating/vbg fibers/nns ./.
Trichrome/jj stains/nns failed/vbd to/to show/vb fibrosis/nn in/in the/at involved/vbn muscles/nns ./.
In/in all/abn of/in the/at sections/nns examined/vbn ,/, the/at arterioles/nns and/cc small/jj arteries/nns were/bed essentially/ql normal/jj ./.

Purification/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl conjugates/nns-hl 
In/in attempting/vbg to/to improve/vb specificity/nn of/in staining/vbg ,/, the/at fluorescein-labeled/jj antisera/nns used/vbn in/in both/abx direct/jj and/cc indirect/jj methods/nns were/bed treated/vbn in/in one/cd of/in several/ap ways/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) They/ppss were/bed passed/vbn through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np twice/rb and/cc treated/vbn with/in acetone/nn insoluble/jj powders/nns (/( Coons/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) prepared/vbn from/in mouse/nn liver/nn or/cc from/in healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn stems/nns or/cc crown/nn gall/nn tissue/nn produced/vbn by/in Agrobacterium/np tumefaciens/np (/( E./np F./np Smith/np &/cc Townsend/np )/) on/in sweet/jj clover/nn stems/nns ./.
(/( 2/cd )/) The/at conjugates/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at intermediate/jj sera/nns were/bed absorbed/vbn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns with/in 20/cd -/in 50/cd mg/nn of/in proteins/nns extracted/vbn from/in healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn stems/nns ./.
The/at proteins/nns were/bed extracted/vbn with/in 3/cd volumes/nns of/in Af/nn in/in Af/nn to/to give/vb a/at nearly/ql neutral/jj extract/nn and/cc precipitated/vbn by/in 80%/nn saturation/nn with/in Af/nn ./.
The/at precipitate/nn was/bedz washed/vbn twice/rb with/in an/at 80%/nn saturated/vbn solution/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, dissolved/vbn in/in a/at small/jj quantity/nn of/in 0.1/cd M/nn neutral/jj phosphate/nn buffer/nn ,/, dialyzed/vbn against/in cold/jj distilled/vbn water/nn till/cs free/jj from/in ammonium/nn ions/nns ,/, and/cc lyophilized/vbn using/vbg liquid/jj nitrogen/nn ./.
(/( 3/cd )/) In/in other/ap experiments/nns the/at indirect/jj conjugate/nn was/bedz treated/vbn with/in 3/cd volumes/nns of/in ethyl/nn acetate/nn as/cs recommended/vbn by/in Dineen/np and/cc Ade/np (/( 1957/cd )/) ./.
(/( 4/cd )/) The/at conjugates/nns were/bed passed/vbn through/in a/at diethylaminoethyl/nn (/( DEAE/np )/) cellulose/nn column/nn equilibrated/vbn with/in neutral/jj phosphate/nn buffer/nn (/( PBS/np )/) containing/vbg Af/nn potassium/nn phosphate/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
Preparation/nn-hl of/in-hl frozen/vbn-hl sections/nns-hl 
The/at technique/nn of/in cutting/vbg sections/nns was/bedz essentially/rb the/at same/ap as/cs that/dt described/vbn by/in Coons/np et/fw-cc al/fw-nns (/( 1951/cd )/) ./.
Root/nn and/cc stem/nn tumors/nns from/in sweet/jj clover/nn plants/nns infected/vbn with/in WTV/nn were/bed quick-frozen/vbn in/in liquid/jj nitrogen/nn ,/, embedded/vbn in/in ice/nn ,/, and/cc cut/vbn at/in 3/cd -/in 6/cd **ym/nn in/in a/at cryostat/nn maintained/vbn at/in -16-degrees/nns to/in -20-degrees/nns ./.
The/at sections/nns were/bed mounted/vbn on/in cold/jj slides/nns smeared/vbn with/in Haupts'/np$ adhesive/nn (/( Johansen/np ,/, 1940/cd )/) in/in earlier/jjr experiments/nns ,/, and/cc in/in later/jjr experiments/nns with/in a/at different/jj mixture/nn of/in the/at same/ap components/nns reported/vbn by/in Schramm/np and/cc Rottger/np (/( 1959/cd )/) ./.
The/at latter/ap adhesive/nn was/bedz found/vbn to/to be/be much/ql more/ql satisfactory/jj ./.
The/at sections/nns were/bed then/rb thawed/vbn by/in placing/vbg a/at finger/nn under/in the/at slide/nn and/cc dried/vbn under/in a/at fan/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ;/. ;/.
until/cs used/vbn they/ppss were/bed stored/vbn for/in as/ql long/rb as/cs 2/cd weeks/nns ./.
Staining/vbg-hl technique/nn-hl 
indirect/jj-hl method/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at sections/nns were/bed fixed/vbn in/in acetone/nn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns and/cc dried/vbn at/in 37-degrees/nns for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ./.
Some/dti of/in them/ppo were/bed then/rb covered/vbn with/in a/at drop/nn of/in Af/nn in/in a/at moist/jj chamber/nn at/in 24-degrees/nns for/in 30/cd -/in 40/cd minutes/nns ./.
As/cs controls/nns other/ap sections/nns were/bed similarly/rb covered/vbn with/in Aj/nn ./.
Sections/nns were/bed then/rb washed/vbn with/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd -/in 30/cd minutes/nns ./.
After/cs blotting/vbg out/rp most/ap of/in the/at saline/nn around/in the/at sections/nns ,/, a/at drop/nn of/in Af/nn was/bedz layered/vbn over/in each/dt of/in the/at sections/nns ,/, allowed/vbn to/to react/vb for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ,/, and/cc then/rb washed/vbn with/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd -/in 30/cd minutes/nns ./.
After/cs blotting/vbg out/rp most/ap of/in the/at liquid/nn around/in the/at sections/nns ,/, the/at latter/ap were/bed mounted/vbn in/in buffered/vbn glycerine/nn (/( 7/cd parts/nns glycerine/nn to/in 3/cd parts/nns of/in PBS/nn )/) ./.
Direct/jj-hl method/nn-hl ./.-hl

After/cs drying/vbg the/at sections/nns under/in the/at fan/nn ,/, fixing/vbg in/in acetone/nn ,/, and/cc drying/vbg at/in 37-degrees/nns as/cs in/in the/at indirect/jj method/nn ,/, the/at sections/nns were/bed treated/vbn with/in conjugated/vbn Af/nn or/cc Af/nn (/( undiluted/jj unless/cs mentioned/vbn otherwise/rb )/) for/in 5/cd -/in 30/cd minutes/nns ./.
As/cs controls/nns ,/, other/ap sections/nns were/bed similarly/rb treated/vbn with/in Af/nn or/cc conjugated/vbn antiserum/nn to/in the/at New/jj-tl York/np-tl strain/nn of/in potato/nn yellow-dwarf/nn virus/nn (/( Wolcyrz/np and/cc Black/np ,/, 1956/cd )/) ./.
The/at sections/nns were/bed then/rb washed/vbn with/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd -/in 30/cd minutes/nns and/cc mounted/vbn in/in buffered/vbn glycerine/nn ./.
Fluorescence/nn-hl microscopy/nn-hl 
Stained/vbn or/cc unstained/jj sections/nns were/bed examined/vbn under/in dark/jj field/nn illumination/nn in/in a/at Zeiss/np fluorescence/nn microscope/nn equipped/vbn with/in a/at mercury/nn vapor/nn lamp/nn (/( Osram/np HBO/nn 200/cd )/) ./.
The/at light/nn beam/nn from/in the/at lamp/nn was/bedz filtered/vbn through/in a/at half-standard/jj thickness/nn Corning/np 1840/cd filter/nn ./.
In/in the/at eyepiece/nn a/at Wratten/np-tl 2/cd-tl B/nn filter/nn was/bedz used/vbn to/to filter/vb off/rp residual/jj ultra-violet/jj light/nn ./.
A/at red/jj filter/nn ,/, Zeiss/np barrier/nn filter/nn with/in the/at code/nn (/( Schott/np )/) designation/nn BG/nn 23/cd ,/, was/bedz also/rb used/vbn in/in the/at ocular/jj lens/nn assembly/nn as/cs it/pps improved/vbd the/at contrast/nn between/in specific/jj and/cc nonspecific/jj fluorescence/nn ./.



Results/nns-hl 
specificity/nn-hl of/in-hl staining/vbg-hl 
indirect/jj-hl method/nn-hl ./.-hl

In/in the/at first/od few/ap experiments/nns Af/nn was/bedz passed/vbn through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np twice/rb and/cc absorbed/vbn twice/rb with/in 50/cd -/in 100/cd mg/nn sweet/jj clover/nn tissue/nn powder/nn ./.
The/at intermediate/jj sera/nns were/bed also/rb similarly/rb absorbed/vbn with/in tissue/nn powder/nn ./.
Sections/nns of/in sweet/jj clover/nn stem/nn and/cc root/nn tumors/nns were/bed treated/vbn with/in 1/cd :/in 10/cd solution/nn of/in Af/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ,/, washed/vbn in/in buffered/vbn saline/nn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns ,/, stained/vbn with/in Af/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ,/, and/cc washed/vbn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns in/in Aj/nn ./.
Such/jj sections/nns showed/vbd bright/jj yellow-green/jj specific/jj fluorescence/nn in/in the/at cells/nns of/in the/at pseudophloem/nn tissue/nn (/( Lee/np and/cc Black/np ,/, 1955/cd )/) ./.
This/dt specific/jj fluorescence/nn was/bedz readily/rb distinguished/vbn from/in the/at light/jj green/jj nonspecific/jj fluorescence/nn in/in consecutive/jj sections/nns stained/vbn with/in 1/cd :/in 10/cd dilution/nn of/in NS/nn and/cc Af/nn or/cc with/in Af/nn alone/rb ./.
Unstained/jj sections/nns mounted/vbn in/in buffered/vbn glycerine/nn or/cc sections/nns treated/vbn only/rb with/in NS/nn or/cc Af/nn did/dod not/* show/vb such/jj green/jj fluorescence/nn ./.
Sections/nns of/in crown/nn gall/nn tissue/nn similarly/rb stained/vbn with/in either/cc Af/nn and/cc Af/nn or/cc NS/nn and/cc Af/nn also/rb showed/vbd only/rb the/at light/jj green/jj nonspecific/jj fluorescence/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at nonspecific/jj staining/nn by/in the/at Af/nn in/in tumor/nn sections/nns was/bedz considered/vbn bright/jj enough/qlp to/to be/be confused/vbn with/in the/at staining/nn of/in small/jj amounts/nns of/in WTV/nn antigen/nn ./.


	Two/cd absorptions/nns of/in Af/nn with/in ethyl/nn acetate/nn or/cc two/cd absorptions/nns of/in Af/nn (/( which/wdt had/hvd been/ben passed/vbn through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np )/) ,/, NS/nn and/cc Af/nn with/in crown/nn gall/nn tissue/nn powder/nn ,/, or/cc mouse/nn liver/nn powder/nn did/dod not/* further/rbr improve/vb the/at specificity/nn of/in staining/vbg ./.
Treatment/nn of/in all/abn the/at sera/nns with/in sweet/jj clover/nn proteins/nns greatly/rb reduced/vbd nonspecific/jj fluorescence/nn ,/, especially/rb when/wrb the/at treated/vbn conjugate/nn was/bedz diluted/vbn to/in 1/cd :/in 2/cd with/in 0.85%/nn saline/nn ./.
In/in all/abn the/at above/jj procedures/nns ,/, when/wrb the/at intermediate/jj sera/nns were/bed diluted/vbn to/in 1/cd :/in 10/cd or/cc 1/cd :/in 100/cd with/in 0.85%/nn saline/jj ,/, the/at specific/jj and/cc nonspecific/jj fluorescence/nn were/bed not/* appreciably/rb reduced/vbn ,/, whereas/cs ,/, a/at dilution/nn of/in the/at intermediate/jj sera/nns to/in 1/cd :/in 500/cd or/cc diluting/vbg the/at Af/nn to/in 1/cd :/in 5/cd greatly/rb reduced/vbd specific/jj fluorescence/nn ./.
Rinsing/vbg the/at sections/nns with/in PBS/nn before/in layering/vbg the/at intermediate/jj sera/nns did/dod not/* improve/vb the/at staining/vbg reaction/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in other/ap treatments/nns ,/, treating/vbg the/at sections/nns with/in normal/jj sheep/nn serum/nn for/in half/abn an/at hour/nn before/in layering/vbg Af/nn did/dod not/* reduce/vb nonspecific/jj staining/nn ./.


	The/at only/ap treatment/nn by/in which/wdt nonspecific/jj staining/nn could/md be/be satisfactorily/rb removed/vbn was/bedz by/in passing/vbg the/at conjugate/nn through/in a/at DEAE-cellulose/nn column/nn ./.
When/wrb 1/cd ml/nn of/in conjugate/nn was/bedz passed/vbn through/in a/at column/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ,/, the/at first/od and/cc second/od milliliter/nn fractions/nns collected/vbn were/bed the/at most/ql specific/jj and/cc gave/vbd no/at nonspecific/jj staining/nn in/in some/dti experiments/nns ,/, and/cc very/ql little/ap in/in others/nns ./.
In/in the/at latter/ap cases/nns an/at additional/jj treatment/nn of/in the/at DEAE-cellulose-treated/nn Af/nn with/in 50/cd mg/nn of/in sweet/jj clover/nn stem/nn tissue/nn powder/nn further/rbr improved/vbd the/at specificity/nn ./.
After/in these/dts treatments/nns the/at conjugate/nn did/dod not/* stain/vb healthy/jj or/cc crown/nn gall/nn sweet/jj clover/nn tissues/nns or/cc stained/vbd them/ppo a/at very/ql faint/jj green/nn which/wdt was/bedz easily/rb distinguishable/jj from/in the/at bright/jj yellow-green/jj specific/jj staining/nn ./.
With/in this/dt purified/vbn conjugate/nn the/at best/jjt staining/vbg procedure/nn consisted/vbd of/in treating/vbg the/at sections/nns with/in 1/cd :/in 10/cd dilution/nn of/in Af/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ,/, washing/vbg with/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns ,/, staining/vbg with/in Af/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns ,/, and/cc washing/vbg with/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns ./.
The/at specificity/nn of/in staining/vbg in/in WTV/nn tumors/nns with/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn but/cc not/* with/in NS/nn and/cc Af/nn or/cc with/in antiserum/nn to/in potato/nn yellow-dwarf/nn virus/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, and/cc the/at absence/nn of/in such/jj staining/nn in/in crown/nn gall/nn tumor/nn tissue/nn from/in sweet-clover/nn ,/, indicate/vb that/cs an/at antigen/nn of/in WTV/nn was/bedz being/beg stained/vbn ./.
Direct/jj-hl method/nn-hl ./.-hl

Af/nn was/bedz first/rb conjugated/vbn with/in 50/cd mg/nn of/in FITC/nn per/in gram/nn of/in globulin/nn ./.
This/dt conjugate/nn was/bedz passed/vbn twice/rb through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np and/cc treated/vbn with/in various/jj tissue/nn powders/nns in/in the/at same/ap manner/nn as/cs described/vbn for/in the/at indirect/jj method/nn ./.
In/in all/abn cases/nns a/at disturbing/jj amount/nn of/in nonspecific/jj staining/nn was/bedz still/rb present/rb although/cs it/pps was/bedz still/rb distinguishable/jj from/in specific/jj fluorescence/nn ./.


	In/in later/jjr experiments/nns ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn were/bed prepared/vbn by/in conjugating/vbg 8/cd mg/nn of/in FITC/nn per/in gram/nn of/in globulin/nn ./.
These/dts conjugates/nns Af/nn had/hvd much/ql less/ap nonspecific/jj staining/nn than/cs the/at previous/jj conjugate/nn (/( with/in 50/cd mg/nn FITC/nn per/in gram/nn of/in globulin/nn )/) while/cs the/at specific/jj staining/nn was/bedz similar/jj in/in both/abx cases/nns ./.
Nonspecific/jj staining/nn could/md be/be satisfactorily/rb eliminated/vbn by/in passing/vbg these/dts conjugates/nns through/in a/at DEAE-cellulose/nn column/nn as/cs described/vbn for/in Af/nn ./.
The/at best/jjt staining/vbg procedure/nn with/in this/dt purified/vbn Af/nn consisted/vbd of/in staining/vbg with/in the/at conjugate/nn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns and/cc washing/vbg in/in PBS/nn for/in 15/cd minutes/nns ./.
The/at specificity/nn of/in staining/vbg with/in Af/nn was/bedz established/vbn as/cs follows/vbz :/: Af/nn specifically/rb stained/vbn tumor/nn sections/nns but/cc not/* sections/nns of/in healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn stems/nns or/cc of/in crown/nn gall/nn tumor/nn tissue/nn from/in sweet/jj clover/nn ./.
Sections/nns of/in tumors/nns incited/vbn by/in WTV/nn were/bed not/* similarly/rb stained/vbn with/in conjugated/vbn normal/jj serum/nn or/cc conjugated/vbn antiserum/nn to/in potato/nn yellow-dwarf/nn virus/nn ./.


	After/in passing/vbg Af/nn through/in DEAE-cellulose/nn ,/, the/at titer/nn of/in antibodies/nns to/in WTV/nn in/in the/at specific/jj fraction/nn was/bedz 1/cd :/in 4/cd of/in the/at titer/nn before/in such/jj passage/nn (/( precipitin/nn ring/nn tests/nns by/in R./np F./np Whitcomb/np )/) ;/. ;/.
but/cc mere/jj dilution/nn of/in the/at conjugate/nn to/in 1/cd :/in 4/cd did/dod not/* satisfactorily/rb remove/vb nonspecific/jj staining/nn ./.
This/dt indicates/vbz that/cs increase/nn in/in specificity/nn of/in Af/nn after/in passing/vbg it/ppo through/in DEAE-cellulose/nn was/bedz not/* merely/rb due/jj to/in dilution/nn ./.


	Specific/jj staining/nn by/in DEAE-cellulose/nn treated/vbn Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, although/cs clearly/rb distinguishable/jj under/in the/at microscope/nn from/in either/cc nonspecific/jj staining/nn or/cc autofluorescence/nn of/in cells/nns ,/, was/bedz not/* satisfactorily/rb photographed/vbn to/to show/vb such/jj differences/nns in/in spite/nn of/in many/ap attempts/nns with/in black/jj and/cc white/jj and/cc color/nn photography/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz chiefly/rb because/rb of/in the/at bluish/jj white/jj autofluorescence/nn from/in the/at cells/nns ./.
The/at autofluorescence/nn from/in the/at walls/nns of/in the/at xylem/nn cells/nns was/bedz particularly/ql brilliant/jj ./.
Distribution/nn-hl of/in-hl virus/nn-hl antigen/nn-hl 
Results/nns of/in specific/jj staining/nn by/in the/at direct/jj and/cc the/at indirect/jj methods/nns were/bed similar/jj and/cc showed/vbd the/at localization/nn of/in WTV/nn antigen/nn in/in certain/ap tissues/nns of/in tumors/nns ./.
The/at virus/nn antigen/nn was/bedz concentrated/vbn in/in the/at pseudophloem/nn tissue/nn ./.
Frequently/rb a/at few/ap isolated/vbn thick-walled/jj cells/nns or/cc ,/, rarely/rb ,/, groups/nns of/in such/jj cells/nns in/in the/at xylem/nn region/nn ,/, were/bed also/rb specifically/rb stained/vbn ,/, but/cc there/ex was/bedz no/at such/jj staining/nn in/in epidermis/nn ,/, cortex/nn ,/, most/ap xylem/nn cells/nns ,/, ray/nn cells/nns ,/, or/cc pith/nn ./.


	Within/in the/at pseudophloem/nn cells/nns the/at distribution/nn of/in WTV/nn antigen/nn was/bedz irregular/jj in/in the/at cytoplasm/nn ./.
No/at antigen/nn was/bedz detectable/jj in/in certain/ap dark/jj spherical/jj areas/nns in/in most/ap cells/nns ./.
These/dts areas/nns are/ber thought/vbn to/to represent/vb the/at nuclei/nns ./.
In/in some/dti tumor/nn sections/nns small/jj spherical/jj bodies/nns ,/, possibly/rb inclusion/nn bodies/nns (/( Littau/np and/cc Black/np ,/, 1952/cd )/) stained/vbd more/ql intensely/rb than/cs the/at rest/nn of/in cytoplasm/nn and/cc probably/rb contained/vbd more/ap antigen/nn ./.
In/in all/abn cases/nns studied/vbn tissues/nns of/in the/at stem/nn on/in which/wdt the/at tumor/nn had/hvd developed/vbn did/dod not/* contain/vb detectable/jj amounts/vbz of/in WTV/nn antigen/nn ./.



Discussion/nn-hl 
In/in both/abx the/at direct/jj and/cc indirect/jj methods/nns of/in staining/vbg ,/, the/at conjugates/nns had/hvd nonspecifically/rb staining/vbg fractions/nns ./.
In/in the/at indirect/jj method/nn ,/, this/dt was/bedz evident/jj from/in the/at fact/nn that/cs tumor/nn sections/nns were/bed stained/vbn light/jj green/jj even/rb when/wrb stained/vbn with/in NS/nn and/cc Af/nn or/cc with/in Af/nn only/rb ./.
In/in the/at direct/jj method/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, not/* further/rbr treated/vbn ,/, stained/vbd certain/ap tissues/nns of/in healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn stems/nns nonspecifically/rb and/cc WTV/nn tumor/nn sections/nns were/bed similarly/rb stained/vbn by/in comparable/jj Af/nn ./.
After/cs Af/nn and/cc Af/nn were/bed passed/vbn through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np twice/rb and/cc treated/vbn twice/rb with/in healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn tissue/nn powder/nn ,/, nonspecific/jj staining/nn was/bedz greatly/rb reduced/vbn but/cc a/at disturbing/jj amount/nn of/in such/jj staining/nn was/bedz still/rb present/rb ./.
Treatment/nn of/in the/at conjugates/nns with/in ethyl/nn acetate/nn ,/, and/cc the/at conjugates/nns (/( which/wdt had/hvd been/ben passed/vbn through/in Dowex-2-chloride/np )/) with/in mouse/nn liver/nn powder/nn ,/, sweet/jj clover/nn crown/nn gall/nn tissue/nn powder/nn ,/, or/cc healthy/jj sweet/jj clover/nn proteins/nns did/dod not/* satisfactorily/rb remove/vb nonspecifically/rb staining/vbg substances/nns in/in the/at conjugates/nns ./.
Such/jj treatments/nns of/in the/at conjugates/nns have/hv usually/rb been/ben successful/jj in/in eliminating/vbg nonspecific/jj staining/nn in/in several/ap other/ap systems/nns (/( Coons/np ,/, 1958/cd )/) ./.
Schramm/np and/cc Rottger/np (/( 1959/cd )/) did/dod not/* report/vb any/dti such/jj nonspecific/jj staining/nn of/in plant/nn tissues/nns with/in fluorescein/nn isocyanate-labeled/jj antiserum/nn to/in tobacco/nn mosaic/nn virus/nn ./.
The/at reason/nn for/in the/at failure/nn of/in these/dts treatments/nns to/to eliminate/vb nonspecific/jj staining/nn in/in the/at conjugates/nns in/in our/pp$ system/nn is/bez not/* known/vbn ./.


	In/in our/pp$ work/nn the/at best/jjt procedure/nn for/in removing/vbg substances/nns causing/vbg nonspecific/jj staining/nn in/in order/nn to/to obtain/vb specific/jj conjugates/nns was/bedz to/to pass/vb the/at conjugates/nns through/in a/at DEAE-cellulose/nn column/nn and/cc in/in some/dti cases/nns to/to absorb/vb the/at first/od and/cc second/od milliliter/nn fractions/nns with/in sweet/jj clover/nn tissue/nn powder/nn ./.


	The/at specific/jj staining/nn by/in both/abx direct/jj and/cc indirect/jj methods/nns showed/vbd that/cs WTV/nn antigen/nn was/bedz concentrated/vbn in/in the/at pseudophloem/nn tissue/nn and/cc in/in a/at few/ap thick-walled/jj cells/nns in/in the/at xylem/nn region/nn ,/, but/cc was/bedz not/* detectable/jj in/in any/dti other/ap tissues/nns of/in the/at root/nn and/cc stem/nn tumors/nns ./.
A/at study/nn of/in the/at distribution/nn of/in WTV/nn antigen/nn within/in the/at pseudophloem/nn cells/nns indicates/vbz that/cs it/pps is/bez irregularly/rb distributed/vbn in/in the/at cytoplasm/nn ./.


	Wound-tumor/nn virus/nn is/bez a/at leafhopper/nn transmitted/vbn virus/nn not/* easily/rb transmissible/jj by/in mechanical/jj inoculation/nn (/( Black/np ,/, 1944/cd ;/. ;/.
Brakke/np et/fw-cc al/fw-nns ,/, 1954/cd )/) ./.
The/at concentration/nn and/cc apparent/jj localization/nn of/in the/at WTV/nn antigen/nn in/in pseudophloem/nn tissue/nn of/in the/at tumor/nn may/md indicate/vb that/cs the/at virus/nn preferentially/rb multiplies/vbz in/in the/at phloem/nn and/cc may/md need/vb to/to be/be directly/rb placed/vbn in/in this/dt tissue/nn in/in order/nn to/to infect/vb plants/nns ./.



	Since/cs emotional/jj reactions/nns in/in the/at higher/jjr vertebrates/nns depend/vb on/in individual/jj experience/nn and/cc are/ber aroused/vbn in/in man/nn ,/, in/in addition/nn ,/, by/in complex/jj symbols/nns ,/, one/pn would/md expect/vb that/cs the/at hypothalamus/nn could/md be/be excited/vbn from/in the/at cortex/nn ./.
In/in experiments/nns with/in topical/jj application/nn of/in strychnine/nn on/in the/at cerebral/jj cortex/nn ,/, the/at transmission/nn of/in impulses/nns from/in the/at cortex/nn to/in the/at hypothalamus/nn was/bedz demonstrated/vbn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at responsiveness/nn of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn to/in nociceptive/jj stimulation/nn is/bez greatly/rb increased/vbn under/in these/dts conditions/nns ./.
Even/rb more/ql complex/jj and/cc obviously/rb cortically/rb induced/vbn forms/nns of/in emotional/jj arousal/nn could/md be/be elicited/vbn in/in monkey/nn A/nn on/in seeing/vbg monkey/nn B/nn (/( but/cc not/* a/at rabbit/nn )/) in/in emotional/jj stress/nn ./.
A/at previously/rb extinguished/vbn conditioned/vbn reaction/nn was/bedz restored/vbn in/in monkey/nn A/nn and/cc was/bedz associated/vbn with/in typical/jj signs/nns of/in emotional/jj excitement/nn including/in sympathetic/jj discharges/nns ./.


	It/pps seems/vbz to/to follow/vb that/cs by/rb and/cc large/rb an/at antagonism/nn exists/vbz between/in the/at paleo-/jj and/cc the/at neocortex/nn as/ql far/rb as/cs emotional/jj reactivity/nn is/bez concerned/vbn ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at balance/nn between/in the/at two/cd systems/nns determines/vbz the/at emotional/jj responsiveness/nn of/in the/at organism/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at neocortical-hypothalamic/jj relations/nns play/vb a/at great/jj role/nn in/in primates/nns ,/, as/cs Mirsky's/np$ interesting/jj experiment/nn on/in the/at ``/`` communication/nn of/in affect/nn ''/'' demonstrates/vbz ./.
But/cc even/rb in/in relatively/ql primitive/jj laboratory/nn animals/nns such/jj as/cs the/at rat/nn ,/, sex/nn activity/nn closely/rb identified/vbn with/in the/at hypothalamus/nn and/cc the/at visceral/jj brain/nn is/bez enhanced/vbn by/in the/at neocortex/nn ./.
MacLean/np stressed/vbd correctly/rb the/at importance/nn of/in the/at visceral/jj brain/nn for/in preservation/nn of/in the/at individual/nn and/cc the/at species/nn ,/, as/cs evidenced/vbn by/in the/at influence/nn of/in the/at limbic/jj brain/nn (/( including/in the/at hypothalamus/nn )/) on/in emotions/nns related/vbn to/in fight/nn and/cc flight/nn and/cc also/rb on/in sexual/jj functions/nns ./.
It/pps should/md be/be added/vbn that/cs in/in man/nn neocortical-hypothalamic/jj interrelations/nns probably/rb play/vb a/at role/nn in/in the/at fusion/nn of/in emotional/jj processes/nns with/in those/dts underlying/vbg perception/nn ,/, memory/nn ,/, imagination/nn ,/, and/cc creativity/nn ./.


	Previous/jj experiences/nns are/ber obviously/rb of/in great/jj importance/nn for/in the/at qualitative/jj and/cc quantitative/jj emotional/jj response/nn ./.
The/at visceral/jj brain/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at neocortex/nn is/bez known/vbn to/to contribute/vb to/in memory/nn ,/, but/cc this/dt topic/nn is/bez beyond/in the/at scope/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn ./.



13/cd-hl ./.-hl
Hypothalamic/jj-hl balance/nn-hl and/cc-hl its/pp$-hl significance/nn-hl 
After/in this/dt brief/jj discussion/nn of/in neo-/jj ,/, paleocortical/jj ,/, and/cc cortico-hypothalamic/jj relations/nns ,/, let/vb us/ppo return/vb once/rb more/rbr to/in the/at problem/nn of/in hypothalamic/jj balance/nn and/cc its/pp$ physiological/jj and/cc pathological/jj significance/nn ./.
Facilitatory/jj processes/nns take/vb place/nn between/in neocortex/nn and/cc hypothalamus/nn via/in ascending/vbg and/cc descending/vbg pathways/nns ./.
Thus/rb cortico-fugal/jj discharges/nns induced/vbn by/in topical/jj application/nn of/in strychnine/nn to/in a/at minute/jj area/nn in/in the/at neocortex/nn summate/vb with/in spikes/nns present/rb in/in the/at hypothalamus/nn and/cc cause/vb increased/vbn convulsive/jj discharges/nns ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, the/at temporary/jj reduction/nn in/in hypothalamic/jj excitability/nn through/in the/at injection/nn of/in a/at barbiturate/nn into/in the/at posterior/jj hypothalamus/nn causes/vbz a/at lessening/nn in/in frequency/nn and/cc amplitude/nn of/in cortical/jj strychnine/nn spikes/nns until/cs the/at hypothalamic/jj excitability/nn is/bez restored/vbn ./.
Apparently/rb ,/, a/at positive/jj feedback/nn exists/vbz between/in the/at posterior/jj hypothalamus/nn and/cc the/at cerebral/jj cortex/nn ./.
Consequently/rb ,/, if/cs for/in any/dti reason/nn the/at hypothalamic/jj excitability/nn falls/vbz below/in the/at physiological/jj level/nn ,/, the/at lessened/vbn hypothalamic-cortical/jj discharges/nns lead/vb to/in a/at diminished/vbn state/nn of/in activity/nn in/in the/at cortex/nn with/in consequent/jj reduction/nn in/in the/at cortico-fugal/jj discharges/nns ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, a/at vicious/jj cycle/nn develops/vbz ./.
This/dt tendency/nn can/md be/be broken/vbn either/cc by/in restoring/vbg hypothalamic/jj excitability/nn directly/rb or/cc via/in cortico-hypothalamic/jj pathways/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez believed/vbn that/cs drug/nn therapy/nn and/cc electroshock/nn involve/vb the/at former/ap and/cc psychotherapy/nn the/at latter/ap mechanism/nn ./.


	Before/cs we/ppss comment/vb further/rbr on/in these/dts pathological/jj conditions/nns ,/, we/ppss should/md remember/vb that/cs changes/nns in/in the/at state/nn of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn within/in physiological/jj limits/nns distinguish/vb sleep/nn from/in wakefulness/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, a/at low/jj intensity/nn of/in hypothalamic-cortical/jj discharges/nns prevails/vbz in/in sleep/nn and/cc a/at high/jj one/cd during/in wakefulness/nn ,/, resulting/vbg in/in synchronous/jj EEG/nn potentials/nns in/in the/at former/ap and/cc asynchrony/nn in/in the/at latter/ap condition/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at dominance/nn in/in parasympathetic/jj action/nn (/( with/in reciprocal/jj inhibition/nn of/in the/at sympathetic/jj )/) at/in the/at hypothalamic/jj level/nn induces/vbz ,/, by/in its/pp$ peripheral/jj action/nn ,/, the/at autonomic/jj symptoms/nns of/in sleep/nn and/cc ,/, by/in its/pp$ action/nn on/in the/at cortex/nn ,/, a/at lessening/nn in/in the/at reactivity/nn of/in the/at sensory/jj and/cc motor/nn apparatus/nn of/in the/at somatic/jj nervous/jj system/nn ./.
With/in the/at dominance/nn of/in the/at sympathetic/jj division/nn of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn ,/, the/at opposite/jj changes/nns occur/vb ./.
Since/cs electrical/jj stimulation/nn of/in the/at posterior/jj hypothalamus/nn produces/vbz the/at effects/nns of/in wakefulness/nn while/cs stimulation/nn of/in the/at anterior/jj hypothalamus/nn induces/vbz sleep/nn ,/, it/pps may/md be/be said/vbn that/cs the/at reactivity/nn of/in the/at whole/jj organism/nn is/bez altered/vbn by/in a/at change/nn in/in the/at autonomic/jj reactivity/nn of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn ./.
Similar/jj effects/nns can/md be/be induced/vbn reflexly/rb via/in the/at baroreceptor/nn reflexes/nns in/in man/nn and/cc animals/nns ./.


	Of/in particular/jj importance/nn is/bez the/at study/nn of/in the/at actions/nns of/in drugs/nns in/in this/dt respect/nn ./.
Although/cs no/at drugs/nns act/vb exclusively/rb on/in the/at hypothalamus/nn or/cc a/at part/nn of/in it/ppo ,/, there/ex is/bez sufficient/jj specificity/nn to/to distinguish/vb drugs/nns which/wdt shift/vb the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn to/in the/at sympathetic/jj side/nn from/in those/dts which/wdt produce/vb a/at parasympathetic/jj dominance/nn ./.
The/at former/ap comprise/vb analeptic/jj and/cc psychoactive/jj drugs/nns ,/, the/at latter/ap the/at tranquilizers/nns ./.
Specific/jj differences/nns exist/vb in/in the/at action/nn of/in different/jj drugs/nns belonging/vbg to/in the/at same/ap group/nn as/cs ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, between/in reserpine/nn and/cc chlorpromazine/nn ./.
Important/jj as/cs these/dts differences/nns are/ber ,/, they/ppss should/md not/* obscure/vb the/at basic/jj fact/nn that/cs by/in shifting/vbg the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn sufficiently/rb to/in the/at parasympathetic/jj side/nn ,/, we/ppss produce/vb depressions/nns ,/, whereas/cs a/at shift/nn in/in the/at opposite/jj direction/nn causes/vbz excitatory/jj effects/nns and/cc ,/, eventually/rb ,/, maniclike/jj changes/nns ./.
The/at emotional/jj states/nns produced/vbn by/in drugs/nns influence/vb the/at cortical/jj potentials/nns in/in a/at characteristic/jj manner/nn ;/. ;/.
synchrony/nn prevails/vbz in/in the/at EEG/nn of/in the/at experimental/jj animal/nn after/in administration/nn of/in tranquilizers/nns ,/, but/cc asynchrony/nn after/in application/nn of/in analeptic/jj and/cc psychoactive/jj drugs/nns ./.


	The/at shock/nn therapies/nns act/vb likewise/rb on/in the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn ./.
Physiological/jj experiments/nns and/cc clinical/jj observations/nns have/hv shown/vbn that/cs these/dts procedures/nns influence/vb the/at hypothalamically/rb controlled/vbn hypophyseal/jj secretions/nns and/cc increase/vb sympathetic/jj discharges/nns ./.
They/ppss shift/vb the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn to/in the/at sympathetic/jj side/nn ./.
This/dt explains/vbz the/at beneficial/jj effect/nn of/in electroshock/nn therapy/nn in/in certain/ap depressions/nns and/cc a/at shift/nn in/in the/at reaction/nn from/in hypo-/jj to/in normal/jj reactivity/nn of/in the/at sympathetic/jj system/nn as/cs shown/vbn by/in the/at Mecholyl/np test/nn ./.
Some/dti investigators/nns have/hv found/vbn a/at parallelism/nn between/in remissions/nns and/cc return/nn of/in the/at sympathetic/jj reactivity/nn of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn to/in the/at normal/jj level/nn as/cs indicated/vbn by/in the/at Mecholyl/np test/nn and/cc ,/, conversely/rb ,/, between/in clinical/jj impairment/nn and/cc increasing/vbg deviation/nn of/in this/dt test/nn from/in the/at norm/nn ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, the/at theory/nn that/cs the/at determining/vbg influence/nn of/in the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn has/hvz a/at profound/jj influence/nn on/in the/at clinical/jj behavior/nn of/in neuropsychiatric/jj patients/nns has/hvz not/* yet/rb been/ben tested/vbn on/in an/at adequate/jj number/nn of/in patients/nns ./.
The/at Mecholyl/np and/cc noradrenalin/nn tests/nns applied/vbn with/in certain/ap precautions/nns are/ber reliable/jj indicators/nns of/in this/dt central/jj autonomic/jj balance/nn ,/, but/cc for/in the/at sake/nn of/in correlating/vbg autonomic/jj and/cc clinical/jj states/nns ,/, and/cc of/in studying/vbg the/at effect/nn of/in certain/ap therapeutic/jj procedures/nns on/in central/jj autonomic/jj reactions/nns ,/, additional/jj tests/nns seem/vb to/to be/be desirable/jj ./.


	It/pps was/bedz assumed/vbn that/cs the/at shift/nn in/in autonomic/jj hypothalamic/jj balance/nn occurring/vbg spontaneously/rb in/in neuropsychiatric/jj patients/nns from/in the/at application/nn of/in certain/ap therapeutic/jj procedures/nns follows/vbz the/at pattern/nn known/vbn from/in the/at sleep-wakefulness/nn cycle/nn ./.
A/at change/nn in/in the/at balance/nn to/in the/at parasympathetic/jj side/nn leads/vbz in/in the/at normal/jj individual/nn to/in sleep/nn or/cc ,/, in/in special/jj circumstances/nns ,/, to/in cardiovascular/jj collapse/nn or/cc nausea/nn and/cc vomiting/vbg ./.
In/in both/abx conditions/nns the/at emotional/jj and/cc perceptual/jj sensitivity/nn is/bez diminished/vbn ,/, but/cc no/at depression/nn occurs/vbz such/jj as/cs is/bez seen/vbn clinically/rb or/cc may/md be/be produced/vbn in/in normal/jj persons/nns by/in drugs/nns ./.
The/at fundamental/jj differences/nns between/in physiological/jj and/cc pathological/jj states/nns of/in parasympathetic/jj (/( and/cc also/rb of/in sympathetic/jj )/) dominance/nn remain/vb to/to be/be elucidated/vbn ./.


	Perhaps/rb a/at clue/nn to/in these/dts and/cc related/vbn problems/nns lies/vbz in/in the/at fact/nn that/cs changes/nns in/in the/at intensity/nn of/in hypothalamic/jj discharges/nns which/wdt are/ber associated/vbn with/in changes/nns in/in its/pp$ balance/nn lead/vb also/rb to/in qualitative/jj alterations/nns in/in reactivity/nn ./.
A/at state/nn of/in parasympathetic/jj ``/`` tuning/nn ''/'' of/in the/at hypothalamus/nn induced/vbn experimentally/rb causes/vbz not/* only/rb an/at increase/nn in/in the/at parsympathetic/jj reactivity/nn of/in this/dt structure/nn to/in direct/jj and/cc reflexly/rb induced/vbn stimuli/nns ,/, but/cc leads/vbz also/rb to/in an/at autonomic/jj reversal/nn :/: a/at stimulus/nn acting/vbg sympathetically/rb under/in control/nn conditions/nns elicits/vbz in/in this/dt state/nn of/in tuning/vbg a/at parasympathetic/jj response/nn !/. !/.
Furthermore/rb ,/, conditioned/vbn reactions/nns are/ber fundamentally/rb altered/vbn when/wrb the/at hypothalamic/jj sympathetic/jj reactivity/nn is/bez augmented/vbn beyond/in a/at critical/jj level/nn ,/, and/cc several/ap types/nns of/in behavioral/jj changes/nns probably/rb related/vbn to/in the/at degree/nn of/in central/jj autonomic/jj ``/`` tuning/nn ''/'' are/ber observed/vbn ./.
If/cs ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, such/abl a/at change/nn is/bez produced/vbn by/in one/cd or/cc a/at few/ap insulin/nn comas/nns or/cc electroshocks/nns ,/, previously/rb inhibited/vbn conditioned/vbn reactions/nns reappear/vb ./.
However/rb ,/, if/cs these/dts procedures/nns are/ber applied/vbn more/ql often/rb ,/, conditioned/vbn emotional/jj responses/nns are/ber temporarily/rb abolished/vbn ./.
In/in other/ap studies/nns ,/, loss/nn of/in differentiation/nn in/in previously/rb established/vbn conditioned/vbn reflexes/nns resulted/vbd from/in repeated/vbn convulsive/jj (/( metrazol/nn )/) treatments/nns ,/, suggesting/vbg a/at fundamental/jj disturbance/nn in/in the/at balance/nn between/in excitatory/jj and/cc inhibitory/jj cerebral/jj processes/nns ./.


	It/pps has/hvz further/rbr been/ben shown/vbn that/cs :/: (/( 1/cd )/) an/at experimental/jj neurosis/nn in/in its/pp$ initial/jj stages/nns is/bez associated/vbn with/in a/at reversible/jj shift/nn in/in the/at central/jj autonomic/jj balance/nn ;/. ;/.
(/( 2/cd )/) drugs/nns altering/vbg the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn alter/vb conditioned/vbn reactions/nns ;/. ;/.
(/( 3/cd )/) in/in a/at state/nn of/in depression/nn ,/, the/at positive/jj conditioned/vbn stimulus/nn may/md fail/vb to/to elicit/vb a/at conditioned/vbn reaction/nn but/cc cause/vb an/at increased/vbn synchrony/nn instead/rb of/in the/at excitatory/jj desynchronizing/vbg (/( alerting/vbg )/) effect/nn on/in the/at Aj/nn ./.
These/dts are/ber few/ap and/cc seemingly/rb disjointed/vbn data/nns ,/, but/cc they/ppss illustrate/vb the/at important/jj fact/nn that/cs fundamental/jj alterations/nns in/in conditioned/vbn reactions/nns occur/vb in/in a/at variety/nn of/in states/nns in/in which/wdt the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn has/hvz been/ben altered/vbn by/in physiological/jj experimentation/nn ,/, pharmacological/jj action/nn ,/, or/cc clinical/jj processes/nns ./.



14/cd-hl ./.-hl
On/in-hl the/at-hl physiological/jj-hl basis/nn-hl of/in-hl some/dti-hl form/nn-hl of/in-hl psychotherapy/nn-hl 
The/at foregoing/vbg remarks/nns imply/vb that/cs the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn plays/vbz a/at crucial/jj role/nn at/in the/at crossroads/nns between/in physiological/jj and/cc pathological/jj forms/nns of/in emotion/nn ./.
If/cs this/dt is/bez the/at case/nn ,/, one/pn would/md expect/vb that/cs not/* only/rb the/at various/jj procedures/nns just/rb mentioned/vbn which/wdt alter/vb the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn would/md influence/vb emotional/jj state/nn and/cc behavior/nn but/cc that/dt emotion/nn itself/ppl would/md act/vb likewise/rb ./.
We/ppss pointed/vbd out/rp that/cs emotional/jj excitement/nn may/md lead/vb to/in psychosomatic/jj disorders/nns and/cc neurotic/jj symptoms/nns ,/, particularly/rb in/in certain/ap types/nns of/in personality/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez also/rb known/vbn that/cs the/at reliving/nn of/in a/at strong/jj emotion/nn (/( ``/`` abreaction/nn ''/'' )/) may/md cure/vb a/at battle/nn neurosis/nn ./.
This/dt phenomenon/nn raises/vbz the/at question/nn whether/cs the/at guidance/nn of/in the/at emotions/nns for/in therapeutic/jj ends/nns may/md not/* have/hv an/at even/rb wider/jjr application/nn in/in the/at area/nn of/in the/at neuroses/nns ./.
Being/beg a/at strictly/ql physiological/jj procedure/nn ,/, one/pn may/md expect/vb from/in such/abl a/at study/nn additional/jj information/nn on/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at emotional/jj process/nn itself/ppl ./.


	Wolpe's/np$ experiments/nns and/cc therapeutic/jj work/nn lie/vb in/in this/dt area/nn ./.
He/pps showed/vbd convincingly/rb that/cs anxiety/nn is/bez a/at learned/vbn (/( conditioned/vbn )/) reaction/nn and/cc is/bez the/at basis/nn of/in experimental/jj and/cc clinical/jj neuroses/nns and/cc assumed/vbd ,/, therefore/rb ,/, that/cs the/at neuronal/jj changes/nns which/wdt underlie/vb the/at neuroses/nns are/ber functional/jj and/cc reversible/jj ./.
An/at important/jj observation/nn of/in Pavlov/np served/vbd as/cs a/at guide/nn post/nn to/to achieve/vb such/abl a/at reversibility/nn by/in physiological/jj means/nns ./.
In/in a/at conditioning/vbg experiment/nn ,/, he/pps demonstrated/vbd the/at antagonism/nn between/in feeding/vbg and/cc pain/nn ./.
A/at mild/jj electrical/jj shock/nn served/vbd as/cs a/at conditioned/vbn stimulus/nn and/cc was/bedz followed/vbn by/in feeding/vbg ./.
The/at pain/nn became/vbd thus/rb the/at symbol/nn for/in food/nn and/cc elicited/vbd salivary/jj secretion/nn (/( conditioned/vbn reflex/nn )/) ./.
Even/rb when/wrb the/at intensity/nn of/in the/at shocks/nns was/bedz increased/vbn gradually/rb ,/, it/pps failed/vbd to/to evoke/vb any/dti signs/nns of/in pain/nn ./.
Since/cs strong/jj nociceptive/jj stimuli/nns produce/vb an/at experimental/jj neurosis/nn during/in which/wdt the/at animals/nns fail/vb to/to eat/vb in/in the/at experimental/jj situation/nn ,/, Wolpe/np thought/vbd that/cs he/pps could/md utilize/vb the/at feeding-pain/nn antagonism/nn to/to inhibit/vb the/at neurotic/jj symptoms/nns through/in feeding/vbg ./.
Appropriate/jj experiments/nns showed/vbd that/cs this/dt is/bez ,/, indeed/rb ,/, possible/jj ./.
He/pps then/rb applied/vbd this/dt principle/nn of/in reciprocal/jj inhibition/nn to/in human/jj neuroses/nns ./.
He/pps took/vbd advantage/nn of/in the/at antagonism/nn between/in aggressive/jj assertiveness/nn and/cc anxiety/nn and/cc found/vbd a/at relatively/ql rapid/jj disappearance/nn of/in anxiety/nn when/wrb the/at former/ap attitude/nn was/bedz established/vbn ./.


	For/in the/at interpretation/nn of/in these/dts significant/jj investigations/nns ,/, it/pps should/md be/be remembered/vbn that/cs reciprocal/jj relations/nns exist/vb in/in the/at hypothalamus/nn with/in respect/nn to/in autonomic/jj and/cc somatic/jj functions/nns which/wdt are/ber closely/rb associated/vbn with/in the/at emotions/nns ./.
The/at feeding-pain/nn antagonism/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be based/vbn on/in this/dt reciprocal/jj relation/nn between/in the/at tropho-/jj and/cc ergotropic/jj systems/nns ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, a/at functional/jj antagonism/nn exists/vbz between/in an/at aggressive/jj attitude/nn and/cc a/at state/nn of/in anxiety/nn ./.
Although/cs in/in both/abx emotions/nns sympathetic/jj symptoms/nns are/ber present/rb ,/, different/jj autonomic-somatic/jj patterns/nns underlie/vb aggression/nn and/cc anxiety/nn ,/, respectively/rb ,/, as/cs indicated/vbn by/in the/at rate/nn of/in the/at excretion/nn of/in the/at catecholamines/nns ,/, the/at state/nn of/in the/at muscle/nn tone/nn ,/, and/cc the/at Mecholyl/np test/nn ./.
The/at psychological/jj incompatibility/nn of/in these/dts emotional/jj states/nns seems/vbz to/to be/be reflected/vbn in/in ,/, or/cc based/vbn on/in ,/, this/dt marked/vbn difference/nn ./.



15/cd-hl ./.-hl
Concluding/vbg-hl remarks/nns-hl 
In/in our/pp$ attempt/nn to/to interpret/vb the/at emotions/nns in/in their/pp$ physiological/jj and/cc pathological/jj range/nn ,/, we/ppss emphasized/vbd the/at importance/nn of/in the/at degree/nn of/in activity/nn of/in the/at parasympathetic/jj and/cc sympathetic/jj divisions/nns of/in the/at hypothalamic/jj system/nn and/cc their/pp$ influence/nn on/in the/at inhibitory/jj and/cc excitatory/jj systems/nns ,/, respectively/rb ./.
We/ppss stressed/vbd the/at reciprocal/jj relation/nn of/in these/dts systems/nns with/in respect/nn to/in the/at autonomic-somatic/jj downward/jj discharge/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs regarding/in the/at hypothalamic-cortical/jj discharge/nn ./.
Although/cs we/ppss are/ber still/rb far/rb from/in a/at complete/jj understanding/nn of/in these/dts problems/nns ,/, as/cs a/at first/od approximation/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez suggested/vbn that/cs alterations/nns in/in the/at hypothalamic/jj balance/nn with/in consequent/jj changes/nns in/in the/at hypothalamic-cortical/jj discharges/nns account/vb for/in major/jj changes/nns in/in behavior/nn seen/vbn in/in various/jj moods/nns and/cc states/nns of/in emotions/nns in/in man/nn and/cc beast/nn under/in physiological/jj circumstances/nns ,/, in/in experimental/jj and/cc clinical/jj neurosis/nn ,/, and/cc as/cs the/at result/nn of/in psychopharmacological/jj agents/nns ./.
In/in view/nn of/in the/at important/jj role/nn which/wdt emotional/jj disturbances/nns play/vb in/in the/at genesis/nn of/in neurotic/jj and/cc psychotic/jj disorders/nns and/cc the/at parallelism/nn observed/vbn between/in autonomic/jj states/nns and/cc psychological/jj behavior/nn in/in several/ap instances/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez further/rbr suggested/vbn that/cs a/at hypothalamic/jj imbalance/nn may/md play/vb an/at important/jj role/nn in/in initiating/vbg mental/jj changes/nns ./.




6.4/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl primary/jj-hl decomposition/nn-hl theorem/nn-hl 
We/ppss are/ber trying/vbg to/to study/vb a/at linear/jj operator/nn T/nn on/in the/at finite-dimensional/jj space/nn V/nn ,/, by/in decomposing/vbg T/nn into/in a/at direct/jj sum/nn of/in operators/nns which/wdt are/ber in/in some/dti sense/nn elementary/jj ./.
We/ppss can/md do/do this/dt through/in the/at characteristic/jj values/nns and/cc vectors/nns of/in T/nn in/in certain/ap special/jj cases/nns ,/, i.e./rb ,/, when/wrb the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/nn factors/nns over/in the/at scalar/jj field/nn F/nn into/in a/at product/nn of/in distinct/jj monic/jj polynomials/nns of/in degree/nn 1/cd ./.
What/wdt can/md we/ppss do/do with/in the/at general/jj T/nn ?/. ?/.
If/cs we/ppss try/vb to/to study/vb T/nn using/vbg characteristic/jj values/nns ,/, we/ppss are/ber confronted/vbn with/in two/cd problems/nns ./.
First/od ,/, T/nn may/md not/* have/hv a/at single/ap characteristic/jj value/nn ;/. ;/.
this/dt is/bez really/rb a/at deficiency/nn in/in the/at scalar/jj field/nn ,/, namely/rb ,/, that/cs it/pps is/bez not/* algebraically/rb closed/vbn ./.
Second/od ,/, even/rb if/cs the/at characteristic/jj polynomial/nn factors/vbz completely/rb over/in F/nn into/in a/at product/nn of/in polynomials/nns of/in degree/nn 1/cd ,/, there/ex may/md not/* be/be enough/ap characteristic/jj vectors/nns for/in T/nn to/to span/vb the/at space/nn V/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez clearly/rb a/at deficiency/nn in/in T/nn ./.
The/at second/od situation/nn is/bez illustrated/vbn by/in the/at operator/nn T/nn on/in Af/nn (/( F/nn any/dti field/nn )/) represented/vbn in/in the/at standard/jj basis/nn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at characteristic/jj polynomial/nn for/in A/nn is/bez Af/nn and/cc this/dt is/bez plainly/rb also/rb the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in A/nn (/( or/cc for/in T/nn )/) ./.
Thus/rb T/nn is/bez not/* diagonalizable/jj ./.
One/pn sees/vbz that/cs this/dt happens/vbz because/cs the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn has/hvz dimension/nn 1/cd only/rb ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn and/cc the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn together/rb span/vb V/nn ,/, the/at former/ap being/beg the/at subspace/nn spanned/vbn by/in Af/nn and/cc the/at latter/ap the/at subspace/nn spanned/vbn by/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.


	This/dt will/nn be/be more/ap or/cc less/ap our/pp$ general/jj method/nn for/in the/at second/od problem/nn ./.
If/cs (/( remember/vb this/dt is/bez an/at assumption/nn )/) the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/nn decomposes/vbz Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn are/ber distinct/jj elements/nns of/in F/nn ,/, then/rb we/ppss shall/md show/vb that/cs the/at space/nn V/nn is/bez the/at direct/jj sum/nn of/in the/at null/jj spaces/nns of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn is/bez the/at special/jj case/nn of/in this/dt in/in which/wdt Af/nn for/in each/dt i/nn ./.
The/at theorem/nn which/wdt we/ppss prove/vb is/bez more/ql general/jj than/cs what/wdt we/ppss have/hv described/vbn ,/, since/cs it/pps works/vbz with/in the/at primary/jj decomposition/nn of/in the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn ,/, whether/cs or/cc not/* the/at primes/nns which/wdt enter/vb are/ber all/abn of/in first/od degree/nn ./.
The/at reader/nn will/md find/vb it/ppo helpful/jj to/to think/vb of/in the/at special/jj case/nn when/wrb the/at primes/nns are/ber of/in degree/nn 1/cd ,/, and/cc even/rb more/ql particularly/rb ,/, to/to think/vb of/in the/at proof/nn of/in Theorem/nn-tl 10/cd-tl ,/, a/at special/jj case/nn of/in this/dt theorem/nn ./.



Theorem/nn-tl-hl 12/cd-tl-hl ./.-hl
(/(-hl primary/jj-hl decomposition/nn-hl theorem/nn-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Let/vb T/nn be/be a/at linear/jj operator/nn on/in the/at finite-dimensional/jj vector/nn space/nn V/np over/in the/at field/nn F/np ./.
Let/vb p/nn be/be the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/np ,/, Af/nn ,/, where/wrb the/at Af/nn ,/, are/ber distinct/jj irreducible/jj monic/jj polynomials/nns over/in F/np and/cc the/at Af/nn are/ber positive/jj integers/nns ./.
Let/vb Af/nn be/be the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Then/rb (/( A/np )/) Af/nn ;/. ;/.
(/( B/np )/) each/dt Af/nn is/bez invariant/jj under/in T/np ;/. ;/.
(/( C/np )/) if/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at operator/nn induced/vbn on/in Af/nn by/in T/np ,/, then/rb the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in Af/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.
Proof/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at idea/nn of/in the/at proof/nn is/bez this/dt ./.
If/cs the/at direct-sum/nn decomposition/nn (/( A/at-tl )/) is/bez valid/jj ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss get/vb hold/nn of/in the/at projections/nns Af/nn associated/vbn with/in the/at decomposition/nn ?/. ?/.
The/at projection/nn Af/nn will/md be/be the/at identity/nn on/in Af/nn and/cc zero/nn on/in the/at other/ap Af/nn ./.
We/ppss shall/md find/vb a/at polynomial/nn Af/nn such/jj that/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at identity/nn on/in Af/nn and/cc is/bez zero/nn on/in the/at other/ap Af/nn ,/, and/cc so/cs that/cs Af/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.


	For/in each/dt i/nn ,/, let/vb Af/nn ./.
Since/cs Af/nn are/ber distinct/jj prime/jj polynomials/nns ,/, the/at polynomials/nns Af/nn are/ber relatively/rb prime/jj (/( Theorem/nn-tl 8/cd-tl ,/, Chapter/nn-tl 4/cd-tl )/) ./.
Thus/rb there/ex are/ber polynomials/nns Af/nn such/jj that/cs Af/nn ./.
Note/vb also/rb that/cs if/cs Af/nn ,/, then/rb Af/nn is/bez divisible/jj by/in the/at polynomial/nn p/nn ,/, because/cs Af/nn contains/vbz each/dt Af/nn as/cs a/at factor/nn ./.
We/ppss shall/md show/vb that/cs the/at polynomials/nns Af/nn behave/vb in/in the/at manner/nn described/vbn in/in the/at first/od paragraph/nn of/in the/at proof/nn ./.


	Let/vb Af/nn ./.
Since/cs Af/nn and/cc P/np divides/vbz Af/nn for/in Af/nn ,/, we/ppss have/hv Af/nn ./.
Thus/rb the/at Af/nn are/ber projections/nns which/wdt correspond/vb to/in some/dti direct-sum/nn decomposition/nn of/in the/at space/nn V/nn ./.
We/ppss wish/vb to/to show/vb that/cs the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn is/bez exactly/rb the/at subspace/nn Af/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs each/dt vector/nn in/in the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn is/bez in/in Af/nn for/cs if/cs **ya/nn is/bez in/in the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, then/rb Af/nn and/cc so/rb Af/nn because/cs Af/nn is/bez divisible/jj by/in the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn P/np ./.
Conversely/rb ,/, suppose/vb that/cs **ya/nn is/bez in/in the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs Af/nn ,/, then/jj Af/nn is/bez divisible/jj by/in Af/nn and/cc so/rb Af/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, Af/nn ./.
But/cc then/rb it/pps is/bez immediate/jj that/dt Af/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, that/cs **ya/nn is/bez in/in the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
This/dt completes/vbz the/at proof/nn of/in statement/nn (/( A/np )/) ./.


	It/pps is/bez certainly/rb clear/jj that/cs the/at subspaces/nns Af/nn are/ber invariant/jj under/in T/nn ./.
If/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at operator/nn induced/vbn on/in Af/nn by/in T/nn ,/, then/rb evidently/rb Af/nn ,/, because/cs by/in definition/nn Af/nn is/bez 0/cd on/in the/at subspace/nn Af/nn ./.
This/dt shows/vbz that/cs the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in Af/nn divides/vbz Af/nn ./.
Conversely/rb ,/, let/vb G/np be/be any/dti polynomial/nn such/jj that/cs Af/nn ./.
Then/rb Af/nn ./.
Thus/rb Af/nn is/bez divisible/jj by/in the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn P/np of/in T/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, Af/nn divides/vbz Af/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez easily/rb seen/vbn that/cs Af/nn divides/vbz G/np ./.
Hence/rb the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in Af/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.



Corollary/nn-hl ./.-hl

If/cs Af/nn are/ber the/at projections/nns associated/vbn with/in the/at primary/jj decomposition/nn of/in T/np ,/, then/rb each/dt Af/nn is/bez a/at polynomial/nn in/in T/np ,/, and/cc accordingly/rb if/cs a/at linear/jj operator/nn U/np commutes/vbz with/in T/np then/rb U/nn commutes/vbz with/in each/dt of/in the/at Af/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, each/dt subspace/nn Af/nn is/bez invariant/jj under/in U/np ./.


	In/in the/at notation/nn of/in the/at proof/nn of/in Theorem/nn-tl 12/cd-tl ,/, let/vb us/ppo take/vb a/at look/nn at/in the/at special/jj case/nn in/in which/wdt the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/nn is/bez a/at product/nn of/in first-degree/nn polynomials/nns ,/, i.e./rb ,/, the/at case/nn in/in which/wdt each/dt Af/nn is/bez of/in the/at form/nn Af/nn ./.
Now/rb the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn is/bez the/at null/jj space/nn Af/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo put/vb Af/nn ./.
By/in Theorem/nn-tl 10/cd-tl ,/, D/nn is/bez a/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn which/wdt we/ppss shall/md call/vb the/at diagonalizable/jj part/nn of/in T/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo look/vb at/in the/at operator/nn Af/nn ./.
Now/rb Af/nn Af/nn so/rb Af/nn ./.
The/at reader/nn should/md be/be familiar/jj enough/qlp with/in projections/nns by/in now/rb so/cs that/cs he/pps sees/vbz that/cs Af/nn and/cc in/in general/jj that/cs Af/nn ./.
When/wrb Af/nn for/in each/dt i/nn ,/, we/ppss shall/md have/hv Af/nn ,/, because/cs the/at operator/nn Af/nn will/md then/rb be/be 0/cd on/in the/at range/nn of/in Af/nn ./.



Definition/nn-hl ./.-hl

Let/vb N/nn be/be a/at linear/jj operator/nn on/in the/at vector/nn space/nn V/np ./.
We/ppss say/vb that/cs N/nn-tl is/bez nilpotent/jj if/cs there/ex is/bez some/dti positive/jj integer/nn R/np such/jj that/cs Af/nn ./.



Theorem/nn-hl 13/cd-hl ./.-hl

Let/vb T/nn be/be a/at linear/jj operator/nn on/in the/at finite-dimensional/jj vector/nn space/nn V/np over/in the/at field/nn F/np ./.
Suppose/vb that/cs the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/np decomposes/vbz over/in F/np into/in a/at product/nn of/in linear/jj polynomials/nns ./.
Then/rb there/ex is/bez a/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn D/np on/in V/nn and/cc a/at nilpotent/jj operator/nn N/nn in/in V/nn such/jj that/cs (/( A/np )/) Af/nn ,/, (/( b/nn )/) Af/nn ./.
The/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn D/np and/cc the/at nilpotent/jj operator/nn N/nn-tl are/ber uniquely/rb determined/vbn by/in (/( A/np )/) and/cc (/( B/np )/) and/cc each/dt of/in them/ppo is/bez a/at polynomial/nn in/in T/np ./.
Proof/nn-hl ./.-hl

We/ppss have/hv just/rb observed/vbn that/cs we/ppss can/md write/vb Af/nn where/wrb D/nn is/bez diagonalizable/jj and/cc N/nn is/bez nilpotent/jj ,/, and/cc where/wrb D/nn and/cc N/nn not/* only/rb commute/vb but/cc are/ber polynomials/nns in/in T/nn ./.
Now/rb suppose/vb that/cs we/ppss also/rb have/hv Af/nn where/wrb D'/nn is/bez diagonalizable/jj ,/, N'/nn is/bez nilpotent/jj ,/, and/cc Af/nn ./.
We/ppss shall/md prove/vb that/cs Af/nn ./.


	Since/cs D'/nn and/cc N'/nn commute/vb with/in one/cd another/dt and/cc Af/nn ,/, we/ppss see/vb that/cs D'/nn and/cc N'/nn commute/vb with/in T/nn ./.
Thus/rb D'/nn and/cc N'/nn commute/vb with/in any/dti polynomial/nn in/in T/nn ;/. ;/.
hence/rb they/ppss commute/vb with/in D/nn and/cc with/in N/nn ./.
Now/rb we/ppss have/hv Af/nn or/cc Af/nn and/cc all/abn four/cd of/in these/dts operators/nns commute/vb with/in one/cd another/dt ./.
Since/cs D/nn and/cc D'/nn are/ber both/abx diagonalizable/jj and/cc they/ppss commute/vb ,/, they/ppss are/ber simultaneously/rb diagonalizable/jj ,/, and/cc Af/nn is/bez diagonalizable/jj ./.
Since/cs N/nn and/cc N'/nn are/ber both/abx nilpotent/jj and/cc they/ppss commute/vb ,/, the/at operator/nn Af/nn is/bez nilpotent/jj ;/. ;/.
for/cs ,/, using/vbg the/at fact/nn that/dt N/nn and/cc N'/nn commute/vb Af/nn and/cc so/rb when/wrb R/np is/bez sufficiently/ql large/jj every/at term/nn in/in this/dt expression/nn for/in Af/nn will/md be/be 0/cd ./.
(/( Actually/rb ,/, a/at nilpotent/jj operator/nn on/in an/at n-dimensional/nn space/nn must/md have/hv its/pp$ T/np power/nn 0/cd ;/. ;/.
if/cs we/ppss take/vb Af/nn above/rb ,/, that/dt will/md be/be large/jj enough/qlp ./.
It/pps then/rb follows/vbz that/cs Af/nn is/bez large/jj enough/qlp ,/, but/cc this/dt is/bez not/* obvious/jj from/in the/at above/jj expression/nn ./.
)/) Now/rb Af/nn is/bez a/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn which/wdt is/bez also/rb nilpotent/jj ./.
Such/abl an/at operator/nn is/bez obviously/rb the/at zero/nn operator/nn ;/. ;/.
for/cs since/cs it/pps is/bez nilpotent/jj ,/, the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in this/dt operator/nn is/bez of/in the/at form/nn Af/nn for/in some/dti Af/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc then/rb since/cs the/at operator/nn is/bez diagonalizable/jj ,/, the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn cannot/md* have/hv a/at repeated/vbn root/nn ;/. ;/.
hence/rb Af/nn and/cc the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn is/bez simply/rb x/nn ,/, which/wdt says/vbz the/at operator/nn is/bez 0/cd ./.
Thus/rb we/ppss see/vb that/cs Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.



Corollary/nn-hl ./.-hl

Let/vb V/nn be/be a/at finite-dimensional/jj vector/nn space/nn over/in an/at algebraically/rb closed/vbn field/nn F/nn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, the/at field/nn of/in complex/jj numbers/nns ./.
Then/rb every/at linear/jj operator/nn T/np in/in V/nn can/md be/be written/vbn as/cs the/at sum/nn of/in a/at diagonalizable/jj operator/nn D/np and/cc a/at nilpotent/jj operator/nn N/nn-tl which/wdt commute/vb ./.
These/dts operators/nns D/nn and/cc N/nn are/ber unique/jj and/cc each/dt is/bez a/at polynomial/nn in/in T/np ./.


	From/in these/dts results/nns ,/, one/pn sees/vbz that/cs the/at study/nn of/in linear/jj operators/nns on/in vector/nn spaces/nns over/in an/at algebraically/rb closed/vbn field/nn is/bez essentially/rb reduced/vbn to/in the/at study/nn of/in nilpotent/jj operators/nns ./.
For/in vector/nn spaces/nns over/in non-algebraically/rb closed/vbn fields/nns ,/, we/ppss still/rb need/vb to/to find/vb some/dti substitute/nn for/in characteristic/jj values/nns and/cc vectors/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at very/ql interesting/jj fact/nn that/cs these/dts two/cd problems/nns can/md be/be handled/vbn simultaneously/rb and/cc this/dt is/bez what/wdt we/ppss shall/md do/do in/in the/at next/ap chapter/nn ./.


	In/in concluding/vbg this/dt section/nn ,/, we/ppss should/md like/vb to/to give/vb an/at example/nn which/wdt illustrates/vbz some/dti of/in the/at ideas/nns of/in the/at primary/jj decomposition/nn theorem/nn ./.
We/ppss have/hv chosen/vbn to/to give/vb it/ppo at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at section/nn since/cs it/pps deals/vbz with/in differential/jj equations/nns and/cc thus/rb is/bez not/* purely/rb linear/jj algebra/nn ./.



Example/nn-hl 11/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in the/at primary/jj decomposition/nn theorem/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* necessary/jj that/cs the/at vector/nn space/nn V/nn be/be finite/jj dimensional/jj ,/, nor/cc is/bez it/pps necessary/jj for/in parts/nns (/( A/np )/) and/cc (/( B/np )/) that/cs P/np be/be the/at minimal/jj polynomial/nn for/in T/nn ./.
If/cs T/nn is/bez a/at linear/jj operator/nn on/in an/at arbitrary/jj vector/nn space/nn and/cc if/cs there/ex is/bez a/at monic/jj polynomial/nn P/np such/jj that/cs Af/nn ,/, then/rb parts/nns (/( A/np )/) and/cc (/( B/np )/) of/in Theorem/nn-tl 12/cd-tl are/ber valid/jj for/in T/nn with/in the/at proof/nn which/wdt we/ppss gave/vbd ./.


	Let/vb N/nn-tl be/be a/at positive/jj integer/nn and/cc let/vb V/nn be/be the/at space/nn of/in all/abn N/nn-tl times/nns continuously/rb differentiable/jj functions/nns F/np on/in the/at real/jj line/nn which/wdt satisfy/vb the/at differential/jj equation/nn Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn are/ber some/dti fixed/vbn constants/nns ./.
If/cs Af/nn denotes/vbz the/at space/nn of/in N/nn-tl times/nns continuously/rb differentiable/jj functions/nns ,/, then/rb the/at space/nn V/nn of/in solutions/nns of/in this/dt differential/jj equation/nn is/bez a/at subspace/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs D/nn denotes/vbz the/at differentiation/nn operator/nn and/cc P/np is/bez the/at polynomial/nn Af/nn then/rb V/nn is/bez the/at null/jj space/nn of/in the/at operator/nn p/nn (/( ,/, )/) ,/, because/cs Af/nn simply/rb says/vbz Af/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo now/rb regard/vb D/nn as/cs a/at linear/jj operator/nn on/in the/at subspace/nn V/nn ./.
Then/rb Af/nn ./.


	If/cs we/ppss are/ber discussing/vbg differentiable/jj complex-valued/jj functions/nns ,/, then/jj Af/nn and/cc V/nn are/ber complex/jj vector/nn spaces/nns ,/, and/cc Af/nn may/md be/be any/dti complex/jj numbers/nns ./.
We/ppss now/rb write/vb Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn are/ber distinct/jj complex/jj numbers/nns ./.
If/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at null/jj space/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, then/rb Theorem/nn-tl 12/cd-tl says/vbz that/cs Af/nn ./.
In/in other/ap words/nns ,/, if/cs F/np satisfies/vbz the/at differential/jj equation/nn Af/nn ,/, then/rb F/np is/bez uniquely/rb expressible/jj in/in the/at form/nn Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn satisfies/vbz the/at differential/jj equation/nn Af/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at study/nn of/in the/at solutions/nns to/in the/at equation/nn Af/nn is/bez reduced/vbn to/in the/at study/nn of/in the/at space/nn of/in solutions/nns of/in a/at differential/jj equation/nn of/in the/at form/nn Af/nn ./.
This/dt reduction/nn has/hvz been/ben accomplished/vbn by/in the/at general/jj methods/nns of/in linear/jj algebra/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, by/in the/at primary/jj decomposition/nn theorem/nn ./.


	To/to describe/vb the/at space/nn of/in solutions/nns to/in Af/nn ,/, one/pn must/md know/vb something/pn about/in differential/jj equations/nns ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, one/pn must/md know/vb something/pn about/in D/nn other/ap than/cs the/at fact/nn that/cs it/pps is/bez a/at linear/jj operator/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, one/pn does/doz not/* need/vb to/to know/vb very/ql much/ap ./.
It/pps is/bez very/ql easy/jj to/to establish/vb by/in induction/nn on/in R/np that/cs if/cs F/np is/bez in/in Af/nn then/rb Af/nn ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, Af/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.
Thus/rb Af/nn if/cs and/cc only/rb if/cs Af/nn ./.
A/at function/nn G/np such/jj that/cs Af/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, Af/nn ,/, must/md be/be a/at polynomial/jj function/nn of/in degree/nn Af/nn or/cc less/ap :/: Af/nn ./.
Thus/rb F/np satisfies/vbz Af/nn if/cs and/cc only/rb if/cs F/np has/hvz the/at form/nn Af/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, the/at '/' functions/nns '/' Af/nn span/vb the/at space/nn of/in solutions/nns of/in Af/nn ./.
Since/cs Af/nn are/ber linearly/rb independent/jj functions/nns and/cc the/at exponential/jj function/nn has/hvz no/at zeros/nns ,/, these/dts R/np functions/nns Af/nn ,/, form/vb a/at basis/nn for/in the/at space/nn of/in solutions/nns ./.




7-1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Examples/nns-hl of/in-hl binomial/jj-hl experiments/nns-hl 
Some/dti experiments/nns are/ber composed/vbn of/in repetitions/nns of/in independent/jj trials/nns ,/, each/dt with/in two/cd possible/jj outcomes/nns ./.
The/at binomial/jj probability/nn distribution/nn may/md describe/vb the/at variation/nn that/wps occurs/vbz from/in one/cd set/nn of/in trials/nns of/in such/abl a/at binomial/jj experiment/nn to/in another/dt ./.
We/ppss devote/vb a/at chapter/nn to/in the/at binomial/jj distribution/nn not/* only/rb because/cs it/pps is/bez a/at mathematical/jj model/nn for/in an/at enormous/jj variety/nn of/in real/jj life/nn phenomena/nns ,/, but/cc also/rb because/cs it/pps has/hvz important/jj properties/nns that/wps recur/vb in/in many/ap other/ap probability/nn models/nns ./.
We/ppss begin/vb with/in a/at few/ap examples/nns of/in binomial/jj experiments/nns ./.
Marksmanship/nn-hl example/nn-hl ./.-hl

A/at trained/vbn marksman/nn shooting/vbg five/cd rounds/nns at/in a/at target/nn ,/, all/abn under/in practically/rb the/at same/ap conditions/nns ,/, may/md hit/vb the/at bull's-eye/nn from/in 0/cd to/in 5/cd times/nns ./.
In/in repeated/vbn sets/nns of/in five/cd shots/nns his/pp$ numbers/nns of/in bull's-eyes/nns vary/vb ./.
What/wdt can/md we/ppss say/vb of/in the/at probabilities/nns of/in the/at different/jj possible/jj numbers/nns of/in bull's-eyes/nns ?/. ?/.
Inheritance/nn-hl in/in-hl mice/nns-hl ./.-hl

In/in litters/nns of/in eight/cd mice/nns from/in similar/jj parents/nns ,/, the/at number/nn of/in mice/nns with/in straight/jj instead/rb of/in wavy/jj hair/nn is/bez an/at integer/nn from/in 0/cd to/in 8/cd ./.
What/wdt probabilities/nns should/md be/be attached/vbn to/in these/dts possible/jj outcomes/nns ?/. ?/.
Aces/nns-hl (/(-hl ones/nns-hl )/)-hl with/in-hl three/cd-hl dice/nns-hl ./.-hl

When/wrb three/cd dice/nns are/ber tossed/vbn repeatedly/rb ,/, what/wdt is/bez the/at probability/nn that/cs the/at number/nn of/in aces/nns is/bez 0/cd (/( or/cc 1/cd ,/, or/cc 2/cd ,/, or/cc 3/cd )/) ?/. ?/.
General/jj-hl binomial/jj-hl problem/nn-hl ./.-hl

More/ql generally/rb ,/, suppose/vb that/cs an/at experiment/nn consists/vbz of/in a/at number/nn of/in independent/jj trials/nns ,/, that/cs each/dt trial/nn results/vbz in/in either/cc a/at ``/`` success/nn ''/'' or/cc a/at ``/`` non-success/nn ''/'' (/( ``/`` failure/nn ''/'' )/) ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at probability/nn of/in success/nn remains/vbz constant/jj from/in trial/nn to/in trial/nn ./.
In/in the/at examples/nns above/rb ,/, the/at occurrence/nn of/in a/at bull's-eye/nn ,/, a/at straight-haired/jj mouse/nn ,/, or/cc an/at ace/nn could/md be/be called/vbn a/at ``/`` success/nn ''/'' ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, any/dti outcome/nn we/ppss choose/vb may/md be/be labeled/vbn ``/`` success/nn ''/'' ./.


	The/at major/jj question/nn in/in this/dt chapter/nn is/bez :/: What/wdt is/bez the/at probability/nn of/in exactly/rb X/np successes/nns in/in N/np trials/nns ?/. ?/.


	In/in Chapters/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl we/ppss answered/vbd questions/nns like/cs those/dts in/in the/at examples/nns ,/, usually/rb by/in counting/vbg points/nns in/in a/at sample/nn space/nn ./.
Fortunately/rb ,/, a/at general/jj formula/nn of/in wide/jj applicability/nn solves/vbz all/abn problems/nns of/in this/dt kind/nn ./.
Before/cs deriving/vbg this/dt formula/nn ,/, we/ppss explain/vb what/wdt we/ppss mean/vb by/in ``/`` problems/nns of/in this/dt kind/nn ''/'' ./.


	Experiments/nns are/ber often/rb composed/vbn of/in several/ap identical/jj trials/nns ,/, and/cc sometimes/rb experiments/nns themselves/ppls are/ber repeated/vbn ./.
In/in the/at marksmanship/nn example/nn ,/, a/at trial/nn consists/vbz of/in ``/`` one/cd round/nn shot/vbn at/in a/at target/nn ''/'' with/in outcome/nn either/cc one/cd bull's-eye/nn (/( success/nn )/) or/cc none/pn (/( failure/nn )/) ./.
Further/rbr ,/, an/at experiment/nn might/md consist/vb of/in five/cd rounds/nns ,/, and/cc several/ap sets/nns of/in five/cd rounds/nns might/md be/be regarded/vbn as/cs a/at super-experiment/nn composed/vbn of/in several/ap repetitions/nns of/in the/at five-round/jj experiment/nn ./.
If/cs three/cd dice/nns are/ber tossed/vbn ,/, a/at trial/nn is/bez one/cd toss/nn of/in one/cd die/nn and/cc the/at experiment/nn is/bez composed/vbn of/in three/cd trials/nns ./.
Or/cc ,/, what/wdt amounts/vbz to/in the/at same/ap thing/nn ,/, if/cs one/cd die/nn is/bez tossed/vbn three/cd times/nns ,/, each/dt toss/nn is/bez a/at trial/nn ,/, and/cc the/at three/cd tosses/nns form/vb the/at experiment/nn ./.
Mathematically/rb ,/, we/ppss shall/md not/* distinguish/vb the/at experiment/nn of/in three/cd dice/nns tossed/vbn once/rb from/in that/dt of/in one/cd die/nn tossed/vbn three/cd times/nns ./.
These/dts examples/nns are/ber illustrative/jj of/in the/at use/nn of/in the/at words/nns ``/`` trial/nn-nc ''/'' and/cc ``/`` experiment/nn-nc ''/'' as/cs they/ppss are/ber used/vbn in/in this/dt chapter/nn ,/, but/cc they/ppss are/ber quite/ql flexible/jj words/nns and/cc it/pps is/bez well/rb not/* to/to restrict/vb them/ppo too/ql narrowly/rb ./.
Example/nn-hl 1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Student/nn-hl football/nn-hl managers/nns-hl ./.-hl

Ten/cd students/nns act/vb as/cs managers/nns for/in a/at high-school/nn football/nn team/nn ,/, and/cc of/in these/dts managers/nns a/at proportion/nn P/np are/ber licensed/vbn drivers/nns ./.
Each/dt Friday/nr one/cd manager/nn is/bez chosen/vbn by/in lot/nn to/to stay/vb late/rb and/cc load/vb the/at equipment/nn on/in a/at truck/nn ./.
On/in three/cd Fridays/nrs the/at coach/nn has/hvz needed/vbn a/at driver/nn ./.
Considering/in only/rb these/dts Fridays/nrs ,/, what/wdt is/bez the/at probability/nn that/cs the/at coach/nn had/hvd drivers/nns all/abn 3/cd times/nns ?/. ?/.
Exactly/rb 2/cd times/nns ?/. ?/.
1/cd time/nn ?/. ?/.
0/cd times/nns ?/. ?/.
Discussion/nn-hl ./.-hl

Note/vb that/cs there/ex are/ber 3/cd trials/nns of/in interest/nn ./.
Each/dt trial/nn consists/vbz of/in choosing/vbg a/at student/nn manager/nn at/in random/nn ./.
The/at 2/cd possible/jj outcomes/nns on/in each/dt trial/nn are/ber ``/`` driver/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` nondriver/nn ''/'' ./.
Since/cs the/at choice/nn is/bez by/in lot/nn each/dt week/nn ,/, the/at outcomes/nns of/in different/jj trials/nns are/ber independent/jj ./.
The/at managers/nns stay/vb the/at same/ap ,/, so/cs that/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at same/ap for/in all/abn weeks/nns ./.
We/ppss now/rb generalize/vb these/dts ideas/nns for/in general/jj binomial/jj experiments/nns ./.


	For/in an/at experiment/nn to/to qualify/vb as/cs a/at binomial/jj experiment/nn ,/, it/pps must/md have/hv four/cd properties/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) there/ex must/md be/be a/at fixed/vbn number/nn of/in trials/nns ,/, (/( 2/cd )/) each/dt trial/nn must/md result/vb in/in a/at ``/`` success/nn ''/'' or/cc a/at ``/`` failure/nn ''/'' (/( a/at binomial/jj trial/nn )/) ,/, (/( 3/cd )/) all/abn trials/nns must/md have/hv identical/jj probabilities/nns of/in success/nn ,/, (/( 4/cd )/) the/at trials/nns must/md be/be independent/jj of/in each/dt other/ap ./.
Below/rb we/ppss use/vb our/pp$ earlier/jjr examples/nns to/to describe/vb and/cc illustrate/vb these/dts four/cd properties/nns ./.
We/ppss also/rb give/vb ,/, for/in each/dt property/nn ,/, an/at example/nn where/wrb the/at property/nn is/bez absent/jj ./.
The/at language/nn and/cc notation/nn introduced/vbn are/ber standard/jj throughout/in the/at chapter/nn ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl
There/ex-hl must/md-hl be/be-hl a/at-hl fixed/vbn-hl number/nn-hl n/nn-hl of/in-hl repeated/vbn-hl trials/nns-hl ./.-hl

For/in the/at marksman/nn ,/, we/ppss study/vb sets/nns of/in five/cd shots/nns (/( Af/nn )/) ;/. ;/.
for/in the/at mice/nns ,/, we/ppss restrict/vb attention/nn to/in litters/nns of/in eight/cd (/( Af/nn )/) ;/. ;/.
and/cc for/in the/at aces/nns ,/, we/ppss toss/vb three/cd dice/nns (/( Af/nn )/) ./.
Experiment/nn-hl without/in-hl a/at-hl fixed/vbn-hl number/nn-hl of/in-hl trials/nns-hl ./.-hl

Toss/vb a/at die/nn until/cs an/at ace/nn appears/vbz ./.
Here/rb the/at number/nn of/in trials/nns is/bez a/at random/jj variable/nn ,/, not/* a/at fixed/vbn number/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl
Binomial/jj-hl trials/nns-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt of/in the/at N/nn-tl trials/nns is/bez either/cc a/at success/nn or/cc a/at failure/nn ./.
``/`` Success/nn-nc ''/'' and/cc ``/`` failure/nn-nc ''/'' are/ber just/rb convenient/jj labels/nns for/in the/at two/cd categories/nns of/in outcomes/nns when/wrb we/ppss talk/vb about/in binomial/jj trials/nns in/in general/jj ./.
These/dts words/nns are/ber more/ql expressive/jj than/cs labels/nns like/vb ``/`` A/np ''/'' and/cc ``/`` not-A/np ''/'' ./.
It/pps is/bez natural/jj from/in the/at marksman's/nn$ viewpoint/nn to/in call/nn a/at bull's-eye/nn a/at success/nn ,/, but/cc in/in the/at mice/nns example/nn it/pps is/bez arbitrary/jj which/wdt category/nn corresponds/vbz to/in straight/jj hair/nn in/in a/at mouse/nn ./.
The/at word/nn ``/`` binomial/jj-nc ''/'' means/vbz ``/`` of/in two/cd names/nns ''/'' or/cc ``/`` of/in two/cd terms/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc both/abx usages/nns apply/vb in/in our/pp$ work/nn :/: the/at first/od to/in the/at names/nns of/in the/at two/cd outcomes/nns of/in a/at binomial/jj trial/nn ,/, and/cc the/at second/od to/in the/at terms/nns P/np and/cc Af/nn that/wps represent/vb the/at probabilities/nns of/in ``/`` success/nn ''/'' and/cc ``/`` failure/nn ''/'' ./.
Sometimes/rb when/wrb there/ex are/ber many/ap outcomes/nns for/in a/at single/ap trial/nn ,/, we/ppss group/vb these/dts outcomes/nns into/in two/cd classes/nns ,/, as/cs in/in the/at example/nn of/in the/at die/nn ,/, where/wrb we/ppss have/hv arbitrarily/rb constructed/vbn the/at classes/nns ``/`` ace/nn ''/'' and/cc ``/`` not-ace/nn ''/'' ./.
Experiment/nn-hl without/in-hl the/at-hl two-class/jj-hl property/nn-hl ./.-hl

We/ppss classify/vb mice/nns as/cs ``/`` straight-haired/jj ''/'' or/cc ``/`` wavy-haired/jj ''/'' ,/, but/cc a/at hairless/jj mouse/nn appears/vbz ./.
We/ppss can/md escape/vb from/in such/abl a/at difficulty/nn by/in ruling/vbg out/rp the/at animal/nn as/cs not/* constituting/vbg a/at trial/nn ,/, but/cc such/abl a/at solution/nn is/bez not/* always/rb satisfactory/jj ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl
All/abn-hl trials/nns-hl have/hv-hl identical/jj-hl probabilities/nns-hl of/in-hl success/nn-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt die/nn has/hvz probability/nn Af/nn of/in producing/vbg an/at ace/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at marksman/nn has/hvz some/dti probability/nn p/nn ,/, perhaps/rb 0.1/cd ,/, of/in making/vbg a/at bull's-eye/nn ./.
Note/vb that/cs we/ppss need/md not/* know/vb the/at value/nn of/in p/nn ,/, for/cs the/at experiment/nn to/to be/be binomial/jj ./.
Experiment/nn-hl where/wrb-hl p/nn-hl is/bez-hl not/*-hl constant/jj-hl ./.-hl

During/in a/at round/nn of/in target/nn practice/nn the/at sun/nn comes/vbz from/in behind/in a/at cloud/nn and/cc dazzles/vbz the/at marksman/nn ,/, lowering/vbg his/pp$ chance/nn of/in a/at bull's-eye/nn ./.
4/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl trials/nns-hl are/ber-hl independent/jj-hl ./.-hl

Strictly/rb speaking/vbg ,/, this/dt means/vbz that/cs the/at probability/nn for/in each/dt possible/jj outcome/nn of/in the/at experiment/nn can/md be/be computed/vbn by/in multiplying/vbg together/rb the/at probabilities/nns of/in the/at possible/jj outcomes/nns of/in the/at single/ap binomial/jj trials/nns ./.
Thus/rb in/in the/at three-dice/nn example/nn Af/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, and/cc the/at independence/nn assumption/nn imply/vb that/cs the/at probability/nn that/cs the/at three/cd dice/nns fall/vb ace/nn ,/, not-ace/nn ,/, ace/nn in/in that/dt order/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.
Experimentally/rb ,/, we/ppss expect/vb independence/nn when/wrb the/at trials/nns have/hv nothing/pn to/to do/do with/in one/cd another/dt ./.
Examples/nns-hl where/wrb-hl independence/nn-hl fails/vbz-hl ./.-hl

A/at family/nn of/in five/cd plans/vbz to/to go/vb together/rb either/cc to/in the/at beach/nn or/cc to/in the/at mountains/nns ,/, and/cc a/at coin/nn is/bez tossed/vbn to/to decide/vb ./.
We/ppss want/vb to/to know/vb the/at number/nn of/in people/nns going/vbg to/in the/at mountains/nns ./.
When/wrb this/dt experiment/nn is/bez viewed/vbn as/cs composed/vbn of/in five/cd binomial/jj trials/nns ,/, one/cd for/in each/dt member/nn of/in the/at family/nn ,/, the/at outcomes/nns of/in the/at trials/nns are/ber obviously/rb not/* independent/jj ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, the/at experiment/nn is/bez better/rbr viewed/vbn as/cs consisting/vbg of/in one/cd binomial/jj trial/nn for/in the/at entire/jj family/nn ./.
The/at following/vbg is/bez a/at less/ql extreme/jj example/nn of/in dependence/nn ./.
Consider/vb couples/nns visiting/vbg an/at art/nn museum/nn ./.
Each/dt person/nn votes/vbz for/in one/cd of/in a/at pair/nn of/in pictures/nns to/to receive/vb a/at popular/jj prize/nn ./.
Voting/vbg for/in one/cd picture/nn may/md be/be called/vbn ``/`` success/nn ''/'' ,/, for/in the/at other/ap ``/`` failure/nn ''/'' ./.
An/at experiment/nn consists/vbz of/in the/at voting/nn of/in one/cd couple/nn ,/, or/cc two/cd trials/nns ./.
In/in repetitions/nns of/in the/at experiment/nn from/in couple/nn to/in couple/nn ,/, the/at votes/nns of/in the/at two/cd persons/nns in/in a/at couple/nn probably/rb agree/vb more/ql often/rb than/cs independence/nn would/md imply/vb ,/, because/cs couples/nns who/wps visit/vb the/at museum/nn together/rb are/ber more/ql likely/jj to/to have/hv similar/jj tastes/nns than/cs are/ber a/at random/jj pair/nn of/in people/nns drawn/vbn from/in the/at entire/jj population/nn of/in visitors/nns ./.
Table/nn-tl 7-1/cd-tl illustrates/vbz the/at point/nn ./.
The/at table/nn shows/vbz that/cs 0.6/cd of/in the/at boys/nns and/cc 0.6/cd of/in the/at girls/nns vote/vb for/in picture/nn A/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, under/in independent/jj voting/nn ,/, Af/nn or/cc 0.36/cd of/in the/at couples/nns would/md cast/vb two/cd votes/nns for/in picture/nn A/nn ,/, and/cc Af/nn or/cc 0.16/cd would/md cast/vb two/cd votes/nns for/in picture/nn B/nn ./.
Thus/rb in/in independent/jj voting/nn ,/, Af/nn or/cc 0.52/cd of/in the/at couples/nns would/md agree/vb ./.
But/cc Table/nn-tl 7-1/cd-tl shows/vbz that/dt Af/nn or/cc 0.70/cd agree/vb ,/, too/ql many/ap for/in independent/jj voting/nn ./.


	Each/dt performance/nn of/in an/at n-trial/nn binomial/jj experiment/nn results/vbz in/in some/dti whole/jj number/nn from/in 0/cd through/in N/np as/cs the/at value/nn of/in the/at random/jj variable/nn X/nn ,/, where/wrb Af/nn ./.
We/ppss want/vb to/to study/vb the/at probability/nn function/nn of/in this/dt random/jj variable/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, we/ppss are/ber interested/vbn in/in the/at number/nn of/in bull's-eyes/nns ,/, not/* which/wdt shots/nns were/bed bull's-eyes/nns ./.
A/at binomial/jj experiment/nn can/md produce/vb random/jj variables/nns other/ap than/cs the/at number/nn of/in successes/nns ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at marksman/nn gets/vbz 5/cd shots/nns ,/, but/cc we/ppss take/vb his/pp$ score/nn to/to be/be the/at number/nn of/in shots/nns before/in his/pp$ first/od bull's-eye/nn ,/, that/dt is/bez ,/, 0/cd ,/, 1/cd ,/, 2/cd ,/, 3/cd ,/, 4/cd (/( or/cc 5/cd ,/, if/cs he/pps gets/vbz no/at bull's-eye/nn )/) ./.
Thus/rb we/ppss do/do not/* score/vb the/at number/nn of/in bull's-eyes/nns ,/, and/cc the/at random/jj variable/nn is/bez not/* the/at number/nn of/in successes/nns ./.
The/at constancy/nn of/in P/np and/cc the/at independence/nn are/ber the/at conditions/nns most/ql likely/jj to/to give/vb trouble/nn in/in practice/nn ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, very/ql slight/jj changes/nns in/in P/np do/do not/* change/vb the/at probabilities/nns much/rb ,/, and/cc a/at slight/jj lack/nn of/in independence/nn may/md not/* make/vb an/at appreciable/jj difference/nn ./.
(/( For/in instance/nn ,/, see/vb Example/nn-tl 2/cd-tl of/in Section/nn-tl 5-5/cd-tl ,/, on/in red/jj cards/nns in/in hands/nns of/in 5/cd ./.
)/) On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, even/rb when/wrb the/at binomial/jj model/nn does/doz not/* describe/vb well/rb the/at physical/jj phenomenon/nn being/beg studied/vbn ,/, the/at binomial/jj model/nn may/md still/rb be/be used/vbn as/cs a/at baseline/nn for/in comparative/jj purposes/nns ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, we/ppss may/md discuss/vb the/at phenomenon/nn in/in terms/nns of/in its/pp$ departures/nns from/in the/at binomial/jj model/nn ./.
To/to-hl summarize/vb-hl :/:-hl 
A/at binomial/jj experiment/nn consists/vbz of/in Af/nn independent/jj binomial/jj trials/nns ,/, all/abn with/in the/at same/ap probability/nn Af/nn of/in yielding/vbg a/at success/nn ./.
The/at outcome/nn of/in the/at experiment/nn is/bez X/nn successes/nns ./.
The/at random/jj variable/nn X/nn takes/vbz the/at values/nns Af/nn with/in probabilities/nns Af/nn or/cc ,/, more/ql briefly/rb Af/nn ./.


	We/ppss shall/md find/vb a/at formula/nn for/in the/at probability/nn of/in exactly/rb X/np successes/nns for/in given/vbn values/nns of/in P/np and/cc N/np ./.
When/wrb each/dt number/nn of/in successes/nns X/np is/bez paired/vbn with/in its/pp$ probability/nn of/in occurrence/nn Af/nn ,/, the/at set/nn of/in pairs/nns Af/nn ,/, is/bez a/at probability/nn function/nn called/vbn a/at binomial/jj distribution/nn ./.
The/at choice/nn of/in P/np and/cc N/np determines/vbz the/at binomial/jj distribution/nn uniquely/rb ,/, and/cc different/jj choices/nns always/rb produce/vb different/jj distributions/nns (/( except/in when/wrb Af/nn ;/. ;/.
then/rb the/at number/nn of/in successes/nns is/bez always/rb 0/cd )/) ./.
The/at set/nn of/in all/abn binomial/jj distributions/nns is/bez called/vbn the/at family/nn of/in binomial/jj distributions/nns ,/, but/cc in/in general/jj discussions/nns this/dt expression/nn is/bez often/rb shortened/vbn to/in ``/`` the/at binomial/jj distribution/nn ''/'' ,/, or/cc even/rb ``/`` the/at binomial/jj ''/'' when/wrb the/at context/nn is/bez clear/jj ./.
Binomial/jj distributions/nns were/bed treated/vbn by/in James/np Bernoulli/np about/rb 1700/cd ,/, and/cc for/in this/dt reason/nn binomial/jj trials/nns are/ber sometimes/rb called/vbn Bernoulli/np trials/nns ./.
Random/jj-hl variables/nns-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt binomial/jj trial/nn of/in a/at binomial/jj experiment/nn produces/vbz either/cc 0/cd or/cc 1/cd success/nn ./.
Therefore/rb each/dt binomial/jj trial/nn can/md be/be thought/vbn of/in as/cs producing/vbg a/at value/nn of/in a/at random/jj variable/nn associated/vbn with/in that/dt trial/nn and/cc taking/vbg the/at values/nns 0/cd and/cc 1/cd ,/, with/in probabilities/nns Q/np and/cc P/np respectively/rb ./.
The/at several/ap trials/nns of/in a/at binomial/jj experiment/nn produce/vb a/at new/jj random/jj variable/nn X/nn ,/, the/at total/nn number/nn of/in successes/nns ,/, which/wdt is/bez just/rb the/at sum/nn of/in the/at random/jj variables/nns associated/vbn with/in the/at single/ap trials/nns ./.
Example/nn-hl 2/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at marksman/nn gets/vbz two/cd bull's-eyes/nns ,/, one/cd on/in his/pp$ third/od shot/nn and/cc one/cd on/in his/pp$ fifth/od ./.
The/at numbers/nns of/in successes/nns on/in the/at five/cd individual/jj shots/nns are/ber ,/, then/rb ,/, 0/cd ,/, 0/cd ,/, 1/cd ,/, 0/cd ,/, 1/cd ./.
The/at number/nn of/in successes/nns on/in each/dt shot/nn is/bez a/at value/nn of/in a/at random/jj variable/nn that/wps has/hvz values/nns 0/cd or/cc 1/cd ,/, and/cc there/ex are/ber 5/cd such/jj random/jj variables/nns here/rb ./.
Their/pp$ sum/nn is/bez X/nn ,/, the/at total/nn number/nn of/in successes/nns ,/, which/wdt in/in this/dt experiment/nn has/hvz the/at value/nn Af/nn ./.



	Consider/vb a/at simple/jj ,/, closed/vbn ,/, plane/nn curve/nn C/nn which/wdt is/bez a/at real-analytic/jj image/nn of/in the/at unit/nn circle/nn ,/, and/cc which/wdt is/bez given/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
These/dts are/ber real/jj analytic/jj periodic/jj functions/nns with/in period/nn T/nn ./.
In/in the/at following/vbg paper/nn it/pps is/bez shown/vbn that/cs in/in a/at certain/ap definite/jj sense/nn ,/, exactly/rb an/at odd/jj number/nn of/in squares/nns can/md be/be inscribed/vbn in/in every/at such/jj curve/nn which/wdt does/doz not/* contain/vb an/at infinite/jj number/nn of/in inscribed/vbn squares/nns ./.
This/dt theorem/nn is/bez similar/jj to/in the/at theorem/nn of/in Kakutani/np that/cs there/ex exists/vbz a/at circumscribing/vbg cube/nn around/in any/dti closed/vbn ,/, bounded/vbn convex/jj set/nn in/in Af/nn ./.
The/at latter/ap theorem/nn has/hvz been/ben generalized/vbn by/in Yamabe/np and/cc Yujobo/np ,/, and/cc Cairns/np to/to show/vb that/cs in/in Af/nn there/ex are/ber families/nns of/in such/jj cubes/nns ./.
Here/rb ,/, for/in the/at case/nn of/in squares/nns inscribed/vbn in/in plane/nn curves/nns ,/, we/ppss remove/vb the/at restriction/nn to/in convexity/nn and/cc give/vb certain/ap other/ap results/nns ./.


	A/at square/nn inscribed/vbn in/in a/at curve/nn C/nn means/vbz a/at square/nn with/in its/pp$ four/cd corner/nn points/nns on/in the/at curve/nn ,/, though/cs it/pps may/md not/* lie/vb entirely/rb in/in the/at interior/nn of/in C/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, the/at spiral/nn Af/nn ,/, with/in the/at two/cd endpoints/nns connected/vbn by/in a/at straight/jj line/nn possesses/vbz only/rb one/cd inscribed/vbn square/nn ./.
The/at square/nn has/hvz one/cd corner/nn point/nn on/in the/at straight/jj line/nn segment/nn ,/, and/cc does/doz not/* lie/vb entirely/rb in/in the/at interior/nn ./.


	On/in C/nn ,/, from/in the/at point/nn P/nn at/in Af/nn to/in the/at point/nn Q/nn at/in Af/nn ,/, we/ppss construct/vb the/at chord/nn ,/, and/cc upon/in the/at chord/nn as/cs a/at side/nn erect/vb a/at square/nn in/in such/abl a/at way/nn that/cs as/cs S/np approaches/vbz zero/cd the/at square/nn is/bez inside/in C/nn ./.
As/cs S/np increases/vbz we/ppss consider/vb the/at two/cd free/jj corner/nn points/nns of/in the/at square/nn ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, adjacent/jj to/in P/nn and/cc Q/nn respectively/rb ./.
As/cs S/np approaches/vbz T/nn the/at square/nn will/md be/be outside/in C/nn and/cc therefore/rb both/abx Af/nn and/cc Af/nn must/md cross/vb C/nn an/at odd/jj number/nn of/in times/nns as/cs S/np varies/vbz from/in zero/cd to/in T/nn ./.
The/at points/nns may/md also/rb touch/vb C/nn without/in crossing/vbg ./.


	Suppose/vb Af/nn crosses/vbz C/nn when/wrb Af/nn ./.
We/ppss now/rb have/hv certain/ap squares/nns with/in three/cd corners/nns on/in C/nn ./.
For/in any/dti such/jj square/nn the/at middle/jj corner/nn of/in these/dts will/md be/be called/vbn the/at vertex/nn of/in the/at square/nn and/cc the/at corner/nn not/* on/in the/at curve/nn will/md be/be called/vbn the/at diagonal/jj point/nn of/in the/at square/nn ./.
Each/dt point/nn on/in C/nn ,/, as/cs a/at vertex/nn ,/, may/md possess/vb a/at finite/jj number/nn of/in corresponding/jj diagonal/jj points/nns by/in the/at above/jj construction/nn ./.


	To/in each/dt paired/vbn vertex/nn and/cc diagonal/jj point/nn there/ex corresponds/vbz a/at unique/jj forward/jj corner/nn point/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, the/at corner/nn on/in C/nn reached/vbn first/rb by/in proceeding/vbg along/in C/nn from/in the/at vertex/nn in/in the/at direction/nn of/in increasing/vbg T/np ./.
If/cs the/at vertex/nn is/bez at/in Af/nn ,/, and/cc if/cs the/at interior/nn of/in C/nn is/bez on/in the/at left/nr as/cs one/pn moves/vbz in/in the/at direction/nn of/in increasing/vbg t/nn ,/, then/rb every/at such/jj corner/nn can/md be/be found/vbn from/in the/at curve/nn obtained/vbn by/in rotating/vbg C/nn clockwise/rb through/in 90-degrees/nns about/in the/at vertex/nn ./.
The/at set/nn of/in intersections/nns of/in Af/nn ,/, the/at rotated/vbn curve/nn ,/, with/in the/at original/jj curve/nn C/nn consists/vbz of/in just/rb the/at set/nn of/in forward/jj corner/nn points/nns on/in C/nn corresponding/vbg to/in the/at vertex/nn at/in Af/nn ,/, plus/in the/at vertex/nn itself/ppl ./.
We/ppss note/vb that/cs two/cd such/jj curves/nns C/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, cannot/md* coincide/vb at/in more/ap than/in a/at finite/jj number/nn of/in points/nns ;/. ;/.
otherwise/rb ,/, being/beg analytic/jj ,/, they/ppss would/md coincide/vb at/in all/abn points/nns ,/, which/wdt is/bez impossible/jj since/cs they/ppss do/do not/* coincide/vb near/in Af/nn ./.


	With/in each/dt vertex/nn we/ppss associate/vb certain/ap numerical/jj values/nns ,/, namely/rb the/at set/nn of/in positive/jj differences/nns in/in the/at parameter/nn T/np between/in the/at vertex/nn and/cc its/pp$ corresponding/jj forward/jj corner/nn points/nns ./.
For/in the/at vertex/nn at/in Af/nn ,/, these/dts values/nns will/md be/be denoted/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at function/nn f{t}/nn defined/vbn in/in this/dt way/nn is/bez multi-valued/jj ./.


	We/ppss consider/vb now/rb the/at graph/nn of/in the/at function/nn f{t}/nn on/in Af/nn ./.
We/ppss will/md refer/vb to/in the/at plane/nn of/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn as/cs the/at C-plane/nn and/cc to/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at graph/nn as/cs the/at Aj/nn ./.
The/at graph/nn ,/, as/cs a/at set/nn ,/, may/md have/hv a/at finite/jj number/nn of/in components/nns ./.
We/ppss will/md denote/vb the/at values/nns of/in f{t}/nn on/in different/jj components/nns by/in Af/nn ./.
Each/dt point/nn with/in abscissa/nn T/np on/in the/at graph/nn represents/vbz an/at intersection/nn between/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber two/cd types/nns of/in such/jj intersections/nns ,/, depending/in essentially/rb on/in whether/cs the/at curves/nns cross/vb at/in the/at point/nn of/in intersection/nn ./.
An/at ordinary/jj point/nn will/md be/be any/dti point/nn of/in intersection/nn A/nn such/jj that/cs in/in every/at neighborhood/nn of/in A/nn in/in the/at C-plane/nn ,/, Af/nn meets/vbz both/abx the/at interior/nn and/cc the/at exterior/nn of/in C/nn ./.
Any/dti other/ap point/nn of/in intersection/nn between/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn will/md be/be called/vbn a/at tangent/jj point/nn ./.
This/dt terminology/nn will/md also/rb be/be applied/vbn to/in the/at corresponding/jj points/nns in/in the/at Aj/nn ./.
We/ppss can/md now/rb prove/vb several/ap lemmas/nns ./.



Lemma/nn-hl 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in some/dti neighborhood/nn in/in the/at f-plane/nn of/in any/dti ordinary/jj point/nn of/in the/at graph/nn ,/, the/at function/nn f/nn is/bez a/at single-valued/jj ,/, continuous/jj function/nn ./.
Proof/nn-hl ./.-hl

We/ppss first/rb show/vb that/cs the/at function/nn is/bez single-valued/jj in/in some/dti neighborhood/nn ./.
With/in the/at vertex/nn at/in Af/nn in/in the/at C-plane/nn we/ppss assume/vb that/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at parametric/jj location/nn on/in C/nn of/in an/at ordinary/jj intersection/nn Q/nn between/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
In/in the/at f-plane/nn the/at coordinates/nns of/in the/at corresponding/jj point/nn are/ber Af/nn ./.
We/ppss know/vb that/cs in/in the/at C-plane/nn both/abx C/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber analytic/jj ./.
In/in the/at C-plane/nn we/ppss construct/vb a/at set/nn of/in rectangular/jj Cartesian/jj coordinates/nns u/nn ,/, V/np with/in the/at origin/nn at/in Q/nn and/cc such/jj that/cs both/abx C/nn and/cc Af/nn have/hv finite/jj slope/nn at/in Q/nn ./.
Near/in Q/nn ,/, both/abx curves/nns can/md be/be represented/vbn by/in analytic/jj functions/nns of/in U/np ./.
In/in a/at neighborhood/nn of/in Q/nn the/at difference/nn between/in these/dts functions/nns is/bez also/rb a/at single-valued/jj ,/, analytic/jj function/nn of/in U/np ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, one/pn can/md find/vb a/at neighborhood/nn of/in Q/nn in/in which/wdt the/at difference/nn function/nn is/bez monotone/jj ,/, for/cs since/cs it/pps is/bez analytic/jj it/pps can/md have/hv only/rb a/at finite/jj number/nn of/in extrema/nns in/in any/dti interval/nn ./.
Now/rb ,/, to/to find/vb Af/nn ,/, one/pn needs/vbz the/at intersection/nn of/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn near/in Q/nn ./.
But/cc Af/nn is/bez just/rb the/at curve/nn Af/nn translated/vbn without/in rotation/nn through/in a/at small/jj arc/nn ,/, for/cs Af/nn is/bez always/rb obtained/vbn by/in rotating/vbg C/nn through/in exactly/rb 90-degrees/nns ./.
The/at arc/nn is/bez itself/ppl a/at segment/nn of/in an/at analytic/jj curve/nn ./.
Thus/rb if/cs E/np is/bez sufficiently/ql small/jj ,/, there/ex can/md be/be only/rb one/cd intersection/nn of/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn near/in Q/nn ,/, for/cs if/cs there/ex were/bed more/ap than/in one/cd intersection/nn for/in every/at E/np then/rb the/at difference/nn between/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn near/in Q/nn would/md not/* be/be a/at monotone/jj function/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, Af/nn is/bez single-valued/jj near/in Q/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez also/rb seen/vbn that/cs Af/nn ,/, since/cs the/at change/nn from/in Af/nn to/in Af/nn is/bez accomplished/vbn by/in a/at continuous/jj translation/nn ./.
Thus/rb Af/nn is/bez also/rb continuous/jj at/in Af/nn ,/, and/cc in/in a/at neighborhood/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt does/doz not/* contain/vb a/at tangent/jj point/nn ./.


	We/ppss turn/vb now/rb to/in the/at set/nn of/in tangent/jj points/nns on/in the/at graph/nn ./.
This/dt set/nn must/md consist/vb of/in isolated/vbn points/nns and/cc closed/vbn intervals/nns ./.
The/at fact/nn that/cs there/ex can/md not/* be/be any/dti limit/nn points/nns of/in the/at set/nn except/in in/in closed/vbn intervals/nns follows/vbz from/in the/at argument/nn used/vbn in/in Lemma/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, namely/rb ,/, that/cs near/in any/dti tangent/jj point/nn in/in the/at C-plane/nn the/at curves/nns C/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber analytic/jj ,/, and/cc therefore/rb the/at difference/nn between/in them/ppo must/md be/be a/at monotone/jj function/nn in/in some/dti neighborhood/nn on/in either/dtx side/nn of/in the/at tangent/jj point/nn ./.
This/dt prevents/vbz the/at occurrence/nn of/in an/at infinite/jj sequence/nn of/in isolated/vbn tangent/jj points/nns ./.



Lemma/nn-tl-hl 2/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in some/dti neighborhood/nn of/in an/at isolated/vbn tangent/jj point/nn in/in the/at f-plane/nn ,/, say/uh Af/nn ,/, the/at function/nn Af/nn is/bez either/cc double-valued/jj or/cc has/hvz no/at values/nns defined/vbn ,/, except/in at/in the/at tangent/jj point/nn itself/ppl ,/, where/wrb it/pps is/bez single-valued/jj ./.
Proof/nn-hl ./.-hl

A/at tangent/jj point/nn Q/nn in/in the/at C-plane/nn occurs/vbz when/wrb C/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber tangent/jj to/in one/cd another/dt ./.
A/at continuous/jj change/nn in/in T/np through/in an/at amount/nn E/np results/vbz in/in a/at translation/nn along/in an/at analytic/jj arc/nn of/in the/at curve/nn Af/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber three/cd possibilities/nns :/: (/( A/np )/) Af/nn remains/vbz tangent/jj to/in C/nn as/cs it/pps is/bez translated/vbn ;/. ;/.
(/( B/np )/) Af/nn moves/vbz away/rb from/in C/nn and/cc does/doz not/* intersect/vb it/ppo at/in all/abn for/in Af/nn ;/. ;/.
(/( C/np )/) Af/nn cuts/vbz across/in C/nn and/cc there/ex are/ber two/cd ordinary/jj intersections/nns for/in every/at T/np in/in Af/nn ./.
The/at first/od possibility/nn results/vbz in/in a/at closed/vbn interval/nn of/in tangent/jj points/nns in/in the/at f-plane/nn ,/, the/at end/nn points/nns of/in which/wdt fall/vb into/in category/nn (/( B/np )/) or/cc (/( C/np )/) ./.
In/in the/at second/od category/nn the/at function/nn Af/nn has/hvz no/at values/nns defined/vbn in/in a/at neighborhood/nn Af/nn ./.
In/in the/at third/od category/nn the/at function/nn is/bez double-valued/jj in/in this/dt interval/nn ./.
The/at same/ap remarks/nns apply/vb to/in an/at interval/nn on/in the/at other/ap side/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Again/rb ,/, the/at analyticity/nn of/in the/at two/cd curves/nns guarantees/vbz that/cs such/jj intervals/nns exist/vb ./.
In/in the/at neighborhood/nn of/in an/at end/nn point/nn of/in an/at interval/nn of/in tangent/jj points/nns in/in the/at f-plane/nn the/at function/nn is/bez two-valued/jj or/cc no-valued/jj on/in one/cd side/nn ,/, and/cc is/bez a/at single-valued/jj function/nn consisting/vbg entirely/rb of/in tangent/jj points/nns on/in the/at other/ap side/nn ./.


	With/in the/at above/jj results/nns we/ppss can/md make/vb the/at following/vbg remarks/nns about/in the/at graph/nn of/in F/np ./.
First/rb ,/, for/in any/dti value/nn of/in T/np for/in which/wdt all/abn values/nns of/in f{t}/nn are/ber ordinary/jj points/nns the/at number/nn of/in values/nns of/in f{t}/nn must/md be/be odd/jj ./.
For/cs it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs the/at total/nn number/nn of/in ordinary/jj intersections/nns of/in C/nn and/cc Af/nn must/md be/be even/jj (/( otherwise/rb ,/, starting/vbg in/in the/at interior/nn of/in C/nn ,/, Af/nn could/md not/* finally/rb return/vb to/in the/at interior/nn )/) ,/, and/cc the/at center/nn of/in rotation/nn at/in T/np is/bez the/at argument/nn of/in the/at function/nn ,/, not/* a/at value/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, for/in any/dti value/nn of/in T/np the/at number/nn of/in values/nns of/in f{t}/nn is/bez equal/jj to/in the/at (/( finite/jj )/) number/nn of/in tangent/jj points/nns corresponding/vbg to/in the/at argument/nn T/np plus/in an/at odd/jj number/nn ./.



Definition/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at number/nn of/in ordinary/jj values/nns of/in the/at function/nn f{t}/nn at/in T/np will/md be/be called/vbn its/pp$ multiplicity/nn at/in T/np ./.



Lemma/nn-tl-hl 3/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at graph/nn of/in f/nn has/hvz at/in least/ap one/cd component/nn whose/wp$ support/nn is/bez the/at entire/jj interval/nn Aj/nn ./.
Proof/nn-hl 
./.-hl
We/ppss suppose/vb not/* ./.
Then/rb every/at component/nn of/in the/at graph/nn of/in F/np must/md be/be defined/vbn over/in a/at bounded/vbn sub-interval/nn ./.
Suppose/vb Af/nn is/bez defined/vbn in/in the/at sub-interval/nn Af/nn ./.
Now/rb Af/nn and/cc Af/nn must/md both/abx be/be tangent/jj points/nns on/in the/at T/np component/nn in/in the/at f-plane/nn ;/. ;/.
otherwise/rb by/in Lemma/nn-tl 1/cd-tl the/at component/nn would/md extend/vb beyond/in these/dts points/nns ./.
Further/rbr ,/, we/ppss see/vb by/in Lemma/nn-tl 2/cd-tl that/cs the/at multiplicity/nn of/in F/np can/md only/rb change/vb at/in a/at tangent/jj point/nn ,/, and/cc at/in such/abl a/at point/nn can/md only/rb change/vb by/in an/at even/jj integer/nn ./.
Thus/rb the/at multiplicity/nn of/in Af/nn for/in a/at given/vbn T/np must/md be/be an/at even/jj number/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez true/jj of/in all/abn components/nns which/wdt have/hv such/abl a/at bounded/vbn support/nn ./.
But/cc this/dt is/bez a/at contradiction/nn ,/, for/cs we/ppss know/vb that/cs the/at multiplicity/nn of/in f{t}/nn is/bez odd/jj for/in every/at T/np ./.


	We/ppss have/hv shown/vbn that/cs the/at graph/nn of/in F/np contains/vbz at/in least/ap one/cd component/nn whose/wp$ inverse/nn is/bez the/at entire/jj interval/nn {0,T}/nn ,/, and/cc whose/wp$ multiplicity/nn is/bez odd/jj ./.
There/ex must/md be/be an/at odd/jj number/nn of/in such/jj components/nns ,/, which/wdt will/md be/be called/vbn complete/jj components/nns ./.
The/at remaining/vbg (/( incomplete/jj )/) components/nns all/abn have/hv an/at even/jj number/nn of/in ordinary/jj points/nns at/in any/dti argument/nn ,/, and/cc are/ber defined/vbn only/rb on/in a/at proper/jj sub-interval/nn of/in Aj/nn ./.


	We/ppss must/md now/rb show/vb that/cs on/in some/dti component/nn of/in the/at graph/nn there/ex exist/vb two/cd points/nns for/in which/wdt the/at corresponding/jj diagonal/jj points/nns in/in the/at C-plane/nn are/ber on/in opposite/jj sides/nns of/in C/nn ./.
We/ppss again/rb consider/vb a/at fixed/vbn point/nn P/nn at/in Af/nn and/cc a/at variable/jj point/nn Q/nn at/in Af/nn on/in C/nn ./.
We/ppss erect/vb a/at square/nn with/in PQ/nn as/cs a/at side/nn and/cc with/in free/jj corners/nns Af/nn and/cc Af/nn adjacent/jj to/in P/nn and/cc Q/nn respectively/rb ./.
As/cs S/np varies/vbz from/in zero/cd to/in T/nn ,/, the/at values/nns of/in S/np for/in which/wdt Af/nn and/cc Af/nn cross/vb C/nn will/md be/be denoted/vbn by/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn respectively/rb ./.
We/ppss have/hv Af/nn ,/, plus/in tangent/jj points/nns ./.
These/dts s-values/nn are/ber just/rb the/at ordinary/jj values/nns of/in Af/nn ./.



Lemma/nn-tl-hl 4/cd-tl-hl ./.-hl

The/at values/nns Af/nn are/ber the/at ordinary/jj values/nns at/in Af/nn of/in a/at multi-valued/jj function/nn g{t}/nn which/wdt has/hvz components/nns corresponding/vbg to/in those/dts of/in f{t}/nn ./.
Proof/nn-hl ./.-hl

We/ppss first/rb define/vb a/at function/nn b{t}/nn as/cs follows/vbz :/: given/vbn the/at set/nn of/in squares/nns such/jj that/cs each/dt has/hvz three/cd corners/nns on/in C/nn and/cc vertex/nn at/in t/nn ,/, b{t}/nn is/bez the/at corresponding/jj set/nn of/in positive/jj parametric/jj differences/nns between/in T/np and/cc the/at backward/jj corner/nn points/nns ./.
The/at functions/nns F/np and/cc B/np have/hv exactly/rb the/at same/ap multiplicity/nn at/in every/at argument/nn T/np ./.
Now/rb with/in P/nn fixed/vbn at/in Af/nn ,/, Af-values/nns occur/vb when/wrb the/at corner/nn Af/nn crosses/vbz C/nn ,/, and/cc are/ber among/in the/at values/nns of/in S/np such/jj that/cs Af/nn ./.
The/at roots/nns of/in this/dt equation/nn are/ber just/rb the/at ordinates/nns of/in the/at intersections/nns of/in the/at graph/nn of/in B/nn-tl with/in a/at straight/jj line/nn of/in unit/nn slope/nn through/in Af/nn in/in the/at b-plane/nn (/( the/at plane/nn of/in the/at graph/nn of/in b/nn )/) ./.
We/ppss define/vb these/dts values/nns as/cs Af/nn ,/, and/cc define/vb g{t}/nn in/in the/at same/ap way/nn for/in each/dt T/np ./.
Thus/rb we/ppss obtain/vb g{t}/nn by/in introducing/vbg an/at oblique/jj g{t}-axis/nn in/in the/at Aj/nn ./.




Introduction/nn-hl ./.-hl

In/in 1/cd we/ppss investigate/vb a/at new/jj series/nn of/in line/nn involutions/nns in/in a/at projective/jj space/nn of/in three/cd dimensions/nns over/in the/at field/nn of/in complex/jj numbers/nns ./.
These/dts are/ber defined/vbn by/in a/at simple/jj involutorial/jj transformation/nn of/in the/at points/nns in/in which/wdt a/at general/jj line/nn meets/vbz a/at nonsingular/jj quadric/jj surface/nn bearing/vbg a/at curve/nn of/in symbol/nn Af/nn ./.
Then/rb in/in 2/cd we/ppss show/vb that/cs any/dti line/nn involution/nn with/in the/at properties/nns that/cs (/( A/np )/) It/pps has/hvz no/at complex/nn of/in invariant/jj lines/nns ,/, and/cc (/( B/np )/) Its/pp$ singular/jj lines/nns form/vb a/at complex/nn consisting/vbg exclusively/rb of/in the/at lines/nns which/wdt meet/vb a/at twisted/vbn curve/nn ,/, is/bez necessarily/rb of/in the/at type/nn discussed/vbn in/in 1/cd ./.
No/at generalization/nn of/in these/dts results/nns to/in spaces/nns of/in more/ap than/in three/cd dimensions/nns has/hvz so/ql far/rb been/ben found/vbn possible/jj ./.



1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Let/vb Q/nn be/be a/at nonsingular/jj quadric/jj surface/nn bearing/vbg reguli/nns Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, and/cc let/vb **zg/nn be/be a/at Af/nn curve/nn of/in order/nn K/np on/in Q/nn ./.
A/at general/jj line/nn L/np meets/vbz Q/nn in/in two/cd points/nns ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, through/in each/dt of/in which/wdt passes/vbz a/at unique/jj generator/nn of/in the/at regulus/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, whose/wp$ lines/nns are/ber simple/jj secants/nns of/in Aj/nn ./.
On/in these/dts generators/nns let/vb Af/nn and/cc Af/nn be/be ,/, respectively/rb ,/, the/at harmonic/jj conjugates/nns of/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at two/cd points/nns in/in which/wdt the/at corresponding/jj generator/nn meets/vbz Aj/nn ./.
The/at line/nn Af/nn is/bez the/at image/nn of/in L/np ./.
Clearly/rb ,/, the/at transformation/nn is/bez involutorial/jj ./.


	We/ppss observe/vb first/rb that/cs no/at line/nn ,/, l/nn ,/, can/md meet/vb its/pp$ image/nn except/in at/in one/cd of/in its/pp$ intersections/nns with/in Q/nn ./.
For/cs if/cs it/pps did/dod ,/, the/at plane/nn of/in L/np and/cc l'/nn would/md contain/vb two/cd generators/nns of/in Af/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez impossible/jj ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, from/in the/at definitive/jj transformation/nn of/in intercepts/nns on/in the/at generators/nns of/in Af/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs the/at only/ap points/nns of/in Q/nn at/in which/wdt a/at line/nn can/md meet/vb its/pp$ image/nn are/ber the/at points/nns of/in Aj/nn ./.
Hence/rb the/at totality/nn of/in singular/jj lines/nns is/bez the/at T/np order/nn complex/nn of/in lines/nns which/wdt meet/vb Aj/nn ./.


	The/at invariant/jj lines/nns are/ber the/at lines/nns of/in the/at congruence/nn of/in secants/nns of/in **zg/nn ,/, since/cs each/dt of/in these/dts meets/nns Q/nn in/in two/cd points/nns which/wdt are/ber invariant/jj ./.
The/at order/nn of/in this/dt congruence/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, since/cs Af/nn secants/nns of/in a/at curve/nn of/in symbol/nn (/( B/np )/) on/in a/at quadric/jj surface/nn pass/vb through/in an/at arbitrary/jj point/nn ./.
The/at class/nn of/in the/at congruence/nn is/bez Af/nn ,/, since/cs an/at arbitrary/jj plane/nn meets/vbz **zg/nn in/in K/np points/nns ./.


	Since/cs the/at complex/nn of/in singular/jj lines/nns is/bez of/in order/nn K/np and/cc since/cs there/ex is/bez no/at complex/nn of/in invariant/jj lines/nns ,/, it/pps follows/vbz from/in the/at formula/nn Af/nn that/cs the/at order/nn of/in the/at involution/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.


	There/ex are/ber various/jj sets/nns of/in exceptional/jj lines/nns ,/, or/cc lines/nns whose/wp$ images/nns are/ber not/* unique/jj ./.
The/at most/ql obvious/jj of/in these/dts is/bez the/at quadratic/jj complex/nn of/in tangents/nns to/in Q/nn ,/, each/dt line/nn of/in which/wdt is/bez transformed/vbn into/in the/at entire/jj pencil/nn of/in lines/nns tangent/jj to/in Q/nn at/in the/at image/nn of/in the/at point/nn of/in tangency/nn of/in the/at given/vbn line/nn ./.
Thus/rb pencils/nns of/in tangents/nns to/in Q/nn are/ber transformed/vbn into/in pencils/nns of/in tangents/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez interesting/jj that/cs a/at 1/cd :/in 1/cd correspondence/nn can/md be/be established/vbn between/in the/at lines/nns of/in two/cd such/jj pencils/nns ,/, so/cs that/cs in/in a/at sense/nn a/at unique/jj image/nn can/md actually/rb be/be assigned/vbn to/in each/dt tangent/nn ./.
For/cs the/at lines/nns of/in any/dti plane/nn ,/, **yp/nn ,/, meeting/vbg Q/nn in/in a/at conic/nn C/nn ,/, are/ber transformed/vbn into/in the/at congruence/nn of/in secants/nns of/in the/at curve/nn C'/nn into/in which/wdt C/nn is/bez transformed/vbn in/in the/at point/nn involution/nn on/in Q/nn ./.
In/in particular/jj ,/, tangents/nns to/in C/nn are/ber transformed/vbn into/in tangents/nns to/in C'/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, if/cs Af/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber two/cd planes/nns intersecting/vbg in/in a/at line/nn l/nn ,/, tangent/jj to/in Q/nn at/in a/at point/nn P/nn ,/, the/at two/cd free/jj intersections/nns of/in the/at image/nn curves/nns Af/nn and/cc Af/nn must/md coincide/vb at/in P'/nn ,/, the/at image/nn of/in P/nn ,/, and/cc at/in this/dt point/nn Af/nn and/cc Af/nn must/md have/hv a/at common/jj tangent/nn l'/nn ./.
Hence/rb ,/, thought/vbn of/in as/cs a/at line/nn in/in a/at particular/jj plane/nn **yp/nn ,/, any/dti tangent/nn to/in Q/nn has/hvz a/at unique/jj image/nn and/cc moreover/rb this/dt image/nn is/bez the/at same/ap for/in all/abn planes/nns through/in L/np ./.


	Each/dt generator/nn ,/, **yl/nn ,/, of/in Af/nn is/bez also/rb exceptional/jj ,/, for/cs each/dt is/bez transformed/vbn into/in the/at entire/jj congruence/nn of/in secants/nns of/in the/at curve/nn into/in which/wdt that/dt generator/nn is/bez transformed/vbn by/in the/at point/nn involution/nn on/in Q/nn ./.
This/dt curve/nn is/bez of/in symbol/nn Af/nn since/cs it/pps meets/vbz **yl/nn ,/, and/cc hence/rb every/at line/nn of/in Af/nn in/in the/at Af/nn invariant/jj points/nns on/in **yl/nn and/cc since/cs it/pps obviously/rb meets/vbz every/at line/nn of/in Af/nn in/in a/at single/ap point/nn ./.
The/at congruence/nn of/in its/pp$ secants/nns is/bez therefore/rb of/in order/nn Af/nn and/cc class/nn Af/nn ./.


	A/at final/jj class/nn of/in exceptional/jj lines/nns is/bez identifiable/jj from/in the/at following/vbg considerations/nns :/: Since/cs no/at two/cd generators/nns of/in Af/nn can/md intersect/vb ,/, it/pps follows/vbz that/cs their/pp$ image/nn curves/nns can/md have/hv no/at free/jj intersections/nns ./.
In/in other/ap words/nns ,/, these/dts curves/nns have/hv only/rb fixed/vbn intersections/nns common/jj to/in them/ppo all/abn ./.
Now/rb the/at only/ap way/nn in/in which/wdt all/abn curves/nns of/in the/at image/nn family/nn of/in Af/nn can/md pass/vb through/in a/at fixed/vbn point/nn is/bez to/to have/hv a/at generator/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt is/bez not/* a/at secant/nn but/cc a/at tangent/nn of/in **zg/nn ,/, for/cs then/rb any/dti point/nn on/in such/abl a/at generator/nn will/md be/be transformed/vbn into/in the/at point/nn of/in tangency/nn ./.
Since/cs two/cd curves/nns of/in symbol/nn Af/nn on/in Q/nn intersect/vb in/in Af/nn points/nns ,/, it/pps follows/vbz that/cs there/ex are/ber Af/nn lines/nns of/in Af/nn which/wdt are/ber tangent/jj to/in Aj/nn ./.
Clearly/rb ,/, any/dti line/nn ,/, l/nn ,/, of/in any/dti bundle/nn having/hvg one/cd of/in these/dts points/nns of/in tangency/nn ,/, T/nn ,/, as/cs vertex/nn will/md be/be transformed/vbn into/in the/at entire/jj pencil/nn having/hvg the/at image/nn of/in the/at second/od intersection/nn of/in L/np and/cc Q/nn as/cs vertex/nn and/cc lying/vbg in/in the/at plane/nn determined/vbn by/in the/at image/nn point/nn and/cc the/at generator/nn of/in Af/nn which/wdt is/bez tangent/jj to/in **zg/nn at/in T/nn ./.
A/at line/nn through/in two/cd of/in these/dts points/nns ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, will/md be/be transformed/vbn into/in the/at entire/jj bilinear/jj congruence/nn having/hvg the/at tangents/nns to/in **zg/nn at/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn as/cs directrices/nns ./.


	A/at conic/nn ,/, C/nn ,/, being/beg a/at (/( 1/cd ,/, 1/cd )/) curve/nn on/in Q/nn ,/, meets/vbz the/at image/nn of/in any/dti line/nn of/in Af/nn ,/, which/wdt we/ppss have/hv already/rb found/vbn to/to be/be a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in Q/nn ,/, in/in Af/nn points/nns ./.
Hence/rb its/pp$ image/nn ,/, C'/nn ,/, meets/vbz any/dti line/nn of/in Af/nn in/in Af/nn points/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, C'/nn obviously/rb meets/vbz any/dti line/nn Af/nn in/in a/at single/ap point/nn ./.
Hence/rb C'/nn is/bez a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in Q/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at congruence/nn of/in its/pp$ secants/nns ,/, that/dt is/bez the/at image/nn of/in a/at general/jj plane/nn field/nn of/in lines/nns ,/, is/bez of/in order/nn Af/nn and/cc class/nn Af/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, the/at image/nn of/in a/at general/jj bundle/nn of/in lines/nns is/bez a/at congruence/nn whose/wp$ order/nn is/bez the/at order/nn of/in the/at congruence/nn of/in invariant/jj lines/nns ,/, namely/rb Af/nn and/cc whose/wp$ class/nn is/bez the/at order/nn of/in the/at image/nn congruence/nn of/in a/at general/jj plane/nn field/nn of/in lines/nns ,/, namely/rb Af/nn ./.



2/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at preceding/vbg observations/nns make/vb it/ppo clear/jj that/cs there/ex exist/vb line/nn involutions/nns of/in all/abn orders/nns greater/jjr than/in 1/cd with/in no/at complex/nn of/in invariant/jj lines/nns and/cc with/in a/at complex/nn of/in singular/jj lines/nns consisting/vbg exclusively/rb of/in the/at lines/nns which/wdt meet/vb a/at twisted/vbn curve/nn Aj/nn ./.
We/ppss now/rb shall/md show/vb that/cs any/dti involution/nn with/in these/dts characteristics/nns is/bez necessarily/rb of/in the/at type/nn we/ppss have/hv just/rb described/vbn ./.


	To/to do/do this/dt we/ppss must/md first/rb show/vb that/cs every/at line/nn which/wdt meets/vbz **zg/nn in/in a/at point/nn P/nn meets/vbz its/pp$ image/nn at/in P/nn ./.
To/to see/vb this/dt ,/, consider/vb a/at general/jj pencil/nn of/in lines/nns containing/vbg a/at general/jj secant/nn of/in Aj/nn ./.
By/in (/( 1/cd )/) ,/, the/at image/nn of/in this/dt pencil/nn is/bez a/at ruled/vbn surface/nn of/in order/nn Af/nn which/wdt is/bez met/vbn by/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn in/in a/at curve/nn ,/, C/nn ,/, of/in order/nn Af/nn ./.
On/in C/nn there/ex is/bez a/at Af/nn correspondence/nn in/in which/wdt the/at Af/nn points/nns cut/vbn from/in C/nn by/in a/at general/jj line/nn ,/, l/nn ,/, of/in the/at pencil/nn correspond/vb to/in the/at point/nn of/in intersection/nn of/in the/at image/nn of/in L/np and/cc the/at plane/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn ./.
Since/cs C/nn is/bez rational/jj ,/, this/dt correspondence/nn has/hvz K/np coincidences/nns ,/, each/dt of/in which/wdt implies/vbz a/at line/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn which/wdt meets/vbz its/pp$ image/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, since/cs the/at pencil/nn contains/vbz a/at secant/nn of/in **zg/nn it/pps actually/rb contains/vbz only/rb Af/nn singular/jj lines/nns ./.
To/to avoid/vb this/dt contradiction/nn it/pps is/bez necessary/jj that/cs C/nn be/be composite/jj ,/, with/in the/at secant/nn of/in **zg/nn and/cc a/at curve/nn of/in order/nn Af/nn as/cs components/nns ./.
Thus/rb it/pps follows/vbz that/cs the/at secants/nns of/in **zg/nn are/ber all/abn invariant/jj ./.
But/cc if/cs this/dt is/bez the/at case/nn ,/, then/rb an/at arbitrary/jj pencil/nn of/in lines/nns having/hvg a/at point/nn ,/, P/nn ,/, of/in **zg/nn as/cs vertex/nn is/bez transformed/vbn into/in a/at ruled/vbn surface/nn of/in order/nn Af/nn having/hvg Af/nn generators/nns concurrent/jj at/in P/nn ./.
Since/cs a/at ruled/vbn surface/nn of/in order/nn N/np with/in N/np concurrent/jj generators/nns is/bez necessarily/rb a/at cone/nn ,/, it/pps follows/vbz finally/rb that/cs every/at line/nn through/in a/at point/nn ,/, P/nn ,/, of/in **zg/nn meets/vbz its/pp$ image/nn at/in P/nn ,/, as/cs asserted/vbn ./.


	Now/rb consider/vb the/at transformation/nn of/in the/at lines/nns of/in a/at bundle/nn with/in vertex/nn ,/, P/nn ,/, on/in **zg/nn which/wdt is/bez effected/vbn by/in the/at involution/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn ./.
From/in the/at preceding/vbg remarks/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs such/abl a/at bundle/nn is/bez transformed/vbn into/in itself/ppl in/in an/at involutorial/jj fashion/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, in/in this/dt involution/nn there/ex is/bez a/at cone/nn of/in invariant/jj lines/nns of/in order/nn Af/nn ,/, namely/rb the/at cone/nn of/in secants/nns of/in **zg/nn which/wdt pass/vb through/in P/nn ./.
Hence/rb it/pps follows/vbz that/cs the/at involution/nn within/in the/at bundle/nn must/md be/be a/at perspective/nn De/np Jonquieres/np involution/nn of/in order/nn Af/nn and/cc the/at invariant/jj locus/nn must/md have/hv a/at multiple/jj line/nn of/in multiplicity/nn either/cc Af/nn or/cc Af/nn ./.
The/at first/od possibility/nn requires/vbz that/cs there/ex be/be a/at line/nn through/in P/nn which/wdt meets/vbz **zg/nn in/in Af/nn points/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at second/od requires/vbz that/cs there/ex be/be a/at line/nn through/in P/nn which/wdt meets/vbz **zg/nn in/in Af/nn points/nns ./.
In/in each/dt case/nn ,/, lines/nns of/in the/at bundles/nns are/ber transformed/vbn by/in involutions/nns within/in the/at pencils/nns they/ppss determine/vb with/in the/at multiple/jj secant/nn ./.
In/in the/at first/od case/nn the/at fixed/vbn elements/nns within/in each/dt pencil/nn are/ber the/at multiple/jj secant/nn and/cc the/at line/nn joining/vbg the/at vertex/nn ,/, P/nn ,/, to/in the/at intersection/nn of/in **zg/nn and/cc the/at plane/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn which/wdt does/doz not/* lie/vb on/in the/at multiple/jj secant/nn ./.
In/in the/at second/od ,/, the/at fixed/vbn elements/nns are/ber the/at lines/nns which/wdt join/vb the/at vertex/nn ,/, P/nn ,/, to/in the/at two/cd intersections/nns of/in **zg/nn and/cc the/at plane/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn which/wdt do/do not/* lie/vb on/in the/at multiple/jj secant/nn ./.
The/at multiple/jj secants/nns ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, are/ber exceptional/jj and/cc in/in each/dt case/nn are/ber transformed/vbn into/in cones/nns of/in order/nn Af/nn ./.


	Observations/nns similar/jj to/in these/dts can/md be/be made/vbn at/in each/dt point/nn of/in Aj/nn ./.
Hence/rb **zg/nn must/md have/hv either/cc a/at regulus/nn of/in Af-fold/nn secants/nns or/cc a/at regulus/nn of/in Af-fold/nn secants/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, if/cs Af/nn ,/, no/at two/cd of/in the/at multiple/jj secants/nns can/md intersect/vb ./.
For/cs if/cs such/jj were/bed the/at case/nn ,/, either/cc the/at plane/nn of/in the/at two/cd lines/nns would/md meet/vb **zg/nn in/in more/ap than/in K/np points/nns or/cc ,/, alternatively/rb ,/, the/at order/nn of/in the/at image/nn regulus/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn determined/vbn by/in the/at two/cd lines/nns would/md be/be too/ql high/jj ./.
But/cc if/cs no/at two/cd lines/nns of/in the/at regulus/nn of/in multiple/jj secants/nns of/in **zg/nn can/md intersect/vb ,/, then/rb the/at regulus/nn must/md be/be quadratic/jj ,/, or/cc in/in other/ap words/nns ,/, **zg/nn must/md be/be either/cc a/at Af/nn or/cc a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in a/at nonsingular/jj quadric/jj surface/nn ./.


	We/ppss now/rb observe/vb that/cs the/at case/nn in/in which/wdt **zg/nn is/bez a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in a/at quadric/nn is/bez impossible/jj if/cs the/at complex/nn of/in singular/jj lines/nns consists/vbz exclusively/rb of/in the/at lines/nns which/wdt meet/vb Aj/nn ./.
For/cs any/dti pencil/nn in/in a/at plane/nn containing/vbg a/at Af-fold/nn secant/nn of/in **zg/nn has/hvz an/at image/nn regulus/nn which/wdt meets/vbz the/at plane/nn of/in the/at pencil/nn in/in Af/nn lines/nns ,/, namely/rb the/at images/nns of/in the/at lines/nns of/in the/at pencil/nn which/wdt pass/vb through/in the/at intersection/nn of/in **zg/nn and/cc the/at multiple/jj secant/nn ,/, plus/in an/at additional/jj component/nn to/to account/vb for/in the/at intersections/nns of/in the/at images/nns of/in the/at general/jj lines/nns of/in the/at pencil/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, if/cs there/ex is/bez no/at additional/jj complex/nn of/in singular/jj lines/nns ,/, the/at order/nn of/in the/at image/nn regulus/nn of/in a/at pencil/nn is/bez precisely/rb Af/nn ./.
This/dt contradicts/vbz the/at preceding/vbg observations/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb ,/, under/in the/at assumption/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn ,/, we/ppss must/md reject/vb the/at possibility/nn that/cs **zg/nn is/bez a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in a/at quadric/jj surface/nn ./.


	Continuing/vbg with/in the/at case/nn in/in which/wdt **zg/nn is/bez a/at Af/nn curve/nn on/in a/at quadric/jj Q/nn ,/, we/ppss first/rb observe/vb that/cs the/at second/od regulus/nn of/in Q/nn consists/vbz precisely/rb of/in the/at lines/nns which/wdt join/vb the/at two/cd free/jj intersections/nns of/in **zg/nn and/cc the/at planes/nns through/in any/dti one/cd of/in the/at multiple/jj secants/nns ./.
For/cs each/dt of/in these/dts lines/nns meets/nns Q/nn in/in three/cd points/nns ,/, namely/rb two/cd points/nns on/in **zg/nn and/cc one/cd point/nn on/in one/cd of/in the/at multiple/jj secants/nns ./.


	Now/rb consider/vb an/at arbitrary/jj line/nn ,/, l/nn ,/, meeting/vbg Q/nn in/in two/cd points/nns ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
If/cs **ya/nn is/bez the/at multiple/jj secant/nn of/in **zg/nn which/wdt passes/vbz through/in Af/nn and/cc **yb/nn is/bez the/at simple/jj secant/nn of/in **zg/nn which/wdt passes/vbz through/in Af/nn ,/, and/cc if/cs Af/nn are/ber the/at points/nns in/in which/wdt **ya/nn meets/vbz **zg/nn ,/, and/cc if/cs Af/nn is/bez the/at image/nn of/in Af/nn on/in the/at generator/nn **yb/nn ,/, it/pps follows/vbz that/cs the/at image/nn of/in the/at line/nn Af/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.



	These/dts societies/nns can/md expect/vb to/to face/vb difficult/jj times/nns ./.
As/cs the/at historic/jj processes/nns of/in modernization/nn gradually/rb gain/vb momentum/nn ,/, their/pp$ cohesion/nn will/md be/be threatened/vbn by/in divisive/jj forces/nns ,/, the/at gaps/nns between/in rulers/nns and/cc subjects/nns ,/, town/nn and/cc country/nn ,/, will/md widen/vb ;/. ;/.
new/jj aspirants/nns for/in power/nn will/md emerge/vb whose/wp$ ambitions/nns far/rb exceed/vb their/pp$ competence/nn ;/. ;/.
old/jj rulers/nns may/md lose/vb their/pp$ nerve/nn and/cc their/pp$ sense/nn of/in direction/nn ./.
National/jj leaders/nns will/md have/hv to/to display/vb the/at highest/jjt skills/nns of/in statesmanship/nn to/to guide/vb their/pp$ people/nns through/in times/nns of/in uncertainty/nn and/cc confusion/nn which/wdt destroy/vb men's/nns$ sense/nn of/in identity/nn ./.
Feelings/nns of/in a/at community/nn of/in interest/nn will/md have/hv to/to be/be recreated/vbn --/-- in/in some/dti of/in the/at new/jj nations/nns ,/, indeed/rb ,/, they/ppss must/md be/be built/vbn for/in the/at first/od time/nn --/-- on/in a/at new/jj basis/nn which/wdt looks/vbz toward/in the/at future/nn and/cc does/doz not/* rely/vb only/rb on/in shared/vbn memories/nns of/in the/at past/nn ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, with/in foresight/nn and/cc careful/jj planning/nn ,/, some/dti of/in the/at more/ql disruptive/jj and/cc dangerous/jj consequences/nns of/in social/jj change/nn which/wdt have/hv troubled/vbn other/ap countries/nns passing/vbg through/in this/dt stage/nn can/md be/be escaped/vbn ./.
The/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl can/md help/vb by/in communicating/vbg a/at genuine/jj concern/nn with/in the/at problems/nns these/dts countries/nns face/vb and/cc a/at readiness/nn to/to provide/vb technical/jj and/cc other/ap appropriate/jj forms/nns of/in assistance/nn where/wrb possible/jj ./.


	Our/pp$ central/jj goal/nn should/md be/be to/to provide/vb the/at greatest/jjt positive/jj incentive/nn for/cs these/dts societies/nns to/to tackle/vb boldly/rb the/at tasks/nns which/wdt they/ppss face/vb ./.
At/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, we/ppss should/md recognize/vb that/cs the/at obstacles/nns to/to change/vb and/cc the/at lack/nn of/in cohesion/nn and/cc stability/nn which/wdt characterize/vb these/dts countries/nns may/md make/vb them/ppo particularly/ql prone/jj to/in diversions/nns and/cc external/jj adventures/nns of/in all/abn sorts/nns ./.
It/pps may/md seem/vb to/in some/dti of/in them/ppo that/cs success/nn can/md be/be purchased/vbn much/ql less/ql dearly/rb by/in fishing/vbg in/in the/at murky/jj waters/nns of/in international/jj politics/nn than/cs by/in facing/vbg up/rp to/in the/at intractable/jj tasks/nns at/in home/nn ./.
We/ppss should/md do/do what/wdt we/ppss can/md to/to discourage/vb this/dt conclusion/nn ,/, both/abx by/in offering/vbg assistance/nn for/in their/pp$ domestic/jj needs/nns and/cc by/in reacting/vbg firmly/rb to/in irresponsible/jj actions/nns on/in the/at world/nn scene/nn ./.
When/wrb necessary/jj ,/, we/ppss should/md make/vb it/ppo clear/jj that/cs countries/nns which/wdt choose/vb to/to derive/vb marginal/jj advantages/nns from/in the/at cold/jj war/nn or/cc to/to exploit/vb their/pp$ potential/nn for/in disrupting/vbg the/at security/nn of/in the/at world/nn will/md not/* only/rb lose/vb our/pp$ sympathy/nn but/cc also/rb risk/vb their/pp$ own/jj prospects/nns for/in orderly/jj development/nn ./.
As/cs a/at nation/nn ,/, we/ppss feel/vb an/at obligation/nn to/to assist/vb other/ap countries/nns in/in their/pp$ development/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc this/dt obligation/nn pertains/vbz only/rb to/in countries/nns which/wdt are/ber honestly/rb seeking/vbg to/to become/vb responsible/jj members/nns of/in a/at stable/jj and/cc forward-moving/jj world/nn community/nn ./.



Transitional/jj-hl societies/nns-hl 
When/wrb we/ppss look/vb at/in countries/nns like/cs Iran/np ,/, Iraq/np ,/, Pakistan/np ,/, and/cc Burma/np ,/, where/wrb substantial/jj progress/nn has/hvz been/ben made/vbn in/in creating/vbg a/at minimum/jj supply/nn of/in modern/jj men/nns and/cc of/in social/jj overhead/nn capital/nn ,/, and/cc where/wrb institutions/nns of/in centralized/vbn government/nn exist/vb ,/, we/ppss find/vb a/at second/od category/nn of/in countries/nns with/in a/at different/jj set/nn of/in problems/nns and/cc hence/rb different/jj priorities/nns for/in policy/nn ./.
The/at men/nns in/in power/nn are/ber committed/vbn in/in principle/nn to/in modernization/nn ,/, but/cc economic/jj and/cc social/jj changes/nns are/ber proceeding/vbg only/rb erratically/rb ./.
Isolated/vbn enterprises/nns have/hv been/ben launched/vbn ,/, but/cc they/ppss are/ber not/* yet/rb related/vbn to/in each/dt other/ap in/in a/at meaningful/jj pattern/nn ./.
The/at society/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be characterized/vbn by/in having/hvg a/at fairly/ql modernized/vbn urban/jj sector/nn and/cc a/at relatively/ql untouched/jj rural/jj sector/nn ,/, with/in very/ql poor/jj communications/nns between/in the/at two/cd ./.
Progress/nn is/bez impeded/vbn by/in psychological/jj inhibitions/nns to/in effective/jj action/nn among/in those/dts in/in power/nn and/cc by/in a/at failure/nn on/in their/pp$ part/nn to/to understand/vb how/wrb local/jj resources/nns ,/, human/jj and/cc material/nn ,/, can/md be/be mobilized/vbn to/to achieve/vb the/at national/jj goals/nns of/in modernization/nn already/rb symbolically/rb accepted/vbn ./.


	Most/ap countries/nns in/in this/dt second/od category/nn share/vb the/at difficulty/nn of/in having/hvg many/ap of/in the/at structures/nns of/in a/at modern/jj political/jj and/cc social/jj system/nn without/in the/at modern/jj standards/nns of/in performance/nn required/vbn to/to make/vb them/ppo effective/jj ./.
In/in these/dts rapidly/rb changing/vbg societies/nns there/ex is/bez also/rb too/ql little/ap appreciation/nn of/in the/at need/nn for/in effort/nn to/to achieve/vb goals/nns ./.
The/at colonial/jj period/nn has/hvz generally/rb left/vbn people/nns believing/vbg that/dt government/nn can/md ,/, if/cs it/pps wishes/vbz ,/, provide/vb all/abn manner/nn of/in services/nns for/in them/ppo --/-- and/cc that/cs with/in independence/nn free/jj men/nns do/do not/* have/hv to/to work/vb to/to realize/vb the/at benefits/nns of/in modern/jj life/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at fashion/nn of/in the/at times/nns ,/, most/ap transitional/jj societies/nns have/hv announced/vbn economic/jj development/nn plans/nns of/in varying/vbg numbers/nns of/in years/nns ;/. ;/.
such/abl is/bez the/at mystique/nn of/in planning/vbg that/cs people/nns expect/vb that/cs fulfillment/nn of/in the/at plan/nn will/md follow/vb automatically/rb upon/in its/pp$ announcement/nn ./.
The/at civil/jj services/nns in/in such/jj societies/nns are/ber generally/rb inadequate/jj to/to deal/vb competently/rb with/in the/at problems/nns facing/vbg them/ppo ;/. ;/.
and/cc their/pp$ members/nns often/rb equate/vb a/at government/nn career/nn with/in security/nn and/cc status/nn rather/rb than/cs with/in sacrifice/nn ,/, self-discipline/nn ,/, and/cc competence/nn ./.


	American/jj policy/nn should/md press/vb constantly/rb the/at view/nn that/cs until/cs these/dts governments/nns demand/vb efficiency/nn and/cc effectiveness/nn of/in their/pp$ bureaucracies/nns there/ex is/bez not/* the/at slightest/jjt hope/nn that/cs they/ppss will/md either/cc modernize/vb of/in democratize/vb their/pp$ societies/nns ./.
We/ppss should/md spread/vb the/at view/nn that/cs planning/vbg and/cc national/jj development/nn are/ber serious/jj matters/nns which/wdt call/vb for/in effort/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs enthusiasm/nn ./.
Above/in all/abn ,/, we/ppss should/md seek/vb to/to encourage/vb the/at leaders/nns of/in these/dts societies/nns to/to accept/vb the/at unpleasant/jj fact/nn that/cs they/ppss are/ber responsible/jj for/in their/pp$ fates/nns ./.
Only/rb within/in the/at framework/nn of/in a/at mature/jj relationship/nn characterized/vbn by/in honest/jj appraisals/nns of/in performance/nn can/md we/ppss provide/vb telling/jj assistance/nn ./.
With/in respect/nn to/in those/dts countries/nns whose/wp$ leaders/nns prefer/vb to/to live/vb with/in their/pp$ illusions/nns ,/, we/ppss can/md afford/vb to/to wait/vb ,/, for/cs in/in time/nn their/pp$ comparative/jj lack/nn of/in progress/nn will/md become/vb clear/jj for/in all/abn to/to see/vb ./.


	Our/pp$ technical/jj assistance/nn to/in these/dts countries/nns should/md place/vb special/jj emphasis/nn on/in inducing/vbg the/at central/jj governments/nns to/to assume/vb the/at role/nn of/in advisor/nn and/cc guide/nn which/wdt at/in an/at earlier/jjr stage/nn foreign/jj experts/nns assumed/vbd in/in dealing/vbg with/in the/at central/jj governments/nns ./.
We/ppss should/md encourage/vb the/at governments/nns to/to develop/vb their/pp$ own/jj technical/jj assistance/nn to/in communities/nns ,/, state/nn and/cc provincial/jj governments/nns ,/, rural/jj communities/nns ,/, and/cc other/ap smaller/jjr groups/nns ,/, making/vbg certain/jj that/cs no/at important/jj segment/nn of/in the/at economy/nn is/bez neglected/vbn ./.
Simultaneously/rb we/ppss should/md be/be underlining/vbg the/at interrelationships/nns of/in technical/jj progress/nn in/in various/ap fields/nns ,/, showing/vbg how/wrb agricultural/jj training/nn can/md be/be introduced/vbn into/in education/nn ,/, how/wrb health/nn affects/vbz labor/nn productivity/nn ,/, how/wrb small/jj business/nn can/md benefit/vb the/at rural/jj farm/nn community/nn ,/, and/cc ,/, above/in all/abn ,/, how/wrb progress/nn in/in each/dt field/nn relates/vbz to/in national/jj progress/nn ./.
Efforts/nns such/jj as/cs the/at Community/nn-tl Development/nn-tl Program/nn-tl in/in the/at Philippines/nps have/hv demonstrated/vbn that/cs transitional/jj societies/nns can/md work/vb toward/in balanced/vbn national/jj development/nn ./.
To/to achieve/vb this/dt goal/nn of/in balanced/vbn development/nn ,/, communications/nns between/in the/at central/jj government/nn and/cc the/at local/jj communities/nns must/md be/be such/jj that/cs the/at needs/nns and/cc aspirations/nns of/in the/at people/nns themselves/ppls are/ber effectively/rb taken/vbn into/in account/nn ./.
If/cs modernization/nn programs/nns are/ber imposed/vbn from/in above/rb ,/, without/in the/at understanding/nn and/cc cooperation/nn of/in the/at people/nns ,/, they/ppss will/md encounter/vb grave/jj difficulties/nns ./.


	Land/nn reform/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be a/at pressing/vbg issue/nn in/in many/ap of/in these/dts countries/nns ./.
It/pps should/md be/be American/jj policy/nn not/* only/rb to/to encourage/vb effective/jj land/nn reform/nn programs/nns but/cc also/rb to/to underline/vb the/at relation/nn of/in such/jj reforms/nns to/in the/at economic/jj growth/nn and/cc modernization/nn of/in the/at society/nn ./.
As/cs an/at isolated/vbn policy/nn ,/, land/nn reform/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be politically/rb disruptive/jj ;/. ;/.
as/cs part/nn of/in a/at larger/jjr development/nn effort/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, it/pps may/md gain/vb wide/jj acceptance/nn ./.
It/pps should/md also/rb be/be recognized/vbn that/cs the/at problem/nn of/in rural/jj tenancy/nn cannot/md* be/be solved/vbn by/in administrative/jj decrees/nns alone/rb ./.
Land/nn reform/nn programs/nns need/vb to/to be/be supplemented/vbn with/in programs/nns for/in promoting/vbg rural/jj credits/nns and/cc technical/jj assistance/nn in/in agriculture/nn ./.


	Lastly/rb ,/, governmental/jj and/cc private/jj planners/nns will/md at/in this/dt stage/nn begin/vb to/to see/vb large/jj capital/nn requirements/nns looming/vbg ahead/rb ./.
By/in holding/vbg out/rp prospects/nns for/in external/jj capital/nn assistance/nn ,/, the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl can/md provide/vb strong/jj incentives/nns to/to prepare/vb for/in the/at concerted/jj economic/jj drive/nn necessary/jj to/to achieve/vb self-sustaining/jj growth/nn ./.



Actively/rb-hl modernizing/vbg-hl societies/nns-hl 
At/in a/at third/od stage/nn in/in the/at modernization/nn process/nn are/ber such/jj countries/nns as/cs India/np ,/, Brazil/np ,/, the/at Philippines/nps ,/, and/cc Taiwan/np ,/, which/wdt are/ber ready/jj and/cc committed/vbn to/to move/vb into/in the/at stage/nn of/in self-sustaining/jj growth/nn ./.
They/ppss must/md continue/vb to/to satisfy/vb basic/jj capital/nn needs/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc there/ex persists/vbz the/at dual/jj problem/nn of/in maintaining/vbg operational/jj unity/nn around/in a/at national/jj program/nn of/in modernization/nn while/cs simultaneously/rb decentralizing/vbg participation/nn in/in the/at program/nn to/in wider/jjr and/cc wider/jjr groups/nns ./.
But/cc these/dts countries/nns have/hv made/vbn big/jj strides/nns toward/in developing/vbg the/at necessary/jj human/jj and/cc social/jj overhead/nn capital/nn ;/. ;/.
they/ppss have/hv established/vbn reasonably/ql stable/jj and/cc effective/jj governmental/jj institutions/nns at/in national/jj and/cc local/jj levels/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc they/ppss have/hv begun/vbn to/to develop/vb a/at capacity/nn to/to deal/vb realistically/rb and/cc simultaneously/rb with/in all/abn the/at major/jj sectors/nns of/in their/pp$ economies/nns ./.


	On/in the/at economic/jj front/nn ,/, the/at first/od priority/nn of/in these/dts countries/nns is/bez to/to mobilize/vb a/at vastly/ql increased/vbn volume/nn of/in resources/nns ./.
Several/ap related/vbn tasks/nns must/md be/be carried/vbn out/rp if/cs self-sustaining/jj growth/nn is/bez to/to be/be achieved/vbn ./.
These/dts countries/nns must/md formulate/vb a/at comprehensive/jj ,/, long-term/nn program/nn covering/vbg the/at objectives/nns of/in both/abx the/at private/jj and/cc the/at public/jj sectors/nns of/in the/at economy/nn ./.
They/ppss must/md in/in their/pp$ planning/nn be/be able/jj to/to count/vb on/in at/in least/ap tentative/jj commitments/nns of/in foreign/jj capital/nn assistance/nn over/in periods/nns of/in several/ap years/nns ./.
Capital/nn imports/nns drawn/vbn from/in a/at number/nn of/in sources/nns must/md be/be employed/vbn and/cc combined/vbn skillfully/rb enough/qlp to/to permit/vb domestic/jj investment/nn programming/vbg to/to go/vb forward/rb ./.
Capital/nn flows/nns must/md be/be coordinated/vbn with/in national/jj needs/nns and/cc planning/vbg ./.
Finally/rb ,/, a/at balance/nn must/md be/be effected/vbn among/in project/nn finance/nn ,/, utilization/nn of/in agricultural/jj surpluses/nns ,/, and/cc general/jj balance/nn of/in payments/nns support/vb ./.


	Thus/rb ,/, although/cs the/at agenda/nns of/in external/jj assistance/nn in/in the/at economic/jj sphere/nn are/ber cumulative/jj ,/, and/cc many/ap of/in the/at policies/nns suggested/vbn for/in nations/nns in/in the/at earlier/jjr stages/nns remain/vb relevant/jj ,/, the/at basic/jj purpose/nn of/in American/jj economic/jj policy/nn during/in the/at later/jjr stages/nns of/in development/nn should/md be/be to/to assure/vb that/cs movement/nn into/in a/at stage/nn of/in self-sustaining/jj growth/nn is/bez not/* prevented/vbn by/in lack/nn of/in foreign/jj exchange/nn ./.


	There/ex remain/vb many/ap political/jj and/cc administrative/jj problems/nns to/to be/be solved/vbn ./.
For/in one/cd thing/nn ,/, although/cs considerable/jj numbers/nns of/in men/nns have/hv been/ben trained/vbn ,/, bureaucracies/nns are/ber still/rb deficient/jj in/in many/ap respects/nns ;/. ;/.
even/rb the/at famed/jj Indian/jj-tl Civil/jj-tl Service/nn-tl is/bez not/* fully/ql adequate/jj to/in the/at tremendous/jj range/nn of/in tasks/nns it/pps has/hvz undertaken/vbn ./.
Technical/jj assistance/nn in/in training/vbg middle-/jj and/cc upper-level/nn management/nn personnel/nns is/bez still/rb needed/vbn in/in many/ap cases/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber also/rb more/ql basic/jj problems/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at stage/nn at/in which/wdt democratic/jj developments/nns must/md take/vb place/nn if/cs the/at society/nn is/bez to/to become/vb an/at open/jj community/nn of/in creative/jj people/nns ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, impulses/nns still/rb exist/vb among/in the/at ruling/vbg elite/jj to/to rationalize/vb and/cc thus/rb to/to perpetuate/vb the/at need/nn for/in centralized/vbn and/cc authoritarian/jj practices/nns ./.
Another/dt great/jj danger/nn is/bez that/cs the/at emerging/vbg middle/jj class/nn will/md feel/vb itself/ppl increasingly/ql alienated/vbn from/in the/at political/jj leaders/nns who/wps still/rb justify/vb their/pp$ dominance/nn by/in reference/nn to/in the/at struggle/nn for/in independence/nn or/cc the/at early/jj phase/nn of/in nationalism/nn ./.
The/at capacity/nn of/in intellectuals/nns and/cc members/nns of/in the/at new/jj professional/jj classes/nns to/to contribute/vb creatively/rb to/in national/jj development/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be destroyed/vbn by/in a/at constraining/vbg sense/nn of/in inferiority/nn toward/in both/abx their/pp$ own/jj political/jj class/nn and/cc their/pp$ colleagues/nns and/cc professional/jj counterparts/nns in/in the/at West/nr-tl ./.
Particularly/rb when/wrb based/vbn upon/in a/at single/ap dominant/jj party/nn ,/, governments/nns may/md respond/vb to/in such/abl a/at situation/nn by/in claiming/vbg a/at monopoly/nn of/in understanding/vbg about/in the/at national/jj interest/nn ./.
Convinced/vbn of/in the/at wisdom/nn of/in their/pp$ own/jj actions/nns ,/, and/cc reassured/vbn by/in the/at promises/nns of/in their/pp$ economic/jj development/nn programs/nns ,/, governments/nns may/md fail/vb to/to push/vb outward/rb to/to win/vb more/ap and/cc more/ap people/nns to/in the/at national/jj effort/nn ,/, becoming/vbg instead/rb more/ql rigid/jj and/cc inflexible/jj in/in their/pp$ policies/nns ./.


	American/jj policy/nn toward/in such/jj societies/nns should/md stress/vb our/pp$ sympathy/nn for/in the/at emerging/vbg social/jj and/cc professional/jj classes/nns ./.
It/pps should/md attempt/vb to/to communicate/vb both/abx an/at appreciation/nn of/in professional/jj standards/nns and/cc an/at understanding/nn of/in the/at tremendous/jj powers/nns and/cc potentialities/nns of/in genuinely/ql open/jj and/cc pluralistic/jj societies/nns ./.
We/ppss have/hv every/at obligation/nn to/to take/vb seriously/rb their/pp$ claims/nns to/in being/beg democratic/jj and/cc free/jj countries/nns ;/. ;/.
we/ppss also/rb have/hv ,/, in/in consequence/nn ,/, the/at duty/nn to/to appraise/vb realistically/rb and/cc honestly/rb their/pp$ performance/nn and/cc to/to communicate/vb our/pp$ judgments/nns to/in their/pp$ leaders/nns in/in frank/jj but/cc friendly/jj ways/nns ./.



The/at-hl time/nn-hl factor/nn-hl 
We/ppss have/hv emphasized/vbn that/cs the/at modernizing/vbg process/nn in/in each/dt society/nn will/md take/vb a/at considerable/jj period/nn of/in time/nn ./.
With/in the/at exception/nn of/in treaty-making/nn ,/, foreign/jj relations/nns were/bed historically/rb concerned/vbn for/in the/at most/ap part/nn with/in conditions/nns of/in short/jj or/cc at/in least/ap measurable/jj duration/nn ./.
Foreign/jj policy/nn now/rb takes/vbz on/rp a/at different/jj perspective/nn and/cc must/md become/vb skilled/jj not/* merely/rb at/in response/nn but/cc also/rb at/in projection/nn ./.
American/jj and/cc free-world/nn policies/nns can/md marginally/rb affect/vb the/at pace/nn of/in transition/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc basically/rb that/dt pace/nn depends/vbz on/in changes/nns in/in the/at supply/nn of/in resources/nns and/cc in/in the/at human/jj attitudes/nns ,/, political/jj institutions/nns ,/, and/cc social/jj structure/nn which/wdt each/dt society/nn must/md generate/vb ./.
It/pps follows/vbz that/cs any/dti effective/jj policy/nn toward/in the/at underdeveloped/jj countries/nns must/md have/hv a/at realistically/ql long/jj working/vbg horizon/nn ./.
It/pps must/md be/be marked/vbn by/in a/at patience/nn and/cc persistence/nn which/wdt have/hv not/* always/rb been/ben its/pp$ trademark/nn ./.


	This/dt condition/nn affects/vbz not/* only/rb the/at conception/nn but/cc also/rb the/at legislative/jj and/cc financial/jj support/nn of/in foreign/jj policy/nn ,/, especially/rb in/in the/at context/nn of/in economic/jj aid/nn ./.




2/cd-hl :/.-hl :/.-hl
Some/dti-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl major/jj-hl functions/nns-hl of/in-hl religion/nn-hl 
The/at place/nn of/in religion/nn in/in the/at simple/jj ,/, preliterate/jj societies/nns is/bez quite/ql definite/jj ;/. ;/.
as/cs a/at complex/nn it/pps fits/vbz into/in the/at whole/jj social/jj organization/nn and/cc functions/vbz dominantly/rb in/in every/at part/nn of/in it/ppo ./.
In/in societies/nns like/cs ours/pp$$ ,/, however/rb ,/, its/pp$ place/nn is/bez less/ql clear/jj and/cc more/ql complex/jj ./.
With/in the/at diversity/nn of/in religious/jj viewpoints/nns ,/, there/ex are/ber differences/nns of/in opinion/nn as/in to/in the/at essential/jj features/nns of/in religion/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc there/ex are/ber different/jj opinions/nns as/in to/in the/at essential/jj functions/nns of/in religion/nn ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, for/in most/ap of/in the/at population/nn of/in heterogeneous/jj advanced/vbn societies/nns ,/, though/cs less/ap for/in the/at less/ql religious/jj portion/nn ,/, religion/nn does/doz perform/vb certain/jj modal/jj individual/jj and/cc social/jj functions/nns ./.


	Although/cs the/at inner/jj functions/nns of/in religion/nn are/ber not/* of/in direct/jj significance/nn in/in social/jj organization/nn ,/, they/ppss have/hv important/jj indirect/jj consequences/nns ./.
If/cs the/at inner/jj functions/nns of/in religion/nn are/ber performed/vbn ,/, the/at individual/nn is/bez a/at composed/vbn ,/, ordered/vbn ,/, motivated/vbn ,/, and/cc emotionally/rb secure/jj associate/nn ;/. ;/.
he/pps is/bez not/* greatly/rb frustrated/vbn ,/, and/cc he/pps is/bez not/* anomic/jj ;/. ;/.
he/pps is/bez better/rbr fitted/vbn to/to perform/vb his/pp$ social/jj life/nn among/in his/pp$ fellows/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber several/ap closely/rb related/vbn inner/jj functions/nns ./.


	In/in the/at last/ap analysis/nn ,/, religion/nn is/bez the/at means/nn of/in inducing/vbg ,/, formulating/vbg ,/, expressing/vbg ,/, enhancing/vbg ,/, implementing/vbg ,/, and/cc perpetuating/vbg man's/nn$ deepest/jjt experience/nn --/-- the/at religious/jj ./.
Man/nn is/bez first/rb religious/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at instrumentalities/nns follow/vb ./.
Religion/nn seeks/vbz to/to satisfy/vb human/jj needs/nns of/in great/jj pertinence/nn ./.
The/at significant/jj things/nns in/in it/ppo ,/, at/in the/at higher/jjr religious/jj levels/nns ,/, are/ber the/at inner/jj emotional/jj ,/, mental/jj ,/, and/cc spiritual/jj occurrences/nns that/wps fill/vb the/at pressing/vbg human/jj needs/nns of/in self-preservation/nn ,/, self-pacification/nn ,/, and/cc self-completion/nn ./.
The/at chief/jjs experience/nn is/bez the/at sensing/nn of/in communion/nn ,/, and/cc in/in the/at higher/jjr religions/nns ,/, of/in a/at harmonious/jj relationship/nn with/in the/at supernatural/jj power/nn ./.
Related/vbn to/in this/dt is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs most/ap of/in the/at higher/jjr religions/nns define/vb for/in the/at individual/nn his/pp$ place/nn in/in the/at universe/nn and/cc give/vb him/ppo a/at feeling/nn that/cs he/pps is/bez relatively/ql secure/jj in/in an/at ordered/vbn ,/, dependable/jj universe/nn ./.
Man/nn has/hvz the/at experience/nn of/in being/beg helpfully/rb allied/vbn with/in what/wdt he/pps cannot/md* fully/rb understand/vb ;/. ;/.
he/pps is/bez a/at coordinate/jj part/nn of/in all/abn of/in the/at mysterious/jj energy/nn and/cc being/beg and/cc movement/nn ./.
The/at universe/nn is/bez a/at safe/jj and/cc permanent/jj home/nn ./.


	A/at number/nn of/in religions/nns also/rb satisfy/vb for/in many/ap the/at need/nn of/in being/beg linked/vbn with/in the/at ultimate/jj and/cc eternal/jj ./.
Death/nn is/bez not/* permanent/jj defeat/nn and/cc disappearance/nn ;/. ;/.
man/nn has/hvz a/at second/od chance/nn ./.
He/pps is/bez not/* lost/vbn in/in the/at abyss/nn of/in endless/jj time/nn ;/. ;/.
he/pps has/hvz endless/jj being/nn ./.
Religion/nn at/in its/pp$ best/jjt also/rb offers/vbz the/at experience/nn of/in spiritual/jj fulfillment/nn by/in inviting/vbg man/nn into/in the/at highest/jjt realm/nn of/in the/at spirit/nn ./.
Religion/nn can/md summate/vb ,/, epitomize/vb ,/, relate/vb ,/, and/cc conserve/vb all/abn the/at highest/jjt ideals/nns and/cc values/nns --/-- ethical/jj ,/, aesthetic/jj ,/, and/cc religious/jj --/-- of/in man/nn formed/vbn in/in his/pp$ culture/nn ./.


	There/ex is/bez also/rb the/at possibility/nn ,/, among/in higher/jjr religions/nns ,/, of/in experiencing/vbg consistent/jj meaning/nn in/in life/nn and/cc enjoying/vbg guidance/nn and/cc expansiveness/nn ./.
The/at kind/nn of/in religious/jj experience/nn that/wpo most/ap moderns/nns seek/vb not/* only/rb provides/vbz ,/, clarifies/vbz ,/, and/cc relates/vbz human/jj yearnings/nns ,/, values/nns ,/, ideals/nns ,/, and/cc purposes/nns ;/. ;/.
it/pps also/rb provides/vbz facilities/nns and/cc incitements/nns for/in the/at development/nn of/in personality/nn ,/, sociality/nn ,/, and/cc creativeness/nn ./.
Under/in the/at religious/jj impulse/nn ,/, whether/cs theistic/jj or/cc humanistic/jj ,/, men/nns have/hv joy/nn in/in living/vbg ;/. ;/.
life/nn leads/vbz somewhere/rb ./.
Religion/nn at/in its/pp$ best/jjt is/bez out/rp in/in front/nn ,/, ever/rb beckoning/vbg and/cc leading/vbg on/rp ,/, and/cc ,/, as/cs Lippman/np put/vbd it/ppo ,/, ``/`` mobilizing/vbg all/abn man's/nn$ scattered/vbn energies/nns in/in one/cd triumphant/jj sense/nn of/in his/pp$ own/jj infinite/jj importance/nn ''/'' ./.


	At/in the/at same/ap time/nn that/cs religion/nn binds/vbz the/at individual/nn helpfully/rb to/in the/at supernatural/jj and/cc gives/vbz him/ppo cosmic/jj peace/nn and/cc a/at sense/nn of/in supreme/jj fulfillment/nn ,/, it/pps also/rb has/hvz great/jj therapeutic/jj value/nn for/in him/ppo ./.
It/pps gives/vbz him/ppo aid/nn ,/, comfort/nn ,/, even/rb solace/nn ,/, in/in meeting/vbg mundane/jj life/nn situations/nns where/wrb his/pp$ own/jj unassisted/jj practical/jj knowledge/nn and/cc skill/nn are/ber felt/vbn by/in him/ppo to/to be/be inadequate/jj ./.
He/pps is/bez confronted/vbn with/in the/at recurrent/jj crises/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs great/jj natural/jj catastrophes/nns and/cc the/at great/jj transitions/nns of/in life/nn --/-- marriage/nn ,/, incurable/jj disease/nn ,/, widowhood/nn ,/, old/jj age/nn ,/, the/at certainty/nn of/in death/nn ./.
He/pps has/hvz to/to cope/vb with/in frustration/nn and/cc other/ap emotional/jj disturbance/nn and/cc anomie/nn ./.
His/pp$ religious/jj beliefs/nns provide/vb him/ppo with/in plausible/jj explanations/nns for/in many/ap conditions/nns which/wdt cause/vb him/ppo great/jj concern/nn ,/, and/cc his/pp$ religious/jj faith/nn makes/vbz possible/jj fortitude/nn ,/, equanimity/nn ,/, and/cc consolation/nn ,/, enabling/vbg him/ppo to/to endure/vb colossal/jj misfortune/nn ,/, fear/nn ,/, frustration/nn ,/, uncertainty/nn ,/, suffering/vbg ,/, evil/nn ,/, and/cc danger/nn ./.
Religion/nn usually/rb also/rb includes/vbz a/at principle/nn of/in compensation/nn ,/, mainly/rb in/in a/at promised/vbn perfect/jj future/jj state/nn ./.


	The/at belief/nn in/in immortality/nn ,/, where/wrb held/vbn ,/, functions/vbz as/cs a/at redress/nn for/in the/at ills/nns and/cc disappointments/nns of/in the/at here/rb and/cc now/rb ./.
The/at tensions/nns accompanying/vbg a/at repressive/jj consciousness/nn of/in wrongdoing/nn or/cc sinning/vbg or/cc some/dti tormenting/vbg secret/nn are/ber relieved/vbn for/in the/at less/ql self-contained/jj or/cc self-sufficient/jj by/in confession/nn ,/, repentance/nn ,/, and/cc penance/nn ./.
The/at feeling/nn of/in individual/jj inferiority/nn ,/, defeat/nn ,/, or/cc humilation/nn growing/vbg out/rp of/in various/jj social/jj situations/nns or/cc individual/jj deficiencies/nns or/cc failures/nns is/bez compensated/vbn for/in by/in communion/nn in/in worship/nn or/cc prayer/nn with/in a/at friendly/jj ,/, but/cc all-victorious/jj Father-God/np ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs by/in sympathetic/jj fellowship/nn with/in others/nns who/wps share/vb this/dt faith/nn ,/, and/cc by/in opportunities/nns in/in religious/jj acts/nns for/in giving/vbg vent/nn to/in emotions/nns and/cc energies/nns ./.


	In/in providing/vbg for/in these/dts inner/jj individual/jj functions/nns ,/, religion/nn undertakes/vbz in/in behalf/nn of/in individual/jj peace/nn of/in mind/nn and/cc well-being/nn services/nns for/in which/wdt there/ex is/bez no/at other/ap institution/nn ./.


	In/in addition/nn to/in the/at functions/nns of/in religion/nn within/in man/nn ,/, there/ex have/hv always/rb been/ben the/at outer/jj social/jj functions/nns for/in the/at community/nn and/cc society/nn ./.
The/at two/cd have/hv never/rb been/ben separable/jj ./.
Religion/nn is/bez vitally/ql necessary/jj in/in both/abx societal/jj maintenance/nn and/cc regulation/nn ./.


	The/at value-system/nn of/in a/at community/nn or/cc society/nn is/bez always/rb correlated/vbn with/in ,/, and/cc to/in a/at degree/nn dependent/jj upon/in ,/, a/at more/ql or/cc less/ql shared/vbn system/nn of/in religious/jj beliefs/nns and/cc convictions/nns ./.
The/at religion/nn supports/vbz ,/, re-enforces/vbz ,/, reaffirms/vbz ,/, and/cc maintains/vbz the/at fundamental/jj values/nns ./.
Even/rb in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, with/in its/pp$ freedom/nn of/in religious/jj belief/nn and/cc worship/nn and/cc its/pp$ vast/jj denominational/jj differentiation/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at general/jj consensus/nn regarding/in the/at basic/jj Christian/jj values/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez demonstrated/vbn especially/rb when/wrb there/ex is/bez awareness/nn of/in radically/ql different/jj value/nn orientation/nn elsewhere/rb ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn Americans/nps rally/vb to/in Christian/jj values/nns vis-a-vis/in those/dts of/in atheistic/jj communism/nn ./.
In/in America/np also/rb all/abn of/in our/pp$ major/jj religious/jj bodies/nns officially/rb sanction/vb a/at universalistic/jj ethic/nn which/wdt is/bez reflective/jj of/in our/pp$ common/jj religion/nn ./.
Even/rb the/at non-church/nn members/nns --/-- the/at freewheelers/nns ,/, marginal/jj religionists/nns and/cc so/rb on/rp --/-- have/hv the/at values/nns of/in Christian/jj civilization/nn internalized/vbn in/in them/ppo ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, religion/nn tends/vbz to/to integrate/vb the/at whole/jj range/nn of/in values/nns from/in the/at highest/jjt or/cc ultimate/jj values/nns of/in God/np to/in the/at intermediary/jj and/cc subordinate/jj values/nns ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, those/dts regarding/in material/nn objects/nns and/cc pragmatic/jj ends/nns ./.
Finally/rb ,/, it/pps gives/vbz sanctity/nn ,/, more/ap than/cs human/jj legitimacy/nn ,/, and/cc even/rb ,/, through/in super-empirical/jj reference/nn ,/, transcendent/jj and/cc supernatural/jj importance/nn to/in some/dti values/nns ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, marriage/nn as/cs a/at sacrament/nn ,/, much/ap law-breaking/nn as/cs sinful/jj ,/, occasionally/rb the/at state/nn as/cs a/at divine/jj instrument/nn ./.
It/pps places/vbz certain/ap values/nns at/in least/ap beyond/in questioning/vbg and/cc tampering/vbg ./.


	Closely/rb related/vbn to/in this/dt function/nn is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at religious/jj system/nn provides/vbz a/at body/nn of/in ultimate/jj ends/nns for/in the/at society/nn ,/, which/wdt are/ber compatible/jj with/in the/at supreme/jj eternal/jj ends/nns ./.
This/dt something/pn leads/vbz to/in a/at conception/nn of/in an/at over-all/jj Social/jj-tl Plan/nn-tl with/in a/at meaning/nn interpretable/jj in/in terms/nns of/in ultimate/jj ends/nns ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, a/at plan/nn that/wps fulfills/vbz the/at will/nn of/in God/np ,/, which/wdt advances/vbz the/at Kingdom/nn-tl of/in-tl God/np-tl ,/, which/wdt involves/vbz social/jj life/nn as/cs part/nn of/in the/at Grand/jj-tl Design/nn-tl ./.
This/dt explains/vbz some/dti group/nn ends/nns and/cc provides/vbz a/at justification/nn of/in their/pp$ primacy/nn ./.
It/pps gives/vbz social/jj guidance/nn and/cc direction/nn and/cc makes/vbz for/in programs/nns of/in social/jj action/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, it/pps gives/vbz meaning/nn to/in much/ap social/jj endeavor/nn ,/, and/cc logic/nn ,/, consistency/nn ,/, and/cc meaning/nn to/in life/nn ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, there/ex is/bez no/at society/nn so/ql secularized/vbn as/cs to/to be/be completely/rb without/in religiously/rb inspired/vbn transcendental/jj ends/nns ./.


	Religion/nn integrates/vbz and/cc unifies/vbz ./.
Some/dti of/in the/at oldest/jjt ,/, most/ql persistent/jj ,/, and/cc most/ql cohesive/jj forms/nns of/in social/jj groupings/nns have/hv grown/vbn out/rp of/in religion/nn ./.
These/dts groups/nns have/hv varied/vbn widely/rb from/in mere/jj families/nns ,/, primitive/jj ,/, totemic/jj groups/nns ,/, and/cc small/jj modern/jj cults/nns and/cc sects/nns ,/, to/in the/at memberships/nns of/in great/jj denominations/nns ,/, and/cc great/jj ,/, widely/rb dispersed/vbn world/nn religions/nns ./.
Religion/nn fosters/vbz group/nn life/nn in/in various/ap ways/nns ./.
The/at common/jj ultimate/jj values/nns ,/, ends/nns and/cc goals/nns fostered/vbn by/in religion/nn are/ber a/at most/ql important/jj factor/nn ./.
Without/in a/at system/nn of/in values/nns there/ex can/md be/be no/at society/nn ./.
Where/wrb such/abl a/at value/nn system/nn prevails/vbz ,/, it/pps always/rb unifies/vbz all/abn who/wps possess/vb it/ppo ;/. ;/.
it/pps enables/vbz members/nns of/in the/at society/nn to/to operate/vb as/cs a/at system/nn ./.
The/at beliefs/nns of/in a/at religion/nn also/rb reflecting/vbg the/at values/nns are/ber expressed/vbn in/in creeds/nns ,/, dogmas/nns ,/, and/cc doctrines/nns ,/, and/cc form/vb what/wdt Durkheim/np calls/vbz a/at credo/nn ./.
As/cs he/pps points/vbz out/rp ,/, a/at religious/jj group/nn cannot/md* exist/vb without/in a/at collective/jj credo/nn ,/, and/cc the/at more/ql extensive/jj the/at credo/nn ,/, the/at more/ql unified/vbn and/cc strong/jj is/bez the/at group/nn ./.
The/at credo/nn unifies/vbz and/cc socializes/vbz men/nns by/in attaching/vbg them/ppo completely/rb to/in an/at identical/jj body/nn of/in doctrine/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at more/ql extensive/jj and/cc firm/jj the/at body/nn of/in doctrine/nn ,/, the/at firmer/jjr the/at group/nn ./.


	The/at religious/jj symbolism/nn ,/, and/cc especially/rb the/at closely/rb related/vbn rites/nns and/cc worship/nn forms/nns ,/, constitute/vb a/at powerful/jj bond/nn for/in the/at members/nns of/in the/at particular/ap faith/nn ./.
The/at religion/nn ,/, in/in fact/nn ,/, is/bez an/at expression/nn of/in the/at unity/nn of/in the/at group/nn ,/, small/jj or/cc large/jj ./.
The/at common/jj codes/nns ,/, for/in religious/jj action/nn as/cs such/jj and/cc in/in their/pp$ ethical/jj aspects/nns for/in everyday/jj moral/jj behavior/nn ,/, bind/vb the/at devotees/nns together/rb ./.
These/dts are/ber ways/nns of/in jointly/rb participating/vbg in/in significantly/ql symbolized/vbn ,/, standardized/vbn ,/, and/cc ordered/vbn religiously/rb sanctified/vbn behavior/nn ./.
The/at codes/nns are/ber mechanism/nn for/in training/vbg in/in ,/, and/cc directing/vbg and/cc enforcing/vbg ,/, uniform/jj social/jj interaction/nn ,/, and/cc for/in continually/rb and/cc publicly/rb reasserting/vbg the/at solidarity/nn of/in the/at group/nn ./.


	Durkheim/np noted/vbd long/rb ago/rb that/cs religion/nn as/cs ``/`` a/at unified/vbn system/nn of/in beliefs/nns and/cc practices/nns relative/jj to/in sacred/jj things/nns unites/vbz into/in one/cd single/ap moral/jj community/nn all/abn those/dts who/wps adhere/vb to/in them/ppo ''/'' ./.
His/pp$ view/nn is/bez that/cs every/at religion/nn pertains/vbz to/in a/at community/nn ,/, and/cc ,/, conversely/rb ,/, every/at community/nn is/bez in/in one/cd aspect/nn a/at religious/jj unit/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez brought/vbn out/rp in/in the/at common/jj religious/jj ethos/nn that/wps prevails/vbz even/rb in/in the/at denominationally/rb diverse/jj audiences/nns at/in many/ap secular/jj semi-public/jj and/cc public/jj occasions/nns in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ;/. ;/.
and/cc it/pps is/bez evidenced/vbn in/in the/at prayers/nns offered/vbn ,/, in/in the/at frequent/jj religious/jj allusions/nns ,/, and/cc in/in the/at confirmation/nn of/in points/nns on/in religious/jj grounds/nns ./.


	The/at unifying/vbg effect/nn of/in religion/nn is/bez also/rb brought/vbn out/rp in/in the/at fact/nn that/cs historically/rb peoples/nns have/hv clung/vbn together/rb as/cs more/ql or/cc less/ql cohesive/jj cultural/jj units/nns ,/, with/in religion/nn as/cs the/at dominant/jj bond/nn ,/, even/rb though/cs spatially/rb dispersed/vbn and/cc not/* politically/rb organized/vbn ./.
The/at Jews/nps for/in 2500/cd years/nns have/hv been/ben a/at prime/jj example/nn ,/, though/cs the/at adherents/nns of/in any/dti world/nn or/cc interpeople/jj religion/nn are/ber cases/nns in/in point/nn ./.
It/pps might/md be/be pointed/vbn out/rp that/cs the/at integrating/vbg function/nn of/in religion/nn ,/, for/in good/jj or/cc ill/jj ,/, has/hvz often/rb supported/vbn or/cc been/ben identified/vbn with/in other/ap groupings/nns --/-- political/jj ,/, nationality/nn ,/, language/nn ,/, class/nn ,/, racial/jj ,/, sociability/nn ,/, even/ql economic/jj ./.


	Religion/nn usually/rb exercises/vbz a/at stabilizing-conserving/jj function/nn ./.
As/cs such/jj it/pps acts/vbz as/cs an/at anchor/nn for/in the/at people/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at marked/vbn tendency/nn for/cs religions/nns ,/, once/rb firmly/rb established/vbn ,/, to/to resist/vb change/nn ,/, not/* only/rb in/in their/pp$ own/jj doctrines/nns and/cc policies/nns and/cc practices/nns ,/, but/cc also/rb in/in secular/jj affairs/nns having/hvg religious/jj relevance/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz thus/rb been/ben a/at significant/jj factor/nn in/in the/at conservation/nn of/in social/jj values/nns ,/, though/cs also/rb in/in some/dti measure/nn ,/, an/at obstacle/nn to/in the/at creation/nn or/cc diffusion/nn of/in new/jj ones/nns ./.
It/pps tends/vbz to/to support/vb the/at longstanding/jj precious/jj sentiments/nns ,/, the/at traditional/jj ways/nns of/in thinking/vbg ,/, and/cc the/at customary/jj ways/nns of/in living/vbg ./.
As/cs Yinger/np has/hvz pointed/vbn out/rp ,/, the/at ``/`` reliance/nn on/in symbols/nns ,/, on/in tradition/nn ,/, on/in sacred/jj writings/nns ,/, on/in the/at cultivation/nn of/in emotional/jj feelings/nns of/in identity/nn and/cc harmony/nn with/in sacred/jj values/nns ,/, turns/vbz one/pn to/in the/at past/nn far/ql more/rbr than/cs to/in the/at future/nn ''/'' ./.
Historically/rb ,/, religion/nn has/hvz also/rb functioned/vbn as/cs a/at tremendous/jj engine/nn of/in vindication/nn ,/, enforcement/nn ,/, sanction/nn ,/, and/cc perpetuation/nn of/in various/ap other/ap institutions/nns ./.


	At/in the/at same/ap time/nn that/cs religion/nn exercises/vbz a/at conserving/vbg influence/nn ,/, it/pps also/rb energizes/vbz and/cc motivates/vbz both/abx individuals/nns and/cc groups/nns ./.
Much/ap of/in the/at important/jj individual/jj and/cc social/jj action/nn has/hvz been/ben owing/vbg to/in religious/jj incentives/nns ./.
The/at great/jj ultimate/jj ends/nns of/in religion/nn have/hv served/vbn as/cs magnificent/jj beacon/nn lights/nns that/wps lured/vbd people/nns toward/in them/ppo with/in an/at almost/ql irresistible/jj force/nn ,/, mobilizing/vbg energies/nns and/cc inducing/vbg sacrifices/nns ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, the/at Crusades/nns-tl ,/, mission/nn efforts/nns ,/, just/rb wars/nns ./.
Much/ap effort/nn has/hvz been/ben expended/vbn in/in the/at sincere/jj effort/nn to/to apply/vb the/at teaching/nn and/cc admonitions/nns of/in religion/nn ./.
The/at insuperable/jj reward/nn systems/nns that/wpo most/ap religions/nns embody/vb have/hv great/jj motivating/vbg effects/nns ./.
Religion/nn provides/vbz the/at most/ql attractive/jj rewards/nns ,/, either/cc in/in this/dt world/nn or/cc the/at next/ap ,/, for/in those/dts who/wps not/* merely/rb abide/vb by/in its/pp$ norms/nns ,/, but/cc who/wps engage/vb in/in good/jj works/nns ./.


	Religion/nn usually/rb acts/vbz as/cs a/at powerful/jj aid/nn in/in social/jj control/nn ,/, enforcing/vbg what/wdt men/nns should/md or/cc should/md not/* do/do ./.
Among/in primitive/jj peoples/nns the/at sanctions/nns and/cc dictates/nns of/in religion/nn were/bed more/ql binding/jj than/cs any/dti of/in the/at other/ap controls/nns exercised/vbn by/in the/at group/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc in/in modern/jj societies/nns such/jj influence/nn is/bez still/rb great/jj ./.
Religion/nn has/hvz its/pp$ own/jj supernatural/jj prescriptions/nns that/wps are/ber at/in the/at same/ap time/nn codes/nns of/in behavior/nn for/in the/at here/rb and/cc now/rb ./.

Overwhelmed/vbn with/in the/at care/nn of/in five/cd young/jj children/nns and/cc concerned/vbn about/in persistent/jj economic/jj difficulties/nns due/jj to/in her/pp$ husband's/nn$ marginal/jj income/nn ,/, her/pp$ defense/nn of/in denial/nn was/bedz excessively/ql strong/jj ./.
Thus/rb the/at lack/nn of/in effective/jj recognition/nn of/in the/at responsibilities/nns involved/vbn in/in caring/vbg for/in two/cd babies/nns showed/vbd signs/nns of/in becoming/vbg a/at disabling/vbg problem/nn ./.
The/at result/nn ,/, dramatically/rb visible/jj in/in a/at matter/nn of/in days/nns in/in the/at family's/nn$ disrupted/vbn daily/jj functioning/nn ,/, was/bedz a/at phobic-like/jj fear/nn that/cs some/dti terrible/jj harm/nn would/md befall/vb the/at second/od twin/nn ,/, whose/wp$ birth/nn had/hvd not/* been/ben anticipated/vbn ./.
Soon/rb Mrs./np B.'s/np$ fears/nns threatened/vbd to/to burst/vb into/in a/at full-blown/jj panic/nn concerning/in the/at welfare/nn of/in the/at entire/jj family/nn ./.
Inability/nn to/to care/vb for/in the/at other/ap children/nns ,/, difficulty/nn in/in feeding/vbg the/at babies/nns ,/, who/wps seemed/vbd colicky/jj ,/, bone-weary/jj fatigue/nn ,/, repeated/vbn crying/vbg episodes/nns ,/, and/cc short/jj tempers/nns reflected/vbd the/at family's/nn$ helplessness/nn in/in coping/vbg with/in the/at stressful/jj situation/nn ./.
Clearly/rb ,/, this/dt was/bedz a/at family/nn in/in crisis/nn ./.


	Mrs./np B./np compared/vbd her/pp$ feelings/nns of/in weakness/nn to/in her/pp$ feelings/nns of/in weakness/nn and/cc helplessness/nn at/in the/at time/nn of/in her/pp$ mother's/nn$ death/nn when/wrb she/pps was/bedz eight/cd ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs her/pp$ subsequent/jj anger/nn at/in her/pp$ father/nn for/in remarrying/vbg ./.
Her/pp$ previous/jj traumatic/jj experiences/nns flashed/vbd through/in her/pp$ mind/nn as/cs if/cs they/ppss had/hvd happened/vbn yesterday/nr ./.
On/in the/at anniversary/nn of/in her/pp$ father's/nn$ death/nn she/pps poured/vbd out/rp with/in agonized/vbn tears/nns her/pp$ feelings/nns of/in guilt/nn about/in not/* having/hvg attended/vbn his/pp$ funeral/nn ./.
In/in the/at family's/nn$ own/jj words/nns (/( during/in the/at third/od of/in twelve/cd visits/nns )/) ,/, they/ppss had/hvd ``/`` reached/vbn the/at crisis/nn peak/nn --/-- either/cc the/at situation/nn will/md give/vb or/cc we/ppss will/md break/vb ''/'' !/. !/.


	Direct/jj confrontation/nn and/cc acceptance/nn of/in Mrs./np B.'s/np$ anger/nn against/in the/at second/od baby/nn soon/rb dissipated/vbd her/pp$ fears/nns of/in annihilation/nn ./.
Abreaction/nn of/in her/pp$ anxiety/nn and/cc guilt/nn concerning/in the/at death/nn of/in her/pp$ parents/nns ,/, when/wrb linked/vbn up/rp with/in her/pp$ current/jj feelings/nns of/in anger/nn and/cc her/pp$ fears/nns of/in loss/nn ,/, abandonment/nn ,/, and/cc annihilation/nn ,/, produced/vbd further/ap relief/nn of/in tension/nn ./.
In/in a/at joint/jj interview/nn Mr./np and/cc Mrs./np B./np were/bed helped/vbn to/to understand/vb the/at meaning/nn of/in a/at younger/jjr son's/nn$ wandering/nn away/rb from/in home/nn in/in terms/nns of/in his/pp$ feelings/nns of/in displacement/nn in/in reaction/nn to/in the/at arrival/nn of/in the/at twins/nns ./.
The/at father/nn ,/, accurately/rb perceiving/vbg the/at child's/nn$ needs/nns ,/, not/* only/rb respected/vbd them/ppo as/cs worthy/jj of/in his/pp$ attention/nn ,/, but/cc immediately/rb satisfied/vbd them/ppo by/in taking/vbg him/ppo on/in his/pp$ lap/nn along/rb with/in the/at twins/nns ,/, saying/vbg ,/, ``/`` I/ppss have/hv a/at big/jj lap/nn ;/. ;/.
there/ex is/bez room/nn for/in you/ppo ,/, too/rb ,/, Johnnie/np ''/'' ./.
Simultaneously/rb ,/, a/at variety/nn of/in environmental/jj supports/nns --/-- a/at calm/jj but/cc not/* too/ql motherly/jj homemaker/nn ,/, referral/nn for/in temporary/jj economic/jj aid/nn ,/, intelligent/jj use/nn of/in nursing/vbg care/nn ,/, accompaniment/nn to/in the/at well-baby/nn clinic/nn for/in medical/jj advice/nn on/in the/at twins'/nns$ feeding/vbg problem/nn --/-- combined/vbd to/to prevent/vb further/ap development/nn of/in predictable/jj pathological/jj mechanisms/nns ./.
Follow-up/jj visits/nns of/in the/at nurse/nn and/cc social/jj worker/nn indicated/vbd continued/vbn success/nn in/in the/at care/nn of/in the/at new/jj babies/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs a/at marked/vbn improvement/nn in/in the/at family's/nn$ day-to-day/jj mental/jj health/nn and/cc social/jj functioning/nn ./.


	As/cs seen/vbn in/in the/at B./np family/nn ,/, there/ex must/md be/be an/at attempt/nn to/to help/vb the/at client/nn develop/vb conscious/jj awareness/nn of/in the/at problem/nn ,/, especially/rb in/in the/at absence/nn of/in a/at formal/jj request/nn for/in assistance/nn ./.
The/at lack/nn of/in awareness/nn usually/rb springs/vbz from/in deep/jj but/cc disguised/vbn anxiety/nn ,/, often/rb assuming/vbg the/at superficial/jj guise/nn of/in ``/`` not/* knowing/vbg ''/'' or/cc ``/`` not/* caring/vbg ''/'' ./.
The/at unhealthy/jj use/nn of/in denial/nn in/in the/at initial/jj reaction/nn to/in a/at stress/nn must/md be/be handled/vbn through/in the/at medium/nn of/in a/at positive/jj controlled/vbn transference/nn ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, the/at approach/nn is/bez more/ql active/jj than/cs passive/jj ,/, more/ql out-reaching/jj than/cs reflective/jj ./.
While/cs some/dti regression/nn is/bez inevitable/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez discouraged/vbn rather/rb than/cs encouraged/vbn so/cs that/cs the/at transference/nn does/doz not/* follow/vb the/at stages/nns of/in planned/vbn regression/nn associated/vbn with/in certain/ap casework/nn adaptations/nns of/in the/at psychoanalytic/jj model/nn for/in insight/nn therapy/nn ./.


	To/to establish/vb an/at emotionally/rb meaningful/jj relationship/nn the/at worker/nn must/md demonstrate/vb actual/jj or/cc potential/jj helpfulness/nn immediately/rb ,/, preferably/rb within/in the/at first/od interview/nn ,/, by/in meeting/vbg the/at client's/nn$ specific/jj needs/nns ./.
These/dts needs/nns usually/rb concern/vb the/at reduction/nn of/in guilt/nn and/cc some/dti relief/nn of/in tension/nn ./.
The/at initial/jj interview/nn must/md be/be therapeutic/jj rather/rb than/cs purely/rb exploratory/jj in/in an/at information-seeking/jj sense/nn ./.
In/in this/dt relationship-building/jj stage/nn the/at worker/nn must/md communicate/vb confidence/nn in/in the/at client's/nn$ ability/nn to/to deal/vb with/in the/at problem/nn ./.
In/in so/rb doing/vbg he/pps implicitly/rb offers/vbz the/at positive/jj contagion/nn of/in hope/nn as/cs a/at kind/nn of/in maturational/jj dynamic/nn to/to counteract/vb feelings/nns of/in helplessness/nn and/cc hopelessness/nn generally/rb associated/vbn with/in the/at first/od stages/nns of/in stress/nn impact/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at client/nn receives/vbz enough/ap ego/nn support/nn to/to engage/vb in/in constructive/jj efforts/nns on/in his/pp$ own/jj behalf/nn ./.
Here/rb there/ex is/bez a/at specific/jj preventive/jj component/nn which/wdt applies/vbz in/in a/at more/ql generalized/vbn sense/nn to/in any/dti casework/nn situation/nn ./.
We/ppss are/ber preventing/vbg or/cc averting/vbg pathogenic/jj phenomena/nns such/jj as/cs undue/jj regression/nn ,/, unhealthy/jj suppression/nn and/cc repression/nn ,/, excessive/jj use/nn of/in denial/nn ,/, and/cc crippling/vbg guilt/nn turned/vbn against/in the/at self/nn ./.
While/cs some/dti suppression/nn and/cc some/dti denial/nn are/ber not/* only/rb necessary/jj but/cc healthy/jj ,/, the/at worker's/nn$ clinical/jj knowledge/nn must/md determine/vb how/wrb these/dts defenses/nns are/ber being/beg used/vbn ,/, what/wdt healthy/jj shifts/nns in/in defensive/jj adaptation/nn are/ber indicated/vbn ,/, and/cc when/wrb efforts/nns at/in bringing/vbg about/rb change/nn can/md be/be most/ql effectively/rb timed/vbn ./.


	In/in steering/vbg the/at family/nn toward/in ego-adaptive/jj and/cc away/rb from/in maladaptive/jj responses/nns ,/, the/at worker/nn uses/vbz time-honored/jj focused/vbn casework/nn techniques/nns of/in specific/jj emotional/jj support/nn ,/, clarification/nn ,/, and/cc anticipatory/jj guidance/nn ./.
Over/in a/at relatively/ql short/jj period/nn of/in time/nn ,/, usually/rb about/rb four/cd to/in twelve/cd weeks/nns ,/, the/at worker/nn must/md be/be able/jj to/to shift/vb the/at focus/nn ,/, back/rb and/cc forth/rb ,/, between/in immediate/jj external/jj stressful/jj exigencies/nns (/( ``/`` precipitating/vbg stress/nn ''/'' )/) and/cc the/at key/jjs ,/, emotionally/rb relevant/jj issues/nns (/( ``/`` underlying/vbg problem/nn ''/'' )/) which/wdt are/ber ,/, often/rb in/in a/at dramatic/jj preconscious/jj breakthrough/nn ,/, reactivated/vbn by/in the/at crisis/nn situation/nn ,/, and/cc hence/rb once/rb again/rb amenable/jj to/in resolution/nn ./.
Though/cs there/ex is/bez obviously/rb nothing/pn new/jj about/in these/dts techniques/nns ,/, they/ppss do/do challenge/vb the/at worker's/nn$ skill/nn to/to articulate/vb them/ppo precisely/rb on/in the/at spot/nn and/cc on/in the/at basis/nn of/in quick/jj and/cc accurate/jj diagnostic/nn assessments/nns ./.
Then/rb ,/, too/rb ,/, the/at utmost/jjs clinical/jj flexibility/nn is/bez necessary/jj in/in judiciously/rb combining/vbg carefully/rb timed/vbn family-oriented/jj home/nr visits/nns ,/, single/ap and/cc group/nn office/nn interviews/nns ,/, and/cc appropriate/jj telephone/nn follow-up/jj calls/nns ,/, if/cs the/at worker/nn is/bez to/to be/be genuinely/ql accessible/jj and/cc if/cs the/at predicted/vbn unhealthy/jj outcome/nn is/bez to/to be/be actually/rb averted/vbn in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at principles/nns of/in preventive/jj intervention/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, in/in many/ap cases/nns ,/, a/at variety/nn of/in concrete/jj social/jj resources/nns --/-- homemaker/nn ,/, day/nn care/nn ,/, medical/jj and/cc financial/jj aid/nn --/-- must/md be/be reasonably/rb available/jj for/in the/at reality/nn support/nn needed/vbn to/to bolster/vb the/at family/nn in/in its/pp$ individual/jj and/cc collective/jj coping/vbg and/cc integrative/jj efforts/nns ./.
At/in certain/ap critical/jj stages/nns ,/, and/cc only/rb for/in sound/jj diagnostic/jj reasons/nns ,/, it/pps may/md be/be important/jj to/to accompany/vb family/nn members/nns in/in their/pp$ use/nn of/in these/dts resources/nns if/cs their/pp$ problem-solving/jj behavior/nn is/bez to/to be/be constructive/jj rather/rb than/cs defeating/vbg ./.
While/cs expensive/jj in/in time/nn and/cc involving/vbg a/at great/jj deal/nn of/in adaptation/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in the/at worker/nn (/( in/in terms/nns of/in his/pp$ willingness/nn to/to leave/vb the/at sanctity/nn of/in his/pp$ office/nn and/cc enter/vb actively/rb into/in the/at client's/nn$ life/nn )/) ,/, techniques/nns of/in accompaniment/nn were/bed found/vbn to/to be/be of/in tremendous/jj value/nn when/wrb in/in the/at service/nn of/in specific/jj preventive/jj objectives/nns ./.
Finally/rb ,/, whatever/wdt the/at techniques/nns used/vbn ,/, a/at twin/nn goal/nn is/bez common/jj to/in all/abn preventive/jj casework/nn service/nn :/: to/to cushion/vb or/cc reduce/vb the/at force/nn of/in the/at stress/nn impact/nn while/cs at/in the/at same/ap time/nn to/to encourage/vb and/cc support/vb family/nn members/nns to/to mobilize/vb and/cc use/vb their/pp$ ego/nn capacities/nns ./.


	Having/hvg outlined/vbn an/at approach/nn to/in the/at theory/nn and/cc practice/nn of/in preventive/jj casework/nn ,/, we/ppss now/rb address/vb ourselves/ppls to/in our/pp$ final/jj question/nn :/: What/wdt place/nn should/md brief/jj ,/, crisis-oriented/jj preventive/jj casework/nn occupy/vb in/in our/pp$ total/nn spectrum/nn of/in services/nns ?/. ?/.
We/ppss should/md first/rb recognize/vb our/pp$ tendency/nn to/to develop/vb a/at hierarchy/nn of/in values/nns ,/, locating/vbg brief/jj treatment/nn at/in the/at bottom/nn and/cc long-term/nn intensive/jj service/nn at/in the/at top/nn ,/, instead/rb of/in seeing/vbg the/at services/nns as/cs part/nn of/in a/at continuum/nn ,/, each/dt important/jj in/in its/pp$ own/jj right/nn ./.
This/dt problem/nn is/bez perhaps/rb as/ql old/jj as/cs social/jj casework/nn itself/ppl ./.
Almost/rb three/cd decades/nns ago/rb Bertha/np Reynolds/np undertook/vbd a/at study/nn of/in short-contact/nn interviewing/nn because/rb of/in her/pp$ conviction/nn that/cs short-term/nn casework/nn had/hvd an/at important/jj but/cc neglected/vbn place/nn in/in our/pp$ network/nn of/in social/jj services/nns ./.
Her/pp$ conclusion/nn has/hvz been/ben borne/vbn out/rp in/in the/at experience/nn of/in many/ap practitioners/nns :/: ``/`` short-contact/nn interviewing/nn is/bez neither/cc a/at truncated/vbn nor/cc a/at telescoped/vbn experience/nn but/cc is/bez of/in the/at same/ap essential/jj quality/nn as/cs the/at so-called/jj intensive/jj case/nn work/nn ''/'' ./.
Thus/rb ,/, casework/nn involving/vbg a/at limited/vbn number/nn of/in interviews/nns is/bez still/rb to/to be/be regarded/vbn in/in terms/nns of/in the/at quality/nn of/in service/nn rendered/vbn rather/rb than/in of/in the/at quantity/nn of/in time/nn expended/vbn ./.


	That/cs we/ppss are/ber experiencing/vbg an/at upsurge/nn of/in interest/nn in/in the/at many/ap formulations/nns and/cc preventive/jj adaptations/nns of/in brief/jj treatment/nn in/in social/jj casework/nn is/bez evident/jj from/in even/rb a/at small/jj sampling/nn of/in current/jj literature/nn ./.
Especially/rb noteworthy/jj is/bez Levinger's/np$ finding/nn that/cs the/at length/nn of/in treatment/nn per/in se/fw-ppl is/bez not/* a/at reliable/jj indicator/nn of/in successful/jj outcome/nn ./.
According/in to/in a/at number/nn of/in studies/nns ,/, the/at important/jj predictors/nns are/ber the/at nature/nn and/cc management/nn of/in the/at client's/nn$ anxiety/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at accessibility/nn of/in the/at helping/vbg person/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at level/nn of/in improvement/nn noted/vbn in/in a/at recent/jj experiment/nn with/in a/at short/jj course/nn of/in immediate/jj treatment/nn for/in parent-child/nn relationship/nn problems/nns compared/vbd favorably/rb with/in the/at results/nns reported/vbn by/in typical/jj child/nn guidance/nn clinics/nns where/wrb the/at hours/nns spent/vbn in/in purely/ql diagnostic/jj study/nn may/md equal/vb or/cc exceed/vb the/at number/nn of/in hours/nns devoted/vbn to/in actual/jj treatment/nn interviews/nns in/in the/at experimental/jj project/nn ./.
Of/in startling/jj significance/nn ,/, too/rb ,/, is/bez the/at assertion/nn that/cs it/pps was/bedz possible/jj to/to carry/vb out/rp this/dt program/nn with/in only/rb a/at 6/cd percent/nn attrition/nn rate/nn as/cs compared/vbn with/in a/at rate/nn of/in 59/cd percent/nn reported/vbn for/in a/at comparable/jj group/nn of/in families/nns who/wps were/bed receiving/vbg help/nn in/in traditionally/rb operated/vbn child/nn guidance/nn services/nns ./.
These/dts reports/nns refer/vb to/in a/at level/nn of/in secondary/jj prevention/nn in/in a/at child/nn guidance/nn clinic/nn approached/vbn by/in the/at customary/jj route/nn of/in voluntary/jj referral/nn by/in the/at family/nn or/cc by/in other/ap professional/jj people/nns ./.
Similarities/nns to/in the/at approach/nn which/wdt I/ppss have/hv described/vbn are/ber evident/jj in/in the/at prompt/jj establishment/nn of/in a/at helping/vbg relationship/nn ,/, quick/jj appraisal/nn of/in key/jjs issues/nns ,/, and/cc the/at immediate/jj mobilization/nn of/in treatment/nn plans/nns as/cs the/at essential/jj dynamics/nns in/in helping/vbg to/to further/vb the/at ego's/nn$ coping/vbg efforts/nns in/in dealing/vbg with/in the/at interplay/nn of/in inner/jj and/cc outer/jj stresses/nns ./.
While/cs there/ex are/ber many/ap different/jj possibilities/nns for/in the/at timing/nn of/in casework/nn intervention/nn ,/, the/at experiments/nns recently/rb reported/vbn from/in a/at variety/nn of/in traditional/jj settings/nns all/abn point/vb up/rp the/at importance/nn of/in an/at immediate/jj response/nn to/in the/at client's/nn$ initial/jj need/nn for/in help/nn ./.
In/in some/dti programs/nns ,/, treatment/nn is/bez concentrated/vbn over/in a/at short/jj period/nn of/in time/nn ,/, while/cs in/in others/nns ,/, after/cs the/at initial/jj contact/nn is/bez established/vbn ,/, flexible/jj spacing/nn of/in interviews/nns has/hvz been/ben experimentally/rb used/vbn with/in apparent/jj success/nn ./.
Willingness/nn to/to take/vb the/at risk/nn of/in early/jj and/cc direct/jj interpretation/nn (/( with/in the/at proviso/nn that/cs if/cs the/at interpretation/nn is/bez too/ql threatening/jj ,/, the/at worker/nn can/md withdraw/vb )/) is/bez another/dt prominent/jj feature/nn in/in these/dts efforts/nns ./.
My/pp$ aim/nn in/in mentioning/vbg this/dt factor/nn obviously/rb is/bez not/* to/to give/vb license/nn to/in ``/`` wild/jj therapy/nn ''/'' but/in rather/rb to/to encourage/vb us/ppo to/to use/vb the/at time-honored/jj clinical/jj casework/nn skills/nns we/ppss already/rb possess/vb ,/, and/cc to/to use/vb them/ppo with/in greater/jjr confidence/nn ,/, precision/nn ,/, and/cc professional/jj pride/nn ./.


	Though/cs there/ex is/bez obviously/rb great/jj need/nn for/in continued/vbn experimentation/nn with/in various/jj types/nns of/in short-term/nn intervention/nn to/to further/vb efforts/nns in/in developing/vbg an/at operational/jj definition/nn of/in prevention/nn at/in the/at secondary/jj --/-- or/cc perhaps/rb ,/, in/in some/dti instances/nns ,/, primary/jj --/-- level/nn ,/, the/at place/nn of/in short-term/nn intervention/nn has/hvz already/rb been/ben documented/vbn by/in a/at number/nn of/in investigators/nns in/in a/at wide/jj variety/nn of/in settings/nns ./.
Woodward/np ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, has/hvz emphasized/vbn the/at ``/`` need/nn for/in a/at broad/jj spectrum/nn of/in services/nns ,/, including/in very/ql brief/jj services/nns in/in connection/nn with/in critical/jj situations/nns ''/'' ./.
Ideally/rb ,/, brief/jj treatment/nn should/md be/be arrived/vbn at/in as/cs a/at treatment/nn of/in choice/nn rather/rb than/in as/cs a/at treatment/nn of/in chance/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at shortage/nn of/in treatment/nn resources/nns and/cc the/at chronically/ql persistent/jj shortage/nn of/in mental/jj health/nn manpower/nn force/vb us/ppo to/to innovate/vb additional/jj refinements/nns of/in preventive/jj intervention/nn techniques/nns to/to make/vb services/nns more/ql widely/rb available/jj --/-- and/cc on/in a/at more/ql effective/jj basis/nn to/in more/ap people/nns ./.
Further/ap research/nn in/in the/at meaning/nn of/in crises/nns as/cs experienced/vbn by/in the/at consumers/nns of/in traditional/jj social/jj casework/nn services/nns --/-- including/in attempts/nns to/to develop/vb a/at typology/nn of/in family/nn structures/nns ,/, crisis/nn problems/nns ,/, reaction/nn mechanisms/nns ,/, and/cc differential/jj treatment/nn approaches/nns --/-- and/cc the/at establishment/nn of/in new/jj experimental/jj programs/nns are/ber imperative/jj social/jj needs/nns which/wdt should/md command/vb the/at best/jjt efforts/nns of/in caseworkers/nns in/in collaboration/nn with/in community/nn planners/nns ./.


	Our/pp$ literature/nn is/bez already/rb replete/jj with/in a/at fantastic/jj number/nn of/in suggestions/nns for/in preventive/jj agency/nn programming/vbg ranging/vbg from/in the/at immediately/rb practical/jj to/in the/at globally/rb utopian/jj ./.
Probably/rb ,/, in/in the/at immediate/jj future/nn ,/, we/ppss will/md have/hv to/to settle/vb for/in middle-range/nn efforts/nns that/wps fall/vb short/rb of/in utopian/jj models/nns ./.
Increased/vbn experimentation/nn with/in multipurpose/jj agencies/nns ,/, especially/rb those/dts that/wps combine/vb afresh/rb the/at traditional/jj functions/nns of/in family/nn and/cc child/nn welfare/nn services/nns ,/, holds/vbz rich/jj promise/nn for/in the/at future/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, child/nn welfare/nn experience/nn abounds/vbz with/in cases/nns in/in which/wdt the/at parental/jj request/nn for/in substitute/nn care/nn is/bez precipitated/vbn by/in a/at crisis/nn event/nn which/wdt is/bez meaningfully/rb linked/vbn with/in a/at fundamental/jj unresolved/jj problem/nn of/in family/nn relationships/nns ./.

Sentiment/nn-hl ./.-hl

Tension/nn management/nn and/cc communication/nn of/in sentiment/nn are/ber the/at processes/nns involved/vbn in/in the/at functioning/nn of/in the/at element/nn of/in sentiment/nn or/cc feeling/vbg ./.
One/cd of/in the/at devices/nns for/in tension/nn management/nn is/bez preferential/jj mating/vbg ./.
The/at preferential/jj mating/vbg of/in this/dt particular/jj population/nn has/hvz been/ben analyzed/vbn in/in a/at separate/jj study/nn ./.
The/at relative/jj geographical/jj isolation/nn of/in the/at Brandywine/np population/nn makes/vbz for/in a/at limited/vbn choice/nn in/in mating/vbg ./.
It/pps would/md seem/vb necessary/jj that/cs members/nns of/in this/dt population/nn provide/vb support/nn for/in one/cd another/dt since/cs it/pps is/bez not/* provided/vbn by/in the/at larger/jjr society/nn ./.
The/at supportive/jj relations/nns can/md apparently/rb be/be achieved/vbn in/in geographical/jj and/cc social/jj isolation/nn ./.
The/at newlyweds/nns building/vbg homes/nns on/in the/at same/ap land/nn with/in either/dtx set/nn of/in parents/nns ,/, and/cc the/at almost/ql exclusive/jj use/nn of/in members/nns of/in the/at population/nn as/cs sponsors/nns for/in baptisms/nns and/cc weddings/nns illustrate/vb this/dt supportive/jj relationship/nn ./.
As/cs Loomis/np remarks/vbz ,/, ``/`` In/in the/at internal/jj pattern/nn the/at chief/jjs reason/nn for/in interacting/vbg is/bez to/to communicate/vb liking/vbg ,/, friendship/nn ,/, and/cc love/nn among/in those/dts who/wps stand/vb in/in supporting/vbg relations/nns to/in one/cd another/dt and/cc corresponding/jj negative/jj sentiments/nns to/in those/dts who/wps stand/vb in/in antagonistic/jj relations/nns ''/'' ./.
Achieving/vbg-hl ./.-hl

Maintenance/nn of/in the/at status/nn quo/fw-wdt might/md seem/vb to/to be/be the/at appropriate/jj goal/nn or/cc objective/nn of/in this/dt population/nn today/nr ./.
Yet/rb ,/, the/at object/nn of/in the/at element/nn of/in achieving/vbg through/in the/at process/nn of/in goal/nn attaining/vbg for/in this/dt population/nn appears/vbz to/to have/hv been/ben changed/vbn by/in circumstances/nns brought/vbn about/rb by/in the/at war/nn ./.
Prior/rb to/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, there/ex was/bedz a/at higher/jjr percentage/nn of/in endogamous/jj marriages/nns than/cs after/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Norms/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at norms/nns ,/, as/cs elements/nns ,/, refer/vb to/in ``/`` all/abn criteria/nns for/in judging/vbg the/at character/nn or/cc conduct/nn of/in both/abx individual/jj and/cc group/nn actions/nns in/in any/dti social/jj system/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at process/nn of/in evaluation/nn assigns/vbz varying/vbg positive/jj and/cc negative/jj priorities/nns or/cc values/nns to/in elements/nns ./.
The/at elements/nns and/cc processes/nns become/vb evident/jj in/in a/at study/nn of/in mate/nn selection/nn in/in this/dt population/nn ./.
From/in the/at evidence/nn ``/`` it/pps may/md be/be conjectured/vbn that/cs core/nn -/in core/nn marriages/nns are/ber the/at preferred/vbn unions/nns for/in core/nn males/nns and/cc females/nns ;/. ;/.
core/nn -/in marginal/jj marriages/nns still/rb belong/vb in/in the/at category/nn of/in permissive/jj unions/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc core/nn -/in Negro/np marriages/nns are/ber proscribed/vbn for/in core/nn members/nns ''/'' ./.
Status-roles/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at element/nn of/in status-roles/nns and/cc associated/vbn processes/nns have/hv not/* been/ben sufficiently/rb investigated/vbn for/in this/dt population/nn to/to permit/vb any/dti type/nn of/in conjectures/nns about/in them/ppo ./.
Power/nn-hl ./.-hl

There/ex is/bez some/dti indication/nn from/in a/at limited/vbn number/nn of/in interviews/nns with/in members/nns of/in the/at population/nn that/cs the/at element/nn of/in power/nn ,/, primarily/rb the/at voluntary/jj influence/nn of/in non-authoritative/jj power/nn ,/, has/hvz been/ben exerted/vbn on/in actors/nns in/in the/at system/nn ,/, particularly/rb in/in regard/nn to/in mate/nn selection/nn ./.
This/dt would/md seem/vb to/to vary/vb from/in family/nn to/in family/nn ,/, depending/in somewhat/rb on/in the/at core/nn or/cc marginal/jj ``/`` status/nn ''/'' of/in that/dt family/nn ./.
Again/rb ,/, size/nn of/in the/at group/nn may/md have/hv some/dti influence/nn on/in the/at strength/nn of/in group/nn controls/nns ./.
Ranking/vbg-hl ./.-hl

Interviews/nns with/in members/nns of/in the/at Brandywine/np population/nn were/bed attempted/vbn in/in order/nn to/to discover/vb the/at ranking/nn of/in the/at various/jj families/nns in/in the/at population/nn ./.
The/at large/jj majority/nn of/in the/at interviewees/nns placed/vbd core/nn families/nns in/in the/at upper/jjr positions/nns ./.
Loomis/np considers/vbz ranking/vbg a/at product/nn of/in the/at evaluation/nn process/nn ./.
``/`` The/at standing/nn or/cc rank/nn of/in an/at actor/nn in/in a/at given/vbn social/jj system/nn is/bez determined/vbn by/in the/at evaluation/nn placed/vbn upon/in the/at actor/nn and/cc his/pp$ acts/nns in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at norms/nns and/cc standards/nns of/in the/at system/nn ''/'' ./.
Despite/in the/at increasing/vbg rate/nn of/in exogamous/jj marriages/nns ,/, the/at population/nn has/hvz been/ben able/jj to/to sustain/vb ,/, at/in least/ap to/in some/dti degree/nn ,/, the/at consciousness/nn of/in its/pp$ intermediate/jj status/nn in/in society/nn ./.
To/in some/dti extent/nn the/at system/nn can/md be/be considered/vbn a/at Gemeinschaft/fw-nn in/in which/wdt ``/`` social-role/nn occupancies/nns are/ber determined/vbn by/in birth/nn ,/, by/in attributes/nns such/jj as/cs sex/nn or/cc caste/nn ,/, which/wdt are/ber biologically/rb or/cc socially/rb immutable/jj ''/'' ./.
The/at adherence/nn of/in many/ap in/in the/at population/nn to/in the/at Indian/jj background/nn in/in their/pp$ pedigree/nn ,/, and/cc emphasis/nn upon/in the/at fact/nn that/cs their/pp$ ancestors/nns had/hvd never/rb been/ben slaves/nns ,/, becomes/vbz of/in prime/jj interest/nn in/in determining/vbg how/wql far/rb these/dts elements/nns promote/vb the/at self-image/nn of/in the/at intermediate/jj status/nn of/in the/at group/nn in/in society/nn ./.
Sanctions/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at negative/jj sanctions/nns applied/vbn to/in core/nn -/in Negro/np marriages/nns for/in core/nn members/nns act/vb as/cs indicators/nns of/in expected/vbn adherence/nn to/in group/nn norms/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, because/rb of/in Church/nn-tl laws/nns ,/, lately/rb more/ql stringently/rb enforced/vbn ,/, which/wdt forbid/vb the/at marriage/nn of/in cousins/nns closely/rb related/vbn consanguineously/rb ,/, a/at means/nn of/in facilitating/vbg the/at goal/nn of/in in-group/nn relations/nns may/md be/be that/dt of/in recourse/nn to/in illegitimate/jj unions/nns ./.
A/at cursory/jj survey/nn of/in available/jj material/nn indicates/vbz a/at high/jj rate/nn of/in illegitimate/jj births/nns occurring/vbg to/in parents/nns who/wps have/hv a/at close/jj consanguineous/jj relationship/nn ./.



Subsystems/nns-hl 
The/at comprehensive/jj or/cc master/nn processes/nns activate/vb all/abn or/cc some/dti of/in the/at elements/nns within/in the/at social/jj system/nn and/cc subsystems/nns ./.
Within/in the/at larger/jjr social/jj system/nn are/ber the/at structural/jj and/cc functional/jj subsystems/nns ./.
The/at structural/jj subsystem/nn ,/, consisting/vbg of/in relatively/ql stable/jj inter-relationships/nns among/in its/pp$ parts/nns ,/, includes/vbz :/: 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Subgroups/nns of/in various/ap types/nns ,/, interconnected/vbn by/in relational/jj norms/nns ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

Roles/nns of/in various/ap types/nns ,/, within/in the/at larger/jjr system/nn and/cc within/in the/at subgroups/nns 3/cd-hl ./.-hl

Regulative/jj norms/nns governing/vbg subgroups/nns and/cc roles/nns ./.
4/cd-hl ./.-hl

Cultural/jj values/nns ./.


	In/in the/at study/nn of/in marriage/nn patterns/nns for/in this/dt group/nn ,/, consanguinity/nn produces/vbz the/at structural/jj system/nn --/-- a/at system/nn of/in affinities/nns --/-- which/wdt ,/, in/in turn/nn ,/, maintains/vbz the/at system/nn of/in consanguinity/nn ./.
Subgroups/nns of/in various/ap types/nns have/hv been/ben found/vbn within/in this/dt system/nn ./.
Each/dt family/nn line/nn can/md be/be considered/vbn a/at substructure/nn ./.
There/ex seems/vbz to/to be/be an/at implied/vbn cultural/jj value/nn attached/vbn to/in the/at fact/nn of/in core/nn status/nn within/in the/at group/nn ./.
Additionally/rb ,/, the/at proscription/nn of/in core/nn -/in Negro/np marriages/nns for/in core/nn families/nns ,/, discussed/vbn above/rb ,/, would/md seem/vb to/to act/vb as/cs a/at regulative/jj norm/nn governing/vbg subgroups/nns and/cc roles/nns ./.
The/at scope/nn of/in this/dt study/nn does/doz not/* provide/vb for/in the/at study/nn of/in roles/nns of/in various/ap types/nns within/in the/at larger/jjr system/nn or/cc within/in the/at subgroups/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, it/pps cannot/md* be/be presumed/vbn ,/, informal/jj though/cs the/at structure/nn of/in the/at population/nn seems/vbz ,/, that/cs there/ex are/ber not/* well-defined/jj roles/nns within/in the/at system/nn ./.


	The/at present/jj study/nn relates/vbz to/in the/at theory/nn of/in functional/jj systems/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez hypothesized/vbn that/dt fertility/nn is/bez a/at function/nn of/in the/at social/jj system/nn when/wrb the/at population/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn is/bez considered/vbn and/cc a/at function/nn of/in the/at subsystems/nns when/wrb the/at two-fold/jj division/nn of/in core/nn families/nns and/cc marginal/jj families/nns is/bez considered/vbn ./.
The/at four/cd functional/jj problems/nns of/in a/at social/jj system/nn are/ber ,/, to/in some/dti extent/nn ,/, solved/vbn by/in the/at subsystems/nns within/in this/dt population/nn ./.
By/in means/nns of/in geographical/jj isolation/nn and/cc high/jj fertility/nn rates/nns ,/, inbreeding/vbg can/md be/be fostered/vbn and/cc the/at pattern/nn of/in isolation/nn from/in the/at greater/jjr society/nn maintained/vbn ./.
In/in order/nn to/to attain/vb the/at goal/nn of/in group/nn solidarity/nn and/cc to/to relieve/vb tension/nn ,/, the/at high/jj fertility/nn rate/nn provides/vbz more/ap group/nn members/nns for/in mate/nn selection/nn ,/, and/cc the/at clustering/nn of/in members/nns in/in groups/nns fosters/vbz acceptance/nn of/in group/nn controls/nns ./.
To/to maintain/vb their/pp$ intermediate/jj position/nn in/in the/at larger/jjr society/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* only/rb necessary/jj that/cs members/nns of/in this/dt population/nn be/be ``/`` visible/jj ''/'' ,/, but/cc that/cs their/pp$ numbers/nns be/be great/jj enough/qlp to/to be/be recognized/vbn as/cs a/at separate/jj ,/, distinct/jj grouping/vbg or/cc system/nn in/in society/nn ./.
As/cs mentioned/vbn above/rb ,/, where/wrb families/nns are/ber concentrated/vbn in/in larger/jjr numbers/nns ,/, group/nn controls/nns seem/vb strongest/jjt and/cc most/ql effective/jj ./.
Adaptation/nn to/in the/at social/jj and/cc non-social/jj environment/nn through/in the/at economy/nn has/hvz been/ben met/vbn to/in a/at degree/nn through/in a/at type/nn of/in occupational/jj segregation/nn ./.
This/dt provides/vbz the/at necessary/jj contact/nn with/in the/at larger/jjr society/nn ,/, while/cs supporting/vbg a/at type/nn of/in control/nn over/in members/nns in/in terms/nns of/in social/jj contacts/nns ./.


	Integration/nn ``/`` has/hvz to/to do/do with/in the/at inter-relation/nn of/in parts/nns ''/'' ./.
The/at problem/nn of/in solidarity/nn and/cc morale/nn again/rb involves/vbz the/at concept/nn of/in values/nns ./.
The/at values/nns placed/vbn by/in the/at Brandywine/np population/nn ,/, upon/in maintaining/vbg a/at certain/ap homogeneity/nn ,/, a/at certain/ap separate/jj racial/jj identity/nn ,/, and/cc therefore/rb a/at certain/ap separate/jj social/jj status/nn ,/, are/ber important/jj for/in the/at morale/nn of/in the/at system/nn ./.
Since/cs morale/nn is/bez closely/rb related/vbn to/in pattern/nn maintenance/nn and/cc integration/nn ,/, the/at higher/jjr the/at morale/nn and/cc solidarity/nn ,/, the/at better/jjr the/at system/nn can/md solve/vb the/at problems/nns of/in the/at system/nn ./.
In/in this/dt respect/nn it/pps would/md seem/vb that/cs the/at greater/jjr the/at social/jj distance/nn between/in the/at Brandywine/np population/nn and/cc the/at white/jj and/cc Negro/np populations/nns within/in the/at same/ap general/jj locality/nn ,/, the/at greater/jjr the/at possibility/nn for/in higher/jjr morale/nn and/cc solidarity/nn within/in the/at Brandywine/np population/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez conceived/vbn that/cs one/cd of/in the/at means/nns to/to attain/vb this/dt social/jj distance/nn is/bez that/dt of/in physical/jj and/cc social/jj isolation/nn ./.
In/in turn/nn ,/, higher/jjr fertility/nn rates/nns for/in this/dt population/nn provide/vb a/at means/nn of/in increasing/vbg the/at numerical/jj quantity/nn of/in the/at population/nn ,/, allowing/vbg for/in the/at possibility/nn of/in greater/jjr stability/nn and/cc unity/nn ./.
The/at population/nn can/md thereby/rb replenish/vb itself/ppl and/cc actually/rb grow/vb larger/jjr ./.



Master/nn-hl processes/nns-hl 
Of/in particular/jj utility/nn in/in the/at analysis/nn of/in the/at development/nn ,/, persistence/nn ,/, and/cc change/nn of/in social/jj systems/nns has/hvz been/ben the/at use/nn of/in the/at master/nn or/cc comprehensive/jj processes/nns ./.
Loomis/np considers/vbz six/cd such/jj processes/nns in/in his/pp$ paradigm/nn ./.


	1/cd ./.
Communication/nn 

	2/cd ./.
Boundary/nn maintenance/nn 

	3/cd ./.
Systemic/jj linkage/nn 

	4/cd ./.
Socialization/nn 

	5/cd ./.
Social/jj control/nn 

	6/cd ./.
Institutionalization/nn Though/cs undoubtedly/rb all/abn six/cd processes/nns are/ber operative/jj within/in the/at whole/jj social/jj system/nn and/cc its/pp$ subsystems/nns ,/, two/cd processes/nns that/wps are/ber of/in crucial/jj importance/nn to/in this/dt study/nn will/md be/be singled/vbn out/rp for/in particular/jj emphasis/nn ./.
Communication/nn-hl ./.-hl

In/in discussing/vbg the/at process/nn of/in communication/nn ,/, Loomis/np defines/vbz it/ppo as/cs ``/`` the/at process/nn by/in which/wdt information/nn ,/, decisions/nns ,/, and/cc directives/nns are/ber transmitted/vbn among/in actors/nns and/cc the/at ways/nns in/in which/wdt knowledge/nn ,/, opinions/nns ,/, and/cc attitudes/nns are/ber formed/vbn ,/, or/cc modified/vbn by/in interaction/nn ''/'' ./.
Communication/nn may/md be/be facilitated/vbn by/in means/nns of/in the/at high/jj visibility/nn within/in the/at larger/jjr community/nn ./.
Intense/jj interaction/nn is/bez easier/jjr where/wrb segregated/vbn living/nn and/cc occupational/jj segregation/nn mark/vb off/rp a/at group/nn from/in the/at rest/nn of/in the/at community/nn ,/, as/cs in/in the/at case/nn of/in this/dt population/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at factor/nn of/in physical/jj isolation/nn is/bez not/* a/at static/jj situation/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at Brandywine/np population/nn is/bez still/rb predominantly/ql rural/jj ,/, ``/`` there/ex are/ber indications/nns of/in a/at consistent/jj and/cc a/at statistically/ql significant/jj trend/nn away/rb from/in the/at older/jjr and/cc relatively/ql isolated/vbn rural/jj communities/nns ./.
Urbanization/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be an/at important/jj factor/nn in/in the/at disintegration/nn of/in this/dt group/nn ./.
This/dt conclusion/nn is/bez ,/, however/rb ,/, an/at over-simplification/nn ./.
A/at more/ql realistic/jj analysis/nn must/md take/vb into/in account/nn the/at fact/nn that/cs Brandywine/np people/nns in/in the/at urban-fringe/nn area/nn are/ber ,/, in/in general/jj ,/, less/ql segregated/vbn locally/rb than/cs group/nn members/nns in/in rural/jj areas/nns ./.
In/in the/at urban/jj area/nn ,/, in/in other/ap words/nns ,/, they/ppss ,/, unlike/in some/dti urban/jj ethnic/jj groups/nns ,/, do/do not/* concentrate/vb in/in ghetto/nn colonies/nns ./.
Group/nn pressures/nns toward/in conformity/nn are/ber slight/jj or/cc non-existent/jj ,/, and/cc deviant/jj behavior/nn in/in mate/nn selection/nn incurs/vbz few/ap if/cs any/dti social/jj sanctions/nns ./.
In/in such/abl a/at setting/nn social/jj contacts/nns and/cc associations/nns are/ber likely/jj to/to be/be heterogamous/jj ,/, resulting/vbg in/in a/at change/nn of/in values/nns and/cc ,/, almost/ql necessarily/rb ,/, in/in mate/nn selection/nn behavior/nn ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs urban/jj life/nn contributes/vbz to/in the/at breakdown/nn of/in the/at group/nn patterns/nns of/in residential/jj isolation/nn ,/, to/in that/dt extent/nn it/pps contributes/vbz directly/rb to/in increased/vbn exogamy/nn ''/'' ./.
Social/jj-hl control/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at process/nn of/in social/jj control/nn is/bez operative/jj insofar/rb as/cs sanctions/nns play/vb a/at part/nn in/in the/at individual's/nn$ behavior/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at group's/nn$ behavior/nn ./.
By/in means/nns of/in this/dt social/jj control/nn ,/, deviance/nn is/bez either/cc eliminated/vbn or/cc somehow/rb made/vbn compatible/jj with/in the/at function/nn of/in the/at social/jj group/nn ./.
Examples/nns from/in this/dt population/nn indicate/vb that/cs deviance/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be sanctioned/vbn by/in ostracism/nn from/in the/at group/nn ./.
Socialization/nn-hl ./.-hl

There/ex is/bez an/at oral/jj tradition/nn among/in the/at members/nns of/in the/at population/nn in/in regard/nn to/in the/at origin/nn and/cc subsequent/jj separate/jj status/nn of/in the/at group/nn in/in the/at larger/jjr society/nn ./.
Confused/vbn and/cc divided/vbn though/cs this/dt tradition/nn may/md be/be ,/, it/pps is/bez an/at important/jj part/nn of/in the/at social/jj and/cc cultural/jj heritage/nn of/in the/at group/nn ,/, and/cc acts/vbz as/cs a/at means/nns of/in socialization/nn ,/, particularly/rb for/in members/nns of/in the/at rural/jj community/nn ./.
The/at fact/nn of/in Indian/jj ancestry/nn and/cc ``/`` free/jj ''/'' status/nn during/in the/at days/nns of/in slavery/nn ,/, are/ber important/jj distinctions/nns made/vbn by/in members/nns of/in the/at group/nn ./.
Boundary/nn-hl maintenance/nn-hl ./.-hl

``/`` Culturally/rb induced/vbn social/jj cohesion/nn resulting/vbg from/in common/jj norms/nns and/cc values/nns internalized/vbn by/in members/nns of/in the/at group/nn ''/'' is/bez operative/jj in/in the/at boundary/nn maintenance/nn of/in the/at group/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs in/in the/at process/nn of/in socialization/nn ./.
The/at process/nn of/in boundary/nn maintenance/nn identifies/vbz and/cc preserves/vbz the/at social/jj system/nn or/cc subsystems/nns ,/, and/cc the/at characteristic/jj interaction/nn is/bez maintained/vbn ./.
As/cs the/at threat/nn of/in encroachment/nn on/in the/at system/nn increases/vbz ,/, the/at ``/`` probability/nn of/in applied/vbn boundary/nn maintenance/nn mechanisms/nns increases/vbz ''/'' ./.


	The/at fertility/nn rate/nn pattern/nn would/md seem/vb to/to be/be a/at function/nn ,/, though/cs a/at latent/jj one/cd ,/, of/in the/at process/nn of/in maintaining/vbg the/at boundary/nn ./.
``/`` Increased/vbn boundary/nn maintenance/nn may/md be/be achieved/vbn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, by/in assigning/vbg a/at higher/jjr primacy/nn or/cc evaluation/nn to/in activities/nns characteristic/jj of/in the/at external/jj pattern/nn ./.
''/'' The/at external/jj pattern/nn or/cc external/jj system/nn can/md be/be considered/vbn as/cs ``/`` group/nn behavior/nn that/wps enables/vbz the/at group/nn to/to survive/vb in/in its/pp$ environment/nn ./.
''/'' Boundary/nn maintenance/nn for/in this/dt group/nn would/md seem/vb to/to be/be primarily/rb social/jj ,/, as/cs is/bez the/at preference/nn for/in endogamy/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez also/rb expressed/vbn in/in the/at proscription/nn against/in deviants/nns in/in the/at matter/nn of/in endogamy/nn ,/, particularly/rb in/in rural/jj areas/nns ./.
By/in their/pp$ pattern/nn of/in endogamy/nn and/cc exogamy/nn ,/, the/at core/nn families/nns and/cc the/at marginal/jj families/nns show/vb distinct/jj limits/nns to/in the/at intergroup/jj contact/nn they/ppss maintain/vb ./.
Systemic/jj-hl linkage/nn-hl ./.-hl

Where/wrb boundary/nn maintenance/nn describes/vbz the/at boundaries/nns or/cc limits/nns of/in the/at group/nn ,/, systemic/jj linkage/nn is/bez defined/vbn ``/`` as/cs the/at process/nn whereby/wrb one/cd or/cc more/ap of/in the/at elements/nns of/in at/in least/ap two/cd social/jj systems/nns is/bez articulated/vbn in/in such/abl a/at manner/nn that/cs the/at two/cd systems/nns in/in some/dti ways/nns and/cc on/in some/dti occasions/nns may/md be/be viewed/vbn as/cs a/at single/ap unit/nn ./.



	A/at royal/jj decree/nn issued/vbn in/in 1910/cd ,/, two/cd years/nns after/cs the/at Belgian/jj government/nn assumed/vbd authority/nn for/in the/at administration/nn of/in the/at Congo/np ,/, prescribed/vbd the/at registration/nn of/in all/abn adult/nn males/nns by/in chiefdoms/nns ./.
Further/jjr decrees/nns along/in this/dt line/nn were/bed issued/vbn in/in 1916/cd and/cc 1919/cd ./.
In/in 1922/cd a/at continuous/jj registration/nn of/in the/at whole/jj indigenous/jj population/nn was/bedz instituted/vbn by/in ordinance/nn of/in the/at Governor-General/nn-tl ,/, and/cc the/at periodic/jj compilation/nn of/in these/dts records/nns was/bedz ordered/vbn ./.
But/cc specific/jj procedures/nns for/in carrying/vbg out/rp this/dt plan/nn were/bed left/vbn to/in the/at discretion/nn of/in the/at provincial/jj governors/nns ./.
A/at unified/vbn set/nn of/in regulations/nns ,/, applicable/jj to/in all/abn areas/nns ,/, was/bedz issued/vbn in/in 1929/cd ,/, and/cc a/at complementary/jj series/nn of/in demographic/jj inquiries/nns in/in selected/vbn areas/nns was/bedz instituted/vbn at/in the/at same/ap time/nn ./.
The/at whole/jj system/nn was/bedz again/rb reviewed/vbn and/cc reorganized/vbn in/in 1933/cd ./.
General/jj responsibility/nn for/in its/pp$ administration/nn rested/vbd with/in a/at division/nn of/in the/at colonial/jj government/nn concerned/vbn with/in labor/nn supply/nn and/cc native/nn affairs/nns ,/, Service/fw-nn-tl des/fw-in+at-tl Affaires/fw-nns-tl Indigenes/fw-jj-tl et/fw-cc-tl de/fw-in-tl la/fw-at-tl Main-d'Oeuvre/fw-nn-tl (/( AIMO/np ,/, Af/nn Direction/nn-tl ,/, Af/nn Direction/fw-nn-tl Generale/fw-jj-tl ,/, Gouvernement/fw-nn-tl Generale/fw-jj-tl )/) ./.
Tribal/jj authorities/nns ,/, the/at chiefs/nns and/cc their/pp$ secretaries/nns ,/, were/bed held/vbn responsible/jj for/in maintaining/vbg the/at registers/nns of/in indigenous/jj persons/nns within/in their/pp$ territories/nns ,/, under/in the/at general/jj supervision/nn of/in district/nn officials/nns ./.
The/at district/nn officials/nns ,/, along/rb with/in their/pp$ other/ap duties/nns ,/, were/bed obliged/vbn to/to organize/vb special/jj demographic/jj inquiries/nns in/in selected/vbn areas/nns and/cc to/to supervise/vb the/at annual/jj tabulations/nns of/in demographic/jj statistics/nns ./.


	The/at regulations/nns require/vb the/at inscription/nn of/in each/dt individual/nn (/( male/nn or/cc female/nn ,/, adult/nn or/cc child/nn )/) on/in a/at separate/jj card/nn (/( fiche/fw-nn )/) ./.
The/at cards/nns ,/, filed/vbn by/in circonscription/fw-nn (/( sub-chiefdom/nn ,/, or/cc village/nn )/) ,/, are/ber kept/vbn in/in the/at headquarters/nn of/in each/dt territoire/fw-nn (/( chiefdom/nn )/) ./.
Each/dt card/nn is/bez expected/vbn to/to show/vb certain/ap information/nn about/in the/at individual/nn concerned/vbn ,/, including/in his/pp$ or/cc her/pp$ date/nn of/in birth/nn (/( or/cc age/nn at/in a/at specified/vbn time/nn )/) ,/, spouses/nns ,/, and/cc children/nns ./.
Additional/jj entries/nns must/md be/be made/vbn from/in time/nn to/in time/nn ./.
Different/jj cards/nns are/ber used/vbn for/in males/nns and/cc females/nns ,/, and/cc a/at corner/nn is/bez clipped/vbn from/in the/at cards/nns of/in adults/nns ,/, and/cc of/in children/nns when/wrb they/ppss reach/vb puberty/nn ./.
So/rb a/at quick/jj count/nn could/md be/be made/vbn at/in any/dti time/nn ,/, even/rb by/in an/at illiterate/jj clerk/nn ,/, of/in the/at number/nn of/in registered/vbn persons/nns in/in four/cd age-and-sex/nn classes/nns ./.
Personal/jj identification/nn cards/nns are/ber issued/vbn to/in all/abn adult/nn males/nns on/in which/wdt tax/nn payments/nns ,/, inoculations/nns ,/, periods/nns of/in employment/nn ,/, and/cc changes/nns of/in residence/nn are/ber recorded/vbn ./.
Similar/jj identification/nn cards/nns were/bed issued/vbn in/in 1959/cd to/in all/abn adult/nn females/nns ./.
Each/dt adult/nn is/bez held/vbn personally/rb responsible/jj for/in assuring/vbg his/pp$ inscription/nn and/cc obtaining/vbg an/at identification/nn card/nn which/wdt must/md be/be shown/vbn on/in demand/nn ./.
The/at registration/nn card/nn of/in a/at person/nn leaving/vbg his/pp$ home/nn territory/nn for/in a/at short/jj period/nn is/bez put/vbn into/in a/at special/jj file/nn for/in absent/jj persons/nns ./.
The/at cards/nns of/in permanent/jj out-migrants/nns are/ber ,/, in/in theory/nn ,/, sent/vbn to/in an/at office/nn in/in the/at place/nn of/in new/jj residence/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, the/at registration/nn of/in births/nns and/cc deaths/nns by/in nearest/jjt relatives/nns was/bedz made/vbn compulsory/jj in/in most/ap regions/nns ./.


	Numbers/nns of/in registered/vbn persons/nns in/in four/cd age-and-sex/nn classes/nns were/bed counted/vbn each/dt year/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, demographic/jj inquiries/nns ,/, supposedly/rb involving/vbg field/nn investigations/nns ,/, were/bed conducted/vbn in/in selected/vbn minor/jj divisions/nns (/( circonscriptions/fw-nns )/) containing/vbg about/rb 3/cd percent/nn of/in the/at total/nn population/nn ./.
The/at results/nns of/in these/dts inquiries/nns were/bed used/vbn to/to adjust/vb compilations/nns of/in data/nn from/in the/at registers/nns and/cc to/to provide/vb various/ap ratios/nns and/cc rates/nns by/in districts/nns ,/, including/in birth/nn and/cc death/nn rates/nns ,/, general/jj fertility/nn rates/nns ,/, distributions/nns by/in marital/jj status/nn ,/, fertility/nn of/in wives/nns separately/rb in/in polygynous/jj and/cc non-polygynous/jj households/nns ,/, infant/nn mortality/nn ,/, and/cc migration/nn ./.
The/at areas/nns to/to be/be examined/vbn in/in these/dts inquiries/nns were/bed selected/vbn by/in local/jj officials/nns ,/, supposedly/rb as/cs representative/jj of/in a/at larger/jjr population/nn ./.
Averages/nns of/in the/at ratios/nns obtained/vbn in/in a/at few/ap selected/vbn areas/nns were/bed applied/vbn to/in the/at larger/jjr population/nn ./.


	The/at scheme/nn ,/, in/in theory/nn ,/, is/bez an/at ingenious/jj adaptation/nn of/in European/jj registration/nn systems/nns to/in the/at conditions/nns of/in African/jj life/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps places/vbz a/at severe/jj strain/nn on/in the/at administrative/jj resources/nns (/( already/rb burdened/vbn in/in other/ap ways/nns )/) of/in a/at widely/rb dispersed/vbn ,/, poor/jj and/cc largely/ql illiterate/jj population/nn ./.
The/at sampling/vbg program/nn was/bedz instituted/vbn before/cs the/at principles/nns of/in probability/nn sampling/nn were/bed widely/rb recognized/vbn in/in population/nn studies/nns ./.
The/at system/nn was/bedz not/* well/rb adapted/vbn to/in conditions/nns of/in life/nn in/in urban/jj centers/nns ./.
The/at distinction/nn between/in domiciled/vbn (/( de/fw-in jure/fw-nn )/) and/cc present/jj (/( de/fw-in facto/fw-nn )/) population/nn was/bedz not/* clearly/rb defined/vbn ./.
So/cs the/at results/nns are/ber subject/jj to/in considerable/jj confusion/nn ./.
The/at system/nn tended/vbd to/to break/vb down/rp during/in the/at war/nn ,/, but/cc was/bedz reactivated/vbn ;/. ;/.
it/pps had/hvd reached/vbn the/at pre-war/jj level/nn of/in efficiency/nn by/in 1951/cd ./.
In/in spite/nn of/in the/at defects/nns in/in this/dt system/nn ,/, the/at figures/nns on/in total/nn population/nn during/in the/at late/jj 1930's/nns and/cc again/rb in/in the/at early/jj 1950's/nns seem/vb to/to have/hv represented/vbn actual/jj conditions/nns in/in most/ap districts/nns with/in approximate/jj fidelity/nn ./.
But/cc the/at information/nn on/in the/at dynamics/nns of/in population/nn was/bedz often/rb quite/ql misleading/jj ./.


	The/at same/ap system/nn ,/, with/in minor/jj modifications/nns ,/, was/bedz developed/vbn in/in Ruanda-Urundi/np under/in Belgian/jj administration/nn ./.
Here/rb again/rb it/pps seems/vbz that/cs useful/jj approximations/nns of/in the/at size/nn and/cc geographical/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at population/nn were/bed obtained/vbn in/in this/dt way/nn in/in the/at late/jj pre-war/jj and/cc early/jj post-war/jj periods/nns ./.


	Before/cs considering/vbg more/ql recent/jj activities/nns ,/, we/ppss should/md note/vb another/dt important/jj aspect/nn of/in demography/nn in/in Belgian/jj Africa/np ./.
A/at number/nn of/in strong/jj independent/jj agencies/nns ,/, established/vbn in/in some/dti cases/nns with/in governmental/jj or/cc royal/jj support/nn ,/, have/hv conducted/vbn large/jj medical/jj ,/, social/jj ,/, educational/jj and/cc research/nn operations/nns in/in particular/jj parts/nns of/in the/at Congo/np and/cc Ruanda-Urundi/np ./.
The/at work/nn of/in Fonds/fw-nn-tl Reine/fw-nn-tl Elisabeth/np-tl pour/fw-in-tl l'Assistance/fw-at+nn-tl Medicale/fw-jj-tl aux/fw-in+at-tl Indigenes/fw-nns-tl Du/fw-in+at-tl Congo/np-tl Belge/fw-jj-tl (/( FOREAMI/np )/) has/hvz special/jj interest/nn with/in respect/nn to/in demography/nn ./.
This/dt agency/nn accepted/vbd responsibility/nn for/in medical/jj services/nns to/in a/at population/nn ranging/vbg from/in 638,560/cd persons/nns in/in 1941/cd to/in 840,503/cd in/in 1956/cd in/in the/at Kwango/np-tl District/nn-tl and/cc adjacent/jj areas/nns east/nr of/in Leopoldville/np ./.
Each/dt year/nn from/in 1941/cd on/rp ,/, its/pp$ medical/jj staff/nn had/hvd conducted/vbn intensive/jj field/nn investigations/nns to/to determine/vb changes/nns in/in population/nn structure/nn and/cc vital/jj rates/nns and/cc ,/, as/cs its/pp$ primary/jj objective/nn ,/, the/at incidence/nn of/in major/jj diseases/nns ./.
Its/pp$ findings/nns are/ber reported/vbn each/dt year/nn in/in its/pp$ Rapport/fw-nn-tl Sur/fw-in-tl l'activite/fw-at+nn-tl Pendant/fw-in-tl annee/fw-nn-tl (/( Bruxelles/np )/) ./.
Somewhat/ql similar/jj investigations/nns have/hv been/ben made/vbn by/in medical/jj officers/nns in/in other/ap areas/nns ./.
Other/ap independent/jj ,/, or/cc partially/ql independent/jj agencies/nns ,/, have/hv promoted/vbn investigations/nns on/in topics/nns directly/rb or/cc indirectly/rb related/vbn to/in demography/nn ./.
These/dts studies/nns vary/vb widely/rb in/in scope/nn and/cc precision/nn ./.
L'Institut/fw-at+nn-tl pour/fw-in-tl La/fw-at-tl Recherche/fw-nn-tl Scientifique/fw-jj-tl En/fw-in-tl Afrique/fw-np-tl Centrale/fw-jj-tl (/( IRSAC/np )/) has/hvz sponsored/vbn well-designed/jj field/nn investigations/nns and/cc has/hvz cooperated/vbn closely/rb with/in the/at government/nn of/in Ruanda-Urundi/np in/in the/at development/nn of/in its/pp$ official/jj statistics/nns ./.


	A/at massive/jj investigation/nn of/in the/at characteristics/nns of/in in-migrants/nns and/cc prospective/jj out-migrants/nns in/in Ruanda-Urundi/np is/bez being/beg carried/vbn on/rp by/in J./np J./np Maquet/np ,/, former/ap Director/nn-tl of/in the/at Social/jj-tl Science/nn-tl branch/nn of/in IRSAC/nn ,/, now/rb a/at professor/nn at/in l'Universite/fw-at+nn-tl Officielle/fw-jj-tl Du/fw-in+at-tl Congo/np-tl Belge/fw-jj-tl et/fw-cc-tl Du/fw-in+at-tl Ruanda-Urundi/np-tl ./.
Some/rb 30,000/cd completed/vbn schedules/nns with/in 20/cd items/nns (/( collected/vbn by/in sub-chiefs/nns in/in 1,100/cd circumscriptions/nns )/) have/hv been/ben tabulated/vbn ./.
The/at results/nns are/ber now/rb being/beg analyzed/vbn ./.


	Statistics/nns have/hv been/ben recognized/vbn as/cs a/at matter/nn of/in strategic/jj importance/nn in/in the/at Congo/np and/cc in/in Ruanda-Urundi/np during/in the/at post-war/jj years/nns in/in connection/nn with/in long-term/nn economic/jj and/cc social/jj programs/nns ./.
The/at AIMO/nn organizations/nns of/in both/abx countries/nns ,/, which/wdt maintain/vb administrative/jj services/nns throughout/in the/at territories/nns ,/, retained/vbd immediate/jj responsibility/nn for/in the/at collection/nn and/cc publication/nn of/in demographic/jj information/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at statistical/jj offices/nns of/in both/abx governments/nns were/bed assigned/vbn responsibility/nn for/in the/at planning/nn and/cc analysis/nn of/in these/dts statistics/nns ./.
A/at Bureau/fw-nn-tl De/fw-in-tl La/fw-at-tl Demographie/fw-nn-tl (/( A./np Romaniuk/np ,/, Director/nn-tl )/) was/bedz formed/vbn under/in AIMO/nn in/in the/at Congo/np ,/, to/to work/vb in/in close/jj rapport/nn with/in the/at Section/fw-nn-tl Statistique/fw-jj-tl of/in the/at Secretariat/nn-tl General/jj-tl ./.
Eventually/rb responsibility/nn for/in demographic/jj inquiries/nns in/in the/at Congo/np was/bedz transferred/vbn to/in the/at demographic/jj division/nn of/in the/at Central/jj-tl Statistical/jj-tl Office/nn-tl ./.
The/at 1952/cd demographic/jj inquiry/nn in/in Ruanda-Urundi/np was/bedz directed/vbn by/in V./np Neesen/np ,/, a/at member/nn of/in the/at IRSAC/nn staff/nn ,/, though/cs the/at inquiry/nn was/bedz carried/vbn out/rp under/in the/at auspices/nns of/in AIMO/nn ,/, which/wdt has/hvz continuing/vbg responsibility/nn for/in demographic/jj statistics/nns in/in this/dt territory/nn ./.
A/at member/nn of/in the/at IRSAC/nn staff/nn (/( E./np Van/np De/np Walle/np )/) was/bedz recently/rb delegated/vbn to/to cooperate/vb with/in AIMO/nn in/in the/at development/nn of/in demographic/jj statistics/nns in/in this/dt territory/nn ./.


	The/at initiation/nn of/in sampling/vbg censuses/nns in/in Ruanda-Urundi/np (/( 1952/cd )/) and/cc in/in the/at Congo/np (/( 1955/cd -/in 57/cd )/) were/bed major/jj advances/nns ./.
We/ppss will/md deal/vb first/rb with/in the/at program/nn in/in the/at Congo/np though/cs this/dt was/bedz put/vbn into/in operation/nn later/rbr than/cs the/at other/ap ./.


	The/at radical/jj nature/nn of/in the/at innovation/nn in/in the/at Congo/np was/bedz not/* emphasized/vbn in/in the/at official/jj announcements/nns ./.
The/at term/nn enquetes/fw-nns-nc demographiques/fw-jj-nc ,/, previously/rb used/vbn for/in the/at supplementary/jj investigations/nns carried/vbn out/rp in/in connection/nn with/in the/at administrative/jj censuses/nns ,/, was/bedz used/vbn for/in the/at new/jj investigations/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at differences/nns in/in procedure/nn are/ber fundamental/jj ./.
These/dts are/ber as/ql follows/vbz :/: (/(-hl 1/cd-hl )/)-hl field/nn-hl work/nn-hl procedures/nns-hl ./.-hl

Field/nn operations/nns were/bed transferred/vbn from/in administrative/jj personnel/nns primarily/rb engaged/vbn in/in other/ap tasks/nns to/in specially/rb trained/vbn teams/nns of/in full-time/jj African/jj investigators/nns (/( three/cd teams/nns ,/, each/dt working/vbg in/in two/cd provinces/nns )/) ./.
These/dts teams/nns carried/vbd out/rp the/at same/ap operations/nns successively/rb in/in different/jj areas/nns ./.
(/(-hl 2/cd-hl )/)-hl nature/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl sample/nn-hl ./.-hl

Sample/nn areas/nns in/in the/at new/jj investigations/nns were/bed selected/vbn strictly/rb by/in application/nn of/in the/at principles/nns of/in probability/nn theory/nn ,/, so/cs as/cs to/to be/be representative/jj of/in the/at total/nn population/nn of/in defined/vbn areas/nns within/in calculable/jj limits/nns ./.
In/in short/jj ,/, scientific/jj sampling/nn was/bedz introduced/vbn in/in place/nn of/in subjective/jj sampling/nn ./.
The/at populations/nns of/in the/at various/ap districts/nns ,/, or/cc other/ap major/jj divisions/nns ,/, were/bed stratified/vbn by/in type/nn of/in community/nn (/( rural/jj ,/, urban/jj ,/, mixed/vbn )/) and/cc ,/, where/wrb appropriate/jj ,/, by/in ethnic/jj affiliation/nn and/cc by/in type/nn of/in economy/nn ./.
Sample/nn units/nns (/( villages/nns in/in rural/jj areas/nns ,/, houses/nns in/in cities/nns )/) were/bed drawn/vbn systematically/rb within/in these/dts strata/nns ./.
(/(-hl 3/cd-hl )/)-hl size/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl sample/nn-hl ./.-hl

Different/jj sampling/vbg ratios/nns were/bed applied/vbn under/in different/jj conditions/nns ./.
Higher/jjr proportions/nns were/bed sampled/vbn in/in urban/jj and/cc mixed/vbn communities/nns than/cs in/in rural/jj areas/nns ./.
About/rb 11/cd percent/nn of/in the/at total/nn population/nn was/bedz covered/vbn in/in the/at new/jj investigation/nn ,/, as/cs compared/vbn with/in about/rb 3/cd percent/nn in/in the/at previous/jj inquiries/nns ./.
(/(-hl 4/cd-hl )/)-hl questions/nns-hl and/cc-hl definitions/nns-hl ./.-hl

Uniform/jj questions/nns ,/, definitions/nns ,/, and/cc procedures/nns were/bed enforced/vbn throughout/in the/at whole/jj country/nn ./.
Data/nns were/bed obtained/vbn ,/, separately/rb ,/, on/in three/cd classes/nns of/in persons/nns :/: (/( A/np )/) residents/nns ,/, present/jj ;/. ;/.
(/( B/np )/) residents/nns ,/, absent/jj ;/. ;/.
and/cc (/( C/np )/) visitors/nns ./.
In/in the/at reports/nns ,/, summary/nn results/nns are/ber given/vbn for/in both/abx the/at de/fw-in facto/fw-nn (/( A/np and/cc C/np )/) and/cc de/fw-in jure/fw-nn (/( A/np and/cc B/np )/) populations/nns ;/. ;/.
but/cc the/at subsequent/jj analysis/nn of/in characteristics/nns is/bez reported/vbn only/rb for/in the/at de/fw-in jure/fw-nn population/nn (/( or/cc ,/, in/in some/dti districts/nns ,/, only/rb the/at de/fw-in facto/fw-nn population/nn )/) ./.


	These/dts changes/nns represent/vb ,/, in/in effect/nn ,/, a/at shift/nn from/in (/( 1/cd )/) an/at administrative/jj compilation/nn of/in data/nns obtained/vbn through/in procedures/nns designed/vbn primarily/rb to/to serve/vb political/jj and/cc economic/jj objectives/nns to/in (/( 2/cd )/) a/at systematic/jj sampling/vbg census/nn of/in the/at whole/jj African/jj population/nn ./.


	The/at population/nn registration/nn system/nn still/rb has/hvz important/jj functions/nns ./.
It/pps supplies/vbz local/jj data/nns which/wdt are/ber useful/jj in/in administration/nn and/cc which/wdt can/md be/be used/vbn as/cs a/at basis/nn for/in intensive/jj studies/nns in/in particular/jj situations/nns ./.
It/pps provides/vbz a/at frame/nn for/in the/at sampling/vbg census/nn ./.
It/pps also/rb provides/vbz a/at frame/nn within/in which/wdt the/at registration/nn of/in vital/jj events/nns is/bez gradually/rb gaining/vbg force/nn (/( though/cs one/pn cannot/md* expect/vb to/to obtain/vb reliable/jj vital/jj statistics/nns in/in most/ap parts/nns of/in the/at Congo/np from/in this/dt source/nn in/in the/at near/jj future/nn )/) ./.
It/pps is/bez still/rb used/vbn in/in making/vbg current/jj population/nn estimates/nns in/in post-census/jj years/nns ,/, though/cs the/at value/nn of/in these/dts estimates/nns is/bez open/jj to/in question/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, it/pps may/md have/hv certain/ap very/ql important/jj ,/, less/ql obvious/jj values/nns ./.
Even/rb though/cs the/at registers/nns may/md have/hv an/at incomplete/jj record/nn of/in persons/nns present/rb in/in a/at particular/jj area/nn or/cc include/vb persons/nns no/ql longer/rbr living/vbg there/rb ,/, they/ppss contain/vb precise/jj information/nn on/in ages/nns ,/, by/in date/nn of/in birth/nn ,/, for/in some/dti of/in the/at persons/nns present/rb (/( especially/rb children/nns in/in relatively/ql stable/jj communities/nns )/) and/cc supplementary/jj information/nn (/( such/jj as/cs records/nns of/in marital/jj status/nn )/) for/in many/ap others/nns ./.
The/at quality/nn of/in the/at census/nn data/nn can/md ,/, therefore/rb ,/, be/be greatly/rb improved/vbn by/in the/at use/nn of/in the/at registration/nn records/nns in/in conjunction/nn with/in the/at field/nn inquiries/nns ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, it/pps may/md be/be possible/jj to/to estimate/vb the/at error/nn due/jj to/in bias/nn in/in method/nn (/( as/cs distinguished/vbn from/in sampling/vbg error/nn )/) in/in each/dt of/in these/dts sources/nns ,/, on/in such/jj subjects/nns as/cs fertility/nn ,/, mortality/nn ,/, and/cc migration/nn during/in a/at given/vbn interval/nn by/in using/vbg information/nn from/in two/cd largely/ql independent/jj sources/nns in/in conjunction/nn ./.


	The/at first/od sampling/vbg census/nn in/in the/at Congo/np extended/vbd over/in a/at three-year/jj period/nn ,/, 1955/cd -/in 57/cd ;/. ;/.
the/at results/nns were/bed still/rb being/beg processed/vbn in/in 1959/cd ./.
It/pps is/bez planned/vbn to/to double/vb the/at number/nn of/in teams/nns and/cc to/to make/vb use/nn of/in improved/vbn equipment/nn in/in a/at second/od demographic/jj inquiry/nn in/in 1960/cd ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at inquiry/nn can/md be/be carried/vbn through/rp in/in one/cd year/nn and/cc the/at results/nns published/vbn more/ql expeditiously/rb ./.
It/pps is/bez proposed/vbn that/cs in/in the/at future/nn complete/jj sampling/vbg censuses/nns be/be carried/vbn out/rp at/in five-year/jj intervals/nns ./.


	Reports/nns already/rb issued/vbn on/in the/at sampling/vbg census/nn ,/, 1955/cd -/in 57/cd ,/, in/in various/ap areas/nns run/vb as/cs follows/vbz (/( using/vbg only/rb the/at French/jj and/cc omitting/vbg corresponding/jj Flemish/jj titles/nns )/) ./.


	This/dt report/nn contains/vbz preliminary/jj notes/nns and/cc 35/cd tables/nns ./.


	Other/ap reports/nns in/in identical/jj form/nn ,/, but/cc with/in somewhat/ql varying/jj content/nn ,/, have/hv been/ben issued/vbn ./.


	These/dts area/nn reports/nns will/md be/be followed/vbn ,/, according/in to/in present/jj plans/nns ,/, by/in a/at summary/nn report/nn ,/, which/wdt will/md include/vb a/at detailed/vbn statement/nn on/in methods/nns ./.



	With/in this/dt evidence/nn in/in mind/nn ,/, the/at writer/nn began/vbd to/to plan/vb how/wrb he/pps might/md more/ql effectively/rb educate/vb the/at married/vbn students/nns in/in his/pp$ functional/jj classes/nns ./.
Toward/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at semester's/nn$ work/nn ,/, he/pps interviewed/vbd every/at married/vbn class/nn member/nn at/in great/jj length/nn ./.
He/pps found/vbd ,/, as/cs he/pps had/hvd suspected/vbn ,/, a/at general/jj consensus/nn that/cs perhaps/rb over/rp half/abn of/in the/at present/jj functionally/rb designed/vbn course/nn was/bedz not/* really/ql functional/jj for/in these/dts students/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, all/abn admitted/vbd that/cs the/at ``/`` hindsight/nn ''/'' was/bedz not/* altogether/rb lost/vbn ./.
In/in their/pp$ own/jj words/nns ,/, it/pps had/hvd aided/vbn them/ppo to/to get/vb a/at clearer/jjr picture/nn of/in how/wrb they/ppss had/hvd gotten/vbn into/in their/pp$ marriages/nns ,/, and/cc perhaps/rb they/ppss had/hvd obtained/vbn some/dti insights/nns on/in why/wrb certain/ap troubles/nns appeared/vbd from/in time/nn to/in time/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, they/ppss went/vbd so/ql far/rb as/cs to/to caution/vb the/at writer/nn that/cs if/cs he/pps attempted/vbd to/to design/vb a/at section/nn exclusively/rb for/in married/vbn students/nns there/ex should/md be/be ,/, at/in the/at beginning/nn ,/, some/dti ``/`` hindsight/nn ''/'' study/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc they/ppss all/abn hastened/vbd to/to add/vb that/cs certainly/rb less/ap time/nn was/bedz needed/vbn on/in it/ppo than/cs presently/rb spent/vbn ./.
All/abn of/in them/ppo felt/vbd a/at compelling/jj need/nn for/in more/ap coverage/nn on/in areas/nns that/wps could/md be/be only/rb lightly/rb touched/vbn upon/in in/in a/at general/jj survey/nn functional/jj course/nn ./.


	A/at few/ap were/bed doubtful/jj about/in the/at merits/nns of/in an/at exclusive/jj section/nn for/in married/vbn students/nns ./.
As/cs one/cd of/in them/ppo expressed/vbn it/ppo ,/, ``/`` It/pps has/hvz done/vbn me/ppo a/at world/nn of/in good/jj to/to listen/vb to/in the/at naive/jj questions/nns and/cc comments/nns of/in these/dts not-yet-married/jj people/nns ./.
I/ppss can/md now/rb better/rbr see/vb just/rb what/wdt processes/nns provoked/vbd certain/ap actions/nns from/in me/ppo in/in the/at past/nn ./.
Had/hvd I/ppss been/ben in/in an/at all-married/jj section/nn I/ppss would/md have/hv missed/vbn this/dt ,/, and/cc I/ppss believe/vb that/cs this/dt single/ap aspect/nn has/hvz been/ben of/in great/jj personal/jj value/nn to/in me/ppo ''/'' ./.
This/dt comment/nn and/cc others/nns similar/jj to/in it/ppo ,/, would/md seem/vb to/to indicate/vb a/at possible/jj justification/nn for/in continuing/vbg the/at status/nn quo/fw-wdt ./.
But/cc the/at weight/nn of/in feeling/vbg was/bedz heavily/rb in/in the/at opposite/jj direction/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at writer/nn decided/vbd to/to hold/vb one/cd experimental/jj section/nn of/in the/at functional/jj preparation/nn for/in marriage/nn course/nn in/in the/at spring/nn semester/nn of/in 1960/cd exclusively/rb for/in persons/nns already/rb married/vbn --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, prerequisite/nn :/: ``/`` marriage/nn ''/'' ./.
This/dt did/dod not/* mean/vb that/cs married/vbn students/nns could/md not/* enroll/vb in/in other/ap ``/`` mixed/vbn ''/'' sections/nns ,/, and/cc some/dti of/in them/ppo ,/, largely/rb because/rb of/in scheduling/vbg difficulties/nns ,/, did/dod ./.
But/cc only/rb those/dts already/rb married/vbn could/md enroll/vb in/in this/dt one/cd section/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, two/cd other/ap differences/nns in/in the/at two/cd types/nns of/in sections/nns must/md be/be noted/vbn ./.
(/( 1/cd )/) The/at regular/jj sections/nns do/do not/* allow/vb freshmen/nns ;/. ;/.
this/dt one/cd did/dod ./.
This/dt action/nn was/bedz rationalized/vbn on/in the/at basis/nn of/in a/at small/jj survey/nn which/wdt indicated/vbd that/cs a/at high/jj percentage/nn of/in married/vbn freshmen/nns women/nns on/in our/pp$ campus/nn never/rb become/vb sophomores/nns ./.
Many/ap of/in them/ppo appear/vb to/to drop/vb out/rp ,/, for/in one/cd reason/nn or/cc another/dt ./.
By/in permitting/vbg freshman/nn students/nns we/ppss might/md extend/vb the/at opportunity/nn for/in such/abl a/at course/nn to/in some/dti individuals/nns who/wps otherwise/rb might/md never/rb get/vb to/to take/vb it/ppo ./.
This/dt has/hvz subsequently/rb been/ben verified/vbn by/in the/at experience/nn ./.
(/( 2/cd )/) Auditors/nns were/bed encouraged/vbn ./.
In/in the/at regular/jj sections/nns they/ppss have/hv always/rb been/ben more/ql or/cc less/ql discouraged/vbn ./.
The/at philosophy/nn has/hvz been/ben that/cs if/cs they/ppss could/md find/vb the/at time/nn to/to attend/vb class/nn why/wrb not/* encourage/vb them/ppo to/to get/vb the/at credit/nn and/cc perhaps/rb provide/vb an/at incentive/nn to/to do/do the/at work/nn more/ql effectively/rb ./.
Besides/rb ,/, auditors/nns do/do not/* count/vb on/in faculty/nn load/nn with/in the/at same/ap weight/nn as/cs regularly/rb enrolled/vbn students/nns ./.
But/cc in/in this/dt one/cd section/nn we/ppss welcomed/vbd auditors/nns ./.
Why/wrb ?/. ?/.
For/in no/at particular/jj reason/nn ,/, other/ap than/cs that/cs the/at writer/nn felt/vbd it/ppo might/md --/-- just/rb might/md --/-- encourage/vb both/abx mates/nns to/to be/be in/in attendance/nn ./.
Many/ap of/in the/at men/nns on/in our/pp$ campus/nn have/hv a/at pretty/ql set/vbn curriculum/nn ,/, especially/rb in/in the/at various/ap engineering/vbg fields/nns ,/, with/in few/ap electives/nns till/in the/at senior/jj year/nn ./.
Incidentally/rb ,/, it/pps needs/vbz to/to be/be noted/vbn that/cs because/cs auditors/nns were/bed permitted/vbn the/at section/nn began/vbd increasing/vbg in/in numbers/nns each/dt week/nn ,/, until/cs at/in last/ap it/pps swelled/vbd to/in such/jj proportions/nns that/cs this/dt ``/`` free/jj ''/'' auditing/vbg policy/nn had/hvd to/to be/be retracted/vbn ./.
After/in that/dt ,/, we/ppss began/vbd to/to get/vb ``/`` visitors/nns ''/'' to/in class/nn ./.


	This/dt experimental/jj class/nn represented/vbd quite/abl a/at variety/nn of/in students/nns ./.
It/pps ranged/vbd from/in a/at freshman/nn woman/nn ,/, just/rb married/vbn ,/, through/in the/at various/ap academic/jj growth/nn stages/nns ,/, including/in one/cd senior-graduate/jj student/nn ,/, to/in a/at young/jj faculty/nn member/nn recently/rb married/vbn to/in a/at senior/jj man/nn who/wps also/rb attended/vbd ./.
It/pps ranged/vbd from/in those/dts with/in no/at children/nns ,/, through/in students/nns in/in various/ap stages/nns of/in pregnancy/nn ,/, to/in one/cd 44-year-old/jj male/nn with/in four/cd children/nns ,/, three/cd of/in whom/wpo were/bed teenagers/nns ./.
It/pps ranged/vbd from/in two/cd women/nns members/nns who/wps had/hvd experienced/vbn premarital/jj pregnancy/nn to/in one/cd couple/nn twelve/cd years/nns married/vbn and/cc seemingly/rb unable/jj to/to conceive/vb ./.


	One/pn might/md digress/vb at/in this/dt point/nn and/cc speculate/vb that/cs if/cs it/pps is/bez ``/`` wise/jj ''/'' to/to create/vb special/jj sections/nns for/in special/jj status/nn ,/, then/rb why/wrb not/* a/at special/jj section/nn for/in women/nns pregnant/jj before/in marriage/nn ,/, and/cc one/cd for/in 44-year-old/jj men/nns with/in teenage/jj children/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ./.
Some/dti of/in these/dts speculations/nns may/md have/hv some/dti merit/nn ,/, others/nns are/ber somewhat/ql ambiguous/jj ./.
But/cc few/ap who/wps have/hv experienced/vbn marriage/nn can/md dispute/vb the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at focus/nn of/in interpersonal/jj relationships/nns is/bez different/jj in/in marriage/nn than/cs in/in a/at pre-marital/jj situation/nn ./.


	The/at writer/nn began/vbd this/dt special/jj class/nn by/in explaining/vbg his/pp$ background/nn thinking/nn for/in creating/vbg such/abl a/at section/nn in/in the/at first/od place/nn ./.
He/pps made/vbd it/ppo clear/jj from/in the/at beginning/nn that/cs this/dt was/bedz the/at students'/nns$ opportunity/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at future/jj destiny/nn of/in such/jj groups/nns depended/vbd on/in favorable/jj results/nns from/in this/dt one/cd ./.
He/pps did/dod build/vb a/at framework/nn of/in academic/jj ``/`` respectability/nn ''/'' ,/, and/cc one/cd which/wdt did/dod not/* encroach/vb upon/in the/at ``/`` sacred/jj sovereignty/nn ''/'' of/in any/dti other/ap existing/vbg campus/nn course/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez to/to say/vb that/cs this/dt was/bedz not/* a/at course/nn in/in wise/jj buying/nn or/cc money/nn spending/nn methods/nns ,/, nor/cc a/at course/nn in/in how/wrb to/to raise/vb children/nns ./.
We/ppss already/rb have/hv courses/nns covering/vbg those/dts problems/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ./.
But/cc within/in that/dt framework/nn he/pps allowed/vbd for/in as/ql much/ap flexibility/nn as/cs possible/jj ./.
A/at steering/vbg committee/nn of/in students/nns was/bedz organized/vbn on/in the/at first/od day/nn whose/wp$ duty/nn it/pps was/bedz to/to be/be alert/jj and/cc constantly/rb evaluate/vb and/cc re-evaluate/vb the/at direction/nn and/cc pace/nn the/at class/nn was/bedz taking/vbg ./.
The/at writer/nn ,/, being/beg cognizant/jj through/in his/pp$ interviews/nns of/in the/at reactions/nns of/in previous/jj married/vbn students/nns ,/, did/dod insist/vb on/in there/ex being/beg included/vbn some/dti ``/`` hindsight/nn ''/'' material/nn ./.
But/cc the/at greater/jjr part/nn of/in semester/nn time/nn was/bedz actually/rb centered/vbn around/in the/at attitudes/nns :/: ``/`` So/rb we/ppss are/ber married/vbn --/-- now/rb how/wrb do/do we/ppss make/vb the/at best/jjt of/in it/ppo ''/'' ?/. ?/.
Or/cc ``/`` How/wrb do/do we/ppss enrich/vb our/pp$ already/rb fine/jj marriage/nn ''/'' ?/. ?/.


	Films/nns were/bed used/vbn ,/, as/cs with/in all/abn sections/nns ,/, but/cc with/in one/cd big/jj difference/nn ./.
Our/pp$ campus/nn ,/, unfortunately/rb ,/, owns/vbz no/at films/nns ./.
Since/cs they/ppss are/ber all/abn either/cc rented/vbn or/cc borrowed/vbn ,/, the/at requested/vbn dates/nns for/in their/pp$ use/nn have/hv to/to be/be far/rb in/in advance/nn ./.
The/at writer/nn never/rb knew/vbd from/in week/nn to/in week/nn just/rb where/wrb the/at section/nn might/md be/be ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at steering/vbg committee/nn might/md announce/vb that/cs the/at group/nn felt/vbd a/at topic/nn under/in study/nn should/md not/* be/be dropped/vbn for/in an/at additional/jj week/nn as/cs there/ex was/bedz still/rb too/ql much/ap of/in it/ppo untouched/jj ./.
Since/cs the/at writer/nn had/hvd established/vbn this/dt democratic/jj procedure/nn in/in the/at beginning/nn he/pps had/hvd to/to go/vb along/rb with/in their/pp$ decision/nn --/-- after/cs ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, pointing/vbg out/rp whether/cs he/pps thought/vbd their/pp$ decision/nn was/bedz a/at wise/jj or/cc an/at unwise/jj one/cd ./.
Thus/rb the/at films/nns seen/vbn as/cs they/ppss came/vbd in/rp (/( coordinated/vbn for/in the/at regular/jj sections/nns )/) ,/, were/bed often/rb out/rp of/in context/nn ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, the/at writer/nn has/hvz never/rb experienced/vbn such/jj spontaneity/nn of/in discussion/nn after/in film/nn showings/nns ./.


	Though/cs it/pps did/dod not/* become/vb known/vbn to/in the/at writer/nn for/in some/dti time/nn ,/, a/at nucleus/nn group/nn had/hvd sprung/vbn up/rp within/in the/at class/nn ./.
They/ppss began/vbd to/to meet/vb in/in the/at evenings/nns and/cc carry/vb forward/rb various/ap discussions/nns they/ppss felt/vbd not/* fully/rb enough/qlp covered/vbn in/in class/nn ./.
From/in a/at few/ap students/nns this/dt group/nn gradually/rb increased/vbd to/to include/vb over/rp three-fourths/nns of/in those/dts officially/rb enrolled/vbn in/in the/at class/nn ,/, and/cc many/ap outsiders/nns as/ql well/rb ./.
Also/rb ,/, although/cs only/rb a/at few/ap of/in the/at students/nns were/bed intimately/rb acquainted/vbn with/in each/dt other/ap in/in the/at beginning/nn ,/, most/ap reported/vbd that/cs when/wrb the/at semester/nn ended/vbd their/pp$ dearest/jjt and/cc closest/jjt campus/nn friendships/nns were/bed with/in members/nns of/in that/dt class/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, they/ppss often/rb revamped/vbd their/pp$ social/jj activities/nns to/to include/vb class/nn members/nns previously/rb unknown/jj ./.


	Supplemental/jj outside/jj reading/vbg reports/nns were/bed handled/vbn just/rb as/cs in/in the/at other/ap sections/nns ,/, the/at major/jj difference/nn being/beg that/cs there/ex was/bedz a/at noticeably/rb deeper/jjr level/nn in/in the/at reported/vbn outside/jj reading/nn by/in the/at married/vbn group/nn ./.
These/dts students/nns ,/, although/cs they/ppss might/md read/vb various/ap articles/nns in/in popular/jj magazines/nns ,/, more/ql often/rb chose/vbd to/to report/vb on/in articles/nns found/vbn in/in the/at journals/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in the/at noticeable/jj difference/nn in/in outside/jj articles/nns ,/, there/ex was/bedz a/at considerable/jj difference/nn in/in the/at outside/jj books/nns they/ppss read/vbd ./.
Whereas/cs a/at high/jj percentage/nn of/in the/at regular/jj students/nns can/md be/be expected/vbn to/to read/vb other/ap texts/nns which/wdt more/rbr or/cc less/rbr plow/vb the/at same/ap ground/nn in/in a/at little/ql different/jj direction/nn ,/, the/at married/vbn students/nns chose/vbd whole/jj books/nns on/in specific/jj areas/nns and/cc went/vbd into/in much/ql greater/jjr detail/nn in/in their/pp$ areas/nns of/in interest/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at writer/nn had/hvd not/* noticed/vbn this/dt characteristic/nn in/in married/vbn students/nns scattered/vbn throughout/in the/at various/ap sections/nns previous/rb to/in this/dt experiment/nn ,/, nor/cc ,/, as/cs a/at matter/nn of/in fact/nn ,/, in/in those/dts who/wps were/bed continuing/vbg in/in ``/`` single/ap sections/nns ''/'' ,/, he/pps can/md only/rb conclude/vb that/cs there/ex must/md have/hv been/ben something/pn ``/`` contagious/jj ''/'' within/in the/at specific/jj group/nn which/wdt caused/vbd this/dt to/to occur/vb ./.


	In/in the/at main/jjs ,/, this/dt course/nn took/vbd the/at following/vbg directional/jj high/jj roads/nns ./.
(/( 1/cd )/) A/at great/jj deal/nn of/in time/nn was/bedz spent/vbn on/in processes/nns for/in solving/vbg marital/jj differences/nns ./.
This/dt was/bedz not/* a/at search/nn for/in a/at ``/`` magic/jj formula/nn ''/'' ,/, but/cc rather/rb an/at examination/nn of/in basic/jj principles/nns pertaining/vbg especially/rb to/in all/abn types/nns of/in communication/nn in/in marriage/nn ./.
In/in short/jj ,/, it/pps was/bedz centered/vbn around/in learning/vbg how/wrb to/to develop/vb a/at more/ql sensitive/jj empathy/nn ./.
Not/* until/cs the/at group/nn was/bedz satisfied/vbn in/in this/dt area/nn were/bed they/ppss willing/jj to/to venture/vb further/rbr to/in (/( 2/cd )/) ,/, Specific/jj adjustment/nn areas/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs sex/nn ,/, in-laws/nns ,/, religion/nn ,/, finance/nn ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ./.
From/in here/rb they/ppss proceeded/vbd to/in (/( 3/cd )/) These/dts same/ap areas/nns in/in relation/nn to/in their/pp$ own/jj future/jj family/nn life/nn stages/nns ,/, developing/vbg these/dts to/in the/at extent/nn of/in examining/vbg various/ap crises/nns which/wdt could/md be/be expected/vbn to/to confront/vb them/ppo at/in some/dti time/nn or/cc other/ap ./.


	As/cs an/at example/nn of/in this/dt last/ap facet/nn ,/, there/ex were/bed some/dti lengthy/jj discussions/nns centered/vbn around/in bereavement/nn ./.
Mainly/rb these/dts were/bed concerned/vbn with/in the/at possibility/nn of/in the/at death/nn of/in one/cd parent/nn and/cc the/at complication/nn of/in living/vbg with/in the/at survivor/nn afterward/rb ,/, but/cc the/at possible/jj death/nn of/in one's/pn$ own/jj spouse/nn was/bedz not/* overlooked/vbn ./.
Since/in the/at course/nn ,/, one/cd member/nn has/hvz lost/vbn her/pp$ husband/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz not/* a/at particularly/ql shocking/jj or/cc unexpected/jj thing/nn --/-- it/pps was/bedz previously/rb known/vbn to/in her/ppo that/cs it/pps might/md happen/vb ./.
But/cc just/rb when/wrb was/bedz an/at unknown/nn ,/, and/cc of/in course/nn the/at longer/jjr it/pps did/dod not/* happen/vb ,/, the/at stronger/jjr her/pp$ wish/nn and/cc belief/nn that/cs it/pps might/md not/* ./.
Since/in her/pp$ bereavement/nn this/dt individual/nn has/hvz reported/vbn to/in the/at writer/nn on/in numerous/jj occasions/nns about/in how/wql helpful/jj the/at class/nn discussions/nns were/bed to/in her/ppo in/in this/dt adjustment/nn crisis/nn ./.


	Quite/ql frequently/rb class/nn members/nns brought/vbd questions/nns from/in their/pp$ mates/nns at/in home/nn ./.
These/dts were/bed often/rb carefully/rb written/vbn out/rp with/in a/at great/jj deal/nn of/in thought/nn behind/in them/ppo ./.
This/dt added/vbd a/at personal/jj zest/nn to/in class/nn discussions/nns and/cc participation/nn ./.


	Both/abx sexes/nns reported/vbd that/cs the/at discussions/nns on/in sex/nn adjustment/nn within/in marriage/nn were/bed extremely/ql enlightening/jj ./.
The/at writer/nn sensed/vbd a/at much/ql freer/jjr and/cc more/ql frank/jj discussion/nn ,/, especially/rb of/in this/dt one/cd area/nn ,/, than/cs ever/rb before/rb ./.
He/pps felt/vbd certain/jj for/in the/at first/od time/nn in/in his/pp$ teaching/vbg experience/nn that/cs the/at men/nns in/in the/at class/nn understood/vbd that/cs orgasm/nn ,/, as/cs a/at criterion/nn ,/, is/bez not/* nearly/rb so/ql essential/jj for/in a/at satisfying/vbg female/jj sexual/jj experience/nn as/cs most/ap males/nns might/md think/vb ./.
This/dt was/bedz probably/rb much/ql more/ql meaningful/jj because/cs all/abn the/at women/nns in/in the/at class/nn emphasized/vbd it/ppo time/nn and/cc again/rb ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, the/at women/nns class/vb members/nns appeared/vbd to/to reach/vb a/at far/ql greater/jjr understanding/nn than/cs have/hv women/nns members/nns in/in other/ap sections/nns that/cs it/pps is/bez more/ql natural/jj for/cs males/nns as/cs a/at group/nn to/to view/vb sex/nn as/cs sex/nn rather/rb than/cs always/rb associating/vbg it/ppo with/in love/nn as/cs most/ap women/nns seem/vb to/to do/do ./.


	In/in the/at reproductive/jj area/nn it/pps could/md be/be readily/rb observed/vbn that/cs all/abn felt/vbd freer/jjr to/to discuss/vb things/nns than/cs students/nns had/hvd previously/rb in/in ``/`` mixed/vbn ''/'' marital/jj status/nn sections/nns ./.
Perhaps/rb this/dt was/bedz related/vbn to/in the/at fact/nn that/cs all/abn were/bed in/rp on/in it/ppo to/in some/dti extent/nn ./.
Never/rb in/in other/ap sections/nns has/hvz there/ex been/ben the/at opportunity/nn for/in the/at genuine/jj down-to-earth/jj discussions/nns about/in the/at feelings/nns of/in both/abx spouses/nns during/in various/jj stages/nns of/in pregnancy/nn ./.
There/ex was/bedz a/at particularly/ql marvelous/jj opportunity/nn for/in study/nn in/in this/dt area/nn since/cs almost/rb every/at stage/nn of/in pregnancy/nn was/bedz represented/vbn ,/, from/in a/at childless/jj couple/nn to/in and/cc including/in every/at trimester/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, we/ppss had/hvd one/cd birth/nn before/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at course/nn ,/, and/cc another/dt student/nn had/hvd to/to take/vb the/at final/jj examiantion/nn a/at week/nn early/rb ,/, just/rb to/to be/be on/in the/at safe/jj side/nn ./.
There/ex was/bedz also/rb one/cd spontaneous/jj abortion/nn during/in the/at semester/nn ./.

Thus/rb it/pps is/bez reasonable/jj to/to believe/vb that/cs there/ex is/bez a/at significant/jj difference/nn between/in the/at two/cd groups/nns in/in their/pp$ performance/nn on/in this/dt task/nn after/in a/at brief/jj ``/`` structuring/vbg ''/'' experience/nn ./.


	It/pps was/bedz predicted/vbn that/cs Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns would/md adhere/vb to/in more/ql liberal/jj ,/, concretistic/jj reports/nns of/in what/wdt the/at ambiguous/jj figure/nn ``/`` looked/vbd like/cs ''/'' as/cs reflecting/vbg their/pp$ hesitancy/nn about/in taking/vbg chances/nns ./.
This/dt was/bedz true/jj mostly/rb of/in those/dts Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns who/wps did/dod not/* perceive/vb the/at ambiguous/jj figure/nn as/cs people/nns in/in action/nn ./.
Responses/nns such/jj as/cs ``/`` rope/nn with/in a/at loop/nn in/in it/ppo ''/'' ,/, and/cc ``/`` two/cd pieces/nns of/in rope/nn ''/'' ,/, were/bed quite/ql characteristic/jj ./.
Guilford-Martin/np-hl personality/nn-hl inventories/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at three/cd personality/nn inventories/nns (/( Guilford/np ;/. ;/.
Guilford-Martin/np ;/. ;/.
Guilford-Martin/np )/) were/bed filled/vbn out/rp by/in 12/cd of/in the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns and/cc 19/cd of/in the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns ./.
These/dts were/bed the/at same/ap subjects/nns who/wps were/bed given/vbn the/at Rorschach/np test/nn ./.
Some/dti predictions/nns had/hvd been/ben made/vbn concerning/in factors/nns R/nn ,/, N/nn ,/, I/nn and/cc Co/nn on/in these/dts inventories/nns which/wdt appeared/vbd to/to be/be directly/rb related/vbn to/in control/nn and/cc security/nn aspects/nns of/in personality/nn functioning/nn which/wdt were/bed hypothesized/vbn as/cs being/beg of/in importance/nn in/in differential/jj Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn ./.


	Only/rb Co/nn differentiated/vbd between/in the/at two/cd groups/nns at/in less/ap than/cs the/at 5%/nn level/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ./.


	One/cd prediction/nn had/hvd been/ben made/vbn about/in the/at difference/nn in/in security/nn or/cc self-confidence/nn between/in those/dts subjects/nns who/wps shifted/vbd their/pp$ Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn when/wrb informed/vbn and/cc those/dts who/wps did/dod not/* ./.
The/at nonreactors/nns had/hvd been/ben separated/vbn into/in two/cd groups/nns on/in this/dt assumption/nn with/in the/at presumably/rb ``/`` secure/jj ''/'' nonreactors/nns and/cc ``/`` secure/jj ''/'' reactors/nns being/beg used/vbn as/cs the/at groups/nns for/in comparative/jj personality/nn studies/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz predicted/vbn that/cs those/dts who/wps shifted/vbd in/in their/pp$ Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn would/md differ/vb significantly/rb from/in those/dts who/wps did/dod not/* on/in the/at factor/nn I/nn which/wdt the/at investigators/nns refer/vb to/in as/cs the/at ``/`` Inferiority/nn-tl ''/'' factor/nn ./.
All/abn of/in the/at subjects/nns in/in the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj and/cc Kohnstamm-positive/jj groups/nns (/( as/cs defined/vbn for/in purposes/nns of/in the/at personality/nn studies/nns )/) were/bed compared/vbn with/in those/dts subjects/nns who/wps shifted/vbd in/in Conditions/nns-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, or/cc 4/cd-tl ./.
A/at t/nn test/nn on/in these/dts two/cd groups/nns ,/, shifters/nns vs./in nonshifters/nns ,/, gave/vbd a/at ``/`` t/nn ''/'' value/nn of/in 2.405/cd which/wdt is/bez significant/jj on/in the/at two-tail/jj test/nn at/in the/at 


level/nn ./.



Discussion/nn 
individual/jj-hl differences/nns-hl 
Individual/jj differences/nns in/in Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn to/in controlled/vbn Kohnstamm/np situations/nns were/bed found/vbn among/in the/at subjects/nns used/vbn in/in the/at study/nn ./.
Only/rb 27%/nn (/( 11/cd subjects/nns )/) gave/vbd a/at positive/jj Kohnstamm/np reaction/nn when/wrb completely/ql naive/jj concerning/in the/at phenomenon/nn ./.
There/ex were/bed 49%/nn (/( 20/cd subjects/nns )/) who/wps did/dod not/* give/vb a/at positive/jj reaction/nn even/rb after/cs they/ppss were/bed informed/vbn of/in the/at normalcy/nn of/in such/abl a/at reaction/nn and/cc had/hvd been/ben given/vbn a/at demonstration/nn ./.
There/ex were/bed 24%/nn (/( 10/cd subjects/nns )/) who/wps shifted/vbd from/in a/at negative/jj to/in a/at positive/jj reaction/nn after/cs they/ppss were/bed reassured/vbn as/in to/in the/at normalcy/nn of/in the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj reaction/nn ./.


	Among/in this/dt latter/ap group/nn there/ex were/bed also/rb differences/nns in/in the/at amount/nn and/cc kind/nn of/in information/nn necessary/jj before/cs a/at shift/nn in/in reaction/nn occurred/vbd ./.
One/cd subject/nn changed/vbd when/wrb given/vbn only/rb the/at information/nn that/cs some/dti people/nns have/hv something/pn happen/vb to/in their/pp$ arm/nn when/wrb they/ppss relax/vb ./.
Five/cd subjects/nns (/( 12%/nn )/) did/dod not/* change/vb until/cs they/ppss had/hvd been/ben told/vbn that/cs some/dti people/nns have/hv something/pn happen/vb to/in their/pp$ arm/nn ,/, what/wdt that/dt something/pn was/bedz ,/, and/cc also/rb were/bed given/vbn a/at demonstration/nn ./.
Four/cd subjects/nns (/( 10%/nn )/) did/dod not/* change/vb even/rb then/rb but/cc needed/vbd the/at additional/jj information/nn that/cs an/at arm-elevation/nn under/in these/dts circumstances/nns was/bedz a/at perfectly/ql normal/jj reflex/nn reaction/nn which/wdt some/dti people/nns showed/vbd while/cs others/nns did/dod not/* ./.
At/in no/at time/nn was/bedz it/pps implied/vbn by/in the/at experimenter/nn that/cs the/at subject's/nn$ initial/jj reaction/nn was/bedz deviant/jj ./.
The/at subjects/nns were/bed only/rb given/vbn information/nn about/in other/ap possibilities/nns of/in ``/`` normal/jj ''/'' reaction/nn ./.
Those/dts who/wps responded/vbd with/in an/at arm-elevation/nn in/in the/at naive/jj state/nn did/dod not/* change/vb their/pp$ reaction/nn when/wrb told/vbn that/cs there/ex were/bed some/dti normal/jj people/nns who/wps did/dod not/* react/vb in/in this/dt fashion/nn ./.
This/dt information/nn was/bedz accepted/vbn with/in the/at frequent/jj interpretation/nn that/cs those/dts persons/nns who/wps did/dod not/* show/vb arm-levitation/nn must/md be/be preventing/vbg it/ppo ./.
These/dts subjects/nns implied/vbd that/cs they/ppss too/rb could/md prevent/vb their/pp$ arms/nns from/in rising/vbg if/cs they/ppss tried/vbd ./.


	The/at positive/jj Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn in/in Condition/nn-tl 1/cd-tl (/( (/( the/at naive/jj state/nn )/) is/bez not/* adequately/rb explained/vbn by/in such/abl a/at concept/nn as/cs suggestibility/nn (/( if/cs suggestibility/nn is/bez defined/vbn as/cs the/at influence/nn on/in behavior/nn by/in verbal/jj cues/nns )/) ./.
In/in no/at way/nn ,/, either/cc verbally/rb or/cc behaviorally/rb ,/, did/dod the/at experimenter/nn indicate/vb to/in the/at subjects/nns any/dti preferred/vbn mode/nn of/in responding/vbg to/in the/at voluntary/jj contraction/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, when/wrb the/at experimenter/nn did/dod inform/vb those/dts subjects/nns that/cs there/ex were/bed some/dti normal/jj people/nns who/wps did/dod not/* have/hv their/pp$ arm/nn rise/vb once/cs they/ppss relaxed/vbd ,/, the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns were/bed uninfluenced/jj in/in their/pp$ subsequent/jj reactions/nns to/in the/at Kohnstamm/np situation/nn ./.
They/ppss continued/vbd to/to give/vb an/at arm-elevation/nn ./.
A/at differential/jj suggestibility/nn would/md have/hv to/to be/be invoked/vbn to/to explain/vb the/at failure/nn of/in this/dt additional/jj information/nn to/to influence/vb the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj reactors/nns and/cc yet/rb attribute/vb their/pp$ naive/jj Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn to/in suggestion/nn ./.
Autosuggestibility/nn ,/, the/at reaction/nn of/in the/at subject/nn in/in such/abl a/at way/nn as/cs to/to conform/vb to/in his/pp$ own/jj expectations/nns of/in the/at outcome/nn (/( i.e./rb ,/, that/cs the/at arm-rise/nn is/bez a/at reaction/nn to/in the/at pressure/nn exerted/vbn in/in the/at voluntary/jj contraction/nn ,/, because/rb of/in his/pp$ knowledge/nn that/cs ``/`` to/in every/at reaction/nn there/ex is/bez an/at equal/jj and/cc opposite/jj reaction/nn ''/'' )/) also/rb seems/vbz inadequate/jj as/cs an/at explanation/nn for/in the/at following/vbg reasons/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) the/at subjects'/nns$ apparently/ql genuine/jj experience/nn of/in surprise/nn when/wrb their/pp$ arms/nns rose/vbd ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) manifestations/nns of/in the/at phenomenon/nn despite/in anticipations/nns of/in something/pn else/rb happening/vbg (/( e.g./rb ,/, of/in becoming/vbg dizzy/jj and/cc maybe/rb falling/vbg ,/, an/at expectation/nn spontaneously/rb volunteered/vbn by/in one/cd of/in the/at subjects/nns )/) ./.


	A/at suggestion/nn Hypothesis/nn-tl also/rb seems/vbz inadequate/jj as/cs an/at explanation/nn for/in those/dts who/wps shifted/vbd their/pp$ reactions/nns after/cs they/ppss were/bed informed/vbn of/in the/at possibilities/nns of/in ``/`` normal/jj ''/'' reactions/nns different/jj from/in those/dts which/wdt they/ppss gave/vbd ./.
While/cs they/ppss were/bed told/vbn that/cs there/ex were/bed some/dti normal/jj people/nns who/wps reacted/vbd differently/rb than/cs they/ppss had/hvd ,/, they/ppss were/bed also/rb informed/vbn that/cs there/ex were/bed other/ap normals/nns who/wps reacted/vbd as/cs they/ppss had/hvd ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at implication/nn made/vbn that/cs their/pp$ initial/jj reaction/nn (/( absence/nn of/in an/at arm-elevation/nn )/) was/bedz less/ql preferred/vbn than/cs the/at presence/nn of/in levitation/nn ./.
A/at more/ql tenable/jj explanation/nn for/in the/at change/nn in/in reactions/nns is/bez that/cs the/at added/vbn knowledge/nn and/cc increased/vbn familiarity/nn with/in the/at total/nn situation/nn made/vbd it/ppo possible/jj for/cs these/dts subjects/nns to/to be/be less/ql guarded/vbn and/cc to/to relax/vb ,/, since/cs any/dti reaction/nn seemed/vbd acceptable/jj to/in the/at examiner/nn as/cs ``/`` normal/jj ''/'' ./.


	The/at naive/jj state/nn ,/, Condition/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, ,/, could/md therefore/rb be/be viewed/vbn as/cs an/at inhibiting/vbg one/cd for/in 24%/nn of/in the/at subjects/nns in/in this/dt study/nn ./.
They/ppss were/bed not/* free/jj to/to be/be themselves/ppls in/in this/dt situation/nn ,/, an/at interpersonal/jj one/cd ,/, where/wrb there/ex was/bedz an/at observer/nn of/in their/pp$ reactions/nns and/cc they/ppss had/hvd no/at guide/nn for/in acceptable/jj behavior/nn ./.
Instructions/nns to/to relax/vb ,/, i.e./rb ,/, to/to be/be ``/`` spontaneous/jj ''/'' ,/, and/cc react/vb immediately/rb to/in whatever/wdt impulse/nn they/ppss might/md have/hv ,/, was/bedz not/* sufficiently/ql reassuring/jj until/cs some/dti idea/nn of/in the/at possibilities/nns of/in normal/jj reactions/nns had/hvd been/ben given/vbn ./.
While/cs other/ap conditions/nns might/md be/be even/ql more/ql effective/jj in/in bringing/vbg about/rp a/at change/nn from/in immobility/nn to/in mobility/nn in/in Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez our/pp$ hypothesis/nn that/cs all/abn such/jj conditions/nns would/md have/hv as/cs a/at common/jj factor/nn the/at capacity/nn to/to induce/vb an/at attitude/nn in/in the/at subject/nn which/wdt enabled/vbd him/ppo to/to divorce/vb himself/ppl temporarily/rb from/in feelings/nns of/in responsibility/nn for/in his/pp$ behavior/nn ./.


	Alcohol/nn ingestion/nn succeeded/vbd in/in changing/vbg immobility/nn to/in mobility/nn quite/ql strikingly/rb in/in one/cd pilot/nn subject/nn (/( the/at only/ap one/cd with/in whom/wpo this/dt technique/nn was/bedz tried/vbn )/) ./.
This/dt subject/nn ,/, who/wps has/hvz been/ben undergoing/vbg psychoanalytic/jj psychotherapy/nn for/in five/cd years/nns ,/, did/dod not/* give/vb a/at positive/jj Kohnstamm/np reaction/nn under/in any/dti of/in the/at four/cd standardized/vbn conditions/nns used/vbn in/in this/dt experiment/nn while/cs sober/jj ./.
After/in two/cd drinks/nns containing/vbg alcohol/nn ,/, her/pp$ arm/nn flew/vbd upward/rb very/ql freely/rb ./.
There/ex was/bedz evident/jj delight/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in the/at subject/nn in/in response/nn to/in her/pp$ experience/nn of/in the/at freedom/nn of/in movement/nn ./.
She/pps described/vbd herself/ppl as/cs having/hvg the/at same/ap kind/nn of/in ``/`` irresponsible/jj ''/'' feeling/nn as/cs she/pps had/hvd once/rb experienced/vbn under/in hypnosis/nn ./.
She/pps ascribed/vbd her/pp$ delight/nn with/in both/abx experiences/nns to/in the/at effect/nn they/ppss seemed/vbd to/to have/hv of/in temporarily/rb removing/vbg from/in her/ppo the/at controls/nns which/wdt she/pps felt/vbd so/ql compulsively/rb necessary/jj to/to maintain/vb even/rb when/wrb it/pps might/md seem/vb appropriate/jj to/to relax/vb these/dts controls/nns ./.


	Many/ap subjects/nns attributed/vbd differences/nns in/in Kohnstamm/np reactivity/nn to/in differences/nns in/in degrees/nns of/in subjective/jj control/nn --/-- voluntary/jj as/cs the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns perceived/vbd it/ppo and/cc involuntary/jj as/cs the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns perceived/vbd it/ppo ./.
These/dts suggested/vbn interpretations/nns were/bed given/vbn by/in the/at subjects/nns spontaneously/rb when/wrb they/ppss were/bed told/vbn that/cs there/ex were/bed people/nns who/wps reacted/vbd differently/rb than/cs they/ppss had/hvd ./.
The/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns described/vbd the/at vivid/jj experience/nn of/in having/hvg their/pp$ arms/nns rise/vb as/cs one/cd in/in which/wdt they/ppss exercised/vbd no/at control/nn ./.
They/ppss explained/vbd its/pp$ absence/nn in/in others/nns on/in the/at basis/nn of/in an/at intervention/nn of/in control/nn factors/nns ./.
They/ppss felt/vbd that/cs they/ppss too/rb could/md counteract/vb the/at upward/jj arm/nn movement/nn by/in a/at voluntary/jj effort/nn after/cs they/ppss had/hvd once/rb experienced/vbn the/at reaction/nn ./.
Some/dti of/in those/dts who/wps did/dod not/* initially/rb react/vb with/in an/at arm-elevation/nn also/rb associated/vbd their/pp$ behavior/nn in/in the/at situation/nn with/in control/nn factors/nns --/-- an/at inability/nn to/to relinquish/vb control/nn voluntarily/rb ./.
One/cd subject/nn spontaneously/rb asked/vbd (/( after/cs her/pp$ arm/nn had/hvd finally/rb risen/vbn )/) ,/, ``/`` Do/do you/ppss suppose/vb I/ppss was/bedz unconsciously/rb keeping/vbg it/ppo down/rp before/rb ''/'' ?/. ?/.
Another/dt said/vbd that/cs her/pp$ arm/nn did/dod not/* go/vb up/rp at/in first/rb ``/`` because/cs I/ppss wouldn't/md* let/vb it/ppo ;/. ;/.
I/ppss thought/vbd it/pps wasn't/bedz* supposed/vbn to/to ''/'' ./.
This/dt subject/nn was/bedz one/cd who/wps gave/vbd an/at arm-elevation/nn on/in the/at second/od trial/nn in/in the/at naive/jj state/nn but/cc not/* in/in the/at first/od ./.
She/pps had/hvd felt/vbn that/cs her/pp$ arm/nn wanted/vbd to/to go/vb up/rp in/in the/at first/od trial/nn ,/, but/cc had/hvd consciously/rb prevented/vbn it/ppo from/in so/rb doing/vbg ./.
She/pps explained/vbd nonreactivity/nn of/in others/nns by/in saying/vbg that/cs they/ppss were/bed ``/`` not/* letting/vbg themselves/ppls relax/vb ''/'' ./.
When/wrb informed/vbn that/cs there/ex were/bed some/dti persons/nns who/wps did/dod not/* have/hv their/pp$ arm/nn go/vb up/rp ,/, she/pps commented/vbd ,/, ``/`` I/ppss don't/do* see/vb how/wrb they/ppss can/md prevent/vb it/ppo ''/'' ./.
In/in contrast/nn to/in this/dt voluntary-control/nn explanation/nn for/in nonreactivity/nn given/vbn by/in the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns ,/, the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns offered/vbd an/at involuntary-control/nn hypothesis/nn to/to explain/vb nonreactivity/nn ./.
They/ppss felt/vbd that/cs they/ppss were/bed relaxing/vbg as/ql much/rb as/cs they/ppss could/md and/cc that/cs any/dti control/nn factors/nns which/wdt might/md be/be present/rb to/to prevent/vb response/nn must/md be/be on/in an/at unconscious/jj level/nn ./.


	The/at above/jj discussion/nn does/doz not/* mean/vb to/to imply/vb that/cs control/nn factors/nns were/bed completely/rb in/in abeyance/nn in/in the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns ;/. ;/.
but/cc rather/rb that/cs they/ppss could/md be/be diminished/vbn sufficiently/rb not/* to/to interfere/vb with/in arm-levitation/nn ./.
One/cd Kohnstamm-positive/jj subject/nn who/wps had/hvd both/abx arms/nns rise/vb while/cs being/beg tested/vbn in/in the/at naive/jj condition/nn described/vbd her/pp$ subjective/jj experience/nn as/cs follows/vbz :/: ``/`` You/ppss feel/vb they're/ppss+ber going/vbg up/rp and/cc you're/ppss+ber on/in a/at stage/nn and/cc it's/pps+bez not/* right/jj for/cs them/ppo to/to do/do so/rb and/cc then/rb you/ppss think/vb maybe/rb that's/dt+bez what's/wdt+bez supposed/vbn to/to happen/vb ''/'' ./.
She/pps then/rb described/vbd her/pp$ experience/nn as/cs one/cd in/in which/wdt she/pps first/rb had/hvd difficulty/nn accepting/vbg for/in herself/ppl a/at state/nn of/in being/beg in/in which/wdt she/pps relinquished/vbd control/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, she/pps was/bedz able/jj to/to relax/vb and/cc yield/vb to/in the/at moment/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez our/pp$ hypothesis/nn that/cs Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns are/ber less/ql hesitant/jj about/in relinquishing/vbg control/nn than/cs are/ber Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns ;/. ;/.
that/cs they/ppss can/md give/vb up/rp their/pp$ control/nn and/cc allow/vb themselves/ppls to/to be/be reactors/nns rather/rb than/cs actors/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez our/pp$ belief/nn that/cs this/dt readiness/nn to/to relinquish/vb some/dti control/nn was/bedz evidenced/vbn by/in the/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns in/in some/dti of/in the/at other/ap experimental/jj situations/nns to/to be/be discussed/vbn below/rb ./.
Thus/rb ,/, this/dt readiness/nn to/to relax/vb controls/nns ,/, evidenced/vbn in/in the/at Kohnstamm/np situation/nn ,/, appears/vbz to/to be/be a/at more/ql general/jj personality/nn factor/nn ./.
Aniseikonic/jj-hl illusion/nn-hl 
The/at Kohnstamm-positive/jj subjects/nns seemed/vbd to/to be/be freer/jjr to/to experience/vb the/at unusual/jj and/cc seemingly/rb impossible/jj in/in the/at external/jj world/nn ./.
There/ex was/bedz a/at significantly/ql greater/jjr number/nn in/in this/dt group/nn who/wps reported/vbd a/at desk/nn as/cs being/beg in/in a/at tilted/vbn position/nn while/cs a/at tennis/nn ball/nn resting/vbg on/in it/ppo remained/vbd stationary/jj on/in the/at incline/nn ./.
This/dt occurred/vbd in/in spite/nn of/in the/at rational/jj awareness/nn that/cs the/at ball/nn should/md be/be going/vbg downhill/rb ./.
They/ppss knew/vbd that/cs their/pp$ perceptual/jj experience/nn differed/vbd from/in objective/jj reality/nn since/cs they/ppss had/hvd seen/vbn the/at desk/nn and/cc ball/nn prior/rb to/in putting/vbg on/in the/at aniseikonic/jj lenses/nns ./.
Yet/cc they/ppss were/bed not/* so/ql bound/vbn by/in past/jj experience/nn and/cc constriction/nn as/cs to/to deny/vb their/pp$ immediate/jj perceptions/nns and/cc to/to be/be dominated/vbn by/in their/pp$ knowledge/nn of/in what/wdt the/at experience/nn should/md be/be ./.
The/at change/nn in/in perceptions/nns by/in some/dti of/in the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns ,/, after/cs they/ppss had/hvd been/ben informed/vbn of/in the/at possibilities/nns of/in normal/jj reactions/nns ,/, suggests/vbz that/cs their/pp$ constriction/nn and/cc guardedness/nn is/bez associated/vbn with/in their/pp$ general/jj mode/nn of/in responding/vbg to/in strange/jj or/cc unknown/jj situations/nns ./.
They/ppss were/bed able/jj to/to experience/vb at/in first/rb ,/, in/in terms/nns of/in past/jj conventionality/nn ./.
When/wrb informed/vbn as/in to/in the/at various/jj possibilities/nns of/in normal/jj reactions/nns ,/, they/ppss were/bed then/rb able/jj to/to experience/vb the/at uniqueness/nn of/in the/at present/nn ./.
It/pps might/md be/be postulated/vbn that/cs these/dts subjects/nns are/ber unduly/ql afraid/jj of/in being/beg wrong/jj ;/. ;/.
that/cs they/ppss perceive/vb new/jj internal/jj and/cc environmental/jj situations/nns as/cs ``/`` threatening/jj ''/'' until/cs they/ppss are/ber tested/vbn and/cc proved/vbn otherwise/rb ./.


	While/cs the/at interpretations/nns that/wps have/hv been/ben given/vbn are/ber inferences/nns only/rb ,/, they/ppss gain/vb support/nn from/in such/jj comments/nns as/cs the/at following/nn ,/, which/wdt was/bedz made/vbn by/in one/cd of/in the/at Kohnstamm-negative/jj subjects/nns who/wps did/dod not/* ,/, on/in the/at first/od trial/nn ,/, perceive/vb the/at tilt/nn illusion/nn ./.

Control/nn-hl of/in-hl socioeconomic/jj-hl status/nn-hl 
It/pps would/md have/hv been/ben desirable/jj for/in the/at two/cd communities/nns to/to have/hv differed/vbn only/rb in/in respect/nn to/in the/at variable/jj being/beg investigated/vbn :/: the/at degree/nn of/in structure/nn in/in teaching/vbg method/nn ./.
The/at structured/vbn schools/nns were/bed in/in an/at industrial/jj city/nn ,/, with/in three-family/jj tenement/nn houses/nns typical/jj of/in the/at residential/jj areas/nns ,/, but/cc with/in one/cd rather/ql sizable/jj section/nn of/in middle-class/nn homes/nns ./.
The/at unstructured/jj schools/nns were/bed in/in a/at large/jj suburban/jj community/nn ,/, predominantly/rb middle-/jj to/in upper-middle/jj class/nn ,/, but/cc fringed/vbn by/in an/at industrial/jj area/nn ./.
In/in order/nn to/to equate/vb the/at samples/nns on/in socioeconomic/jj status/nn ,/, we/ppss chose/vbd schools/nns in/in both/abx cities/nns on/in the/at basis/nn of/in socioeconomic/jj status/nn of/in the/at neighborhoods/nns ./.
School/nn principals/nns and/cc guidance/nn workers/nns made/vbd ratings/nns of/in the/at various/jj neighborhoods/nns and/cc the/at research/nn team/nn made/vbd independent/jj observations/nns of/in houses/nns and/cc dwelling/vbg areas/nns ./.
An/at objective/jj scale/nn was/bedz developed/vbn for/in rating/vbg school/nn neighborhoods/nns from/in these/dts data/nns ./.
Equal/jj proportions/nns of/in children/nns in/in each/dt city/nn were/bed drawn/vbn from/in upper-lower/jj and/cc lower-middle/jj class/nn neighborhoods/nns ./.
Subjects/nns-hl 
Individual/jj differences/nns in/in maturation/nn and/cc the/at development/nn of/in readiness/nn for/in learning/vbg to/to read/vb indicate/vb that/cs not/* until/in the/at third/od grade/nn have/hv most/ap children/nns had/hvd ample/jj opportunity/nn to/to demonstrate/vb their/pp$ capacity/nn for/in school/nn achievement/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, third-grade/nn children/nns were/bed chosen/vbn as/cs subjects/nns for/in this/dt study/nn ./.


	For/in purposes/nns of/in sample/nn selection/nn only/rb (/( individual/jj tests/nns were/bed given/vbn later/rbr )/) we/ppss obtained/vbd group/nn test/nn scores/nns of/in reading/vbg achievement/nn and/cc intelligence/nn from/in school/nn records/nns of/in the/at entire/jj third-grade/nn population/nn in/in each/dt school/nn system/nn ./.
The/at subjects/nns for/in this/dt study/nn were/bed randomly/rb selected/vbn from/in stratified/vbn areas/nns of/in the/at distribution/nn ,/, one-third/nn as/cs underachievers/nns ,/, one-third/nn medium/jj ,/, and/cc one-third/nn over-achievers/nns ./.
Children/nns whose/wp$ reading/vbg scores/nns were/bed at/in least/ap one/cd standard/jj deviation/nn below/in the/at regression/nn line/nn of/in each/dt total/nn third-grade/nn school/nn population/nn were/bed considered/vbn under-achievers/nns for/in the/at purposes/nns of/in sample/nn selection/nn ./.
Over-achievers/nns were/bed at/in least/ap one/cd standard/jj deviation/nn above/in the/at regression/nn line/nn in/in their/pp$ school/nn system/nn ./.
The/at final/jj sample/nn was/bedz not/* significantly/ql different/jj from/in a/at normal/jj distribution/nn in/in regard/nn to/in reading/vbg achievement/nn or/cc intelligence/nn test/nn scores/nns ./.
Twenty-four/cd classrooms/nns in/in twelve/cd unstructured/jj schools/nns furnished/vbd 156/cd cases/nns ,/, 87/cd boys/nns and/cc 69/cd girls/nns ./.
Eight/cd classrooms/nns in/in three/cd structured/vbn schools/nns furnished/vbd 72/cd cases/nns ,/, 36/cd boys/nns and/cc 36/cd girls/nns ./.
Administrative/jj restrictions/nns necessitated/vbd the/at smaller/jjr sample/nn size/nn in/in the/at structured/vbn schools/nns ./.


	It/pps was/bedz assumed/vbn that/cs the/at sampling/vbg procedure/nn was/bedz purely/ql random/jj with/in respect/nn to/in the/at personality/nn variables/nns under/in investigation/nn ./.
Rating/vbg-hl scale/nn-hl of/in-hl compulsivity/nn-hl 
An/at interview/nn schedule/nn of/in open-ended/jj questions/nns and/cc a/at multiple-choice/nn questionnaire/nn were/bed prepared/vbn ,/, and/cc one/cd parent/nn of/in each/dt of/in the/at sample/nn children/nns was/bedz seen/vbn in/in the/at home/nn ./.
The/at parent/nn was/bedz asked/vbn to/to describe/vb the/at child's/nn$ typical/jj behavior/nn in/in certain/ap standard/jj situations/nns in/in which/wdt there/ex was/bedz an/at opportunity/nn to/to observe/vb tendencies/nns toward/in perfectionism/nn in/in demands/nns upon/in self/nn and/cc others/nns ,/, irrational/jj conformity/nn to/in rules/nns ,/, orderliness/nn ,/, punctuality/nn ,/, and/cc need/nn for/in certainty/nn ./.
The/at interviewers/nns were/bed instructed/vbn not/* to/to suggest/vb answers/nns and/cc ,/, as/ql much/rb as/cs possible/jj ,/, to/to record/vb the/at parents'/nns$ actual/jj words/nns as/cs they/ppss described/vbd the/at child's/nn$ behavior/nn in/in home/nn situations/nns ./.


	The/at rating/vbg scale/nn of/in compulsivity/nn was/bedz constructed/vbn by/in first/rb perusing/vbg the/at interview/nn records/nns ,/, categorizing/vbg all/abn evidence/nn related/vbn to/in compulsivity/nn ,/, then/rb arranging/vbg a/at distribution/nn of/in such/jj information/nn apart/rb from/in the/at case/nn records/nns ./.
Final/jj ratings/nns were/bed made/vbn on/in the/at basis/nn of/in a/at point/nn system/nn which/wdt was/bedz developed/vbn after/in studying/vbg the/at distributions/nns of/in actual/jj behaviors/nns recorded/vbn and/cc assigning/vbg weight/nn values/nns to/in each/dt type/nn of/in behavior/nn that/wps was/bedz deviant/jj from/in the/at discovered/vbn norms/nns ./.
Children/nns scoring/vbg high/rb in/in compulsivity/nn were/bed those/dts who/wps gave/vbd evidence/nn of/in tension/nn or/cc emotionality/nn in/in situations/nns where/wrb there/ex was/bedz lack/nn of/in organization/nn or/cc conformity/nn to/in standards/nns and/cc expectations/nns ,/, or/cc who/wps made/vbd exaggerated/vbn efforts/nns to/to achieve/vb these/dts goals/nns ./.
The/at low/jj compulsive/jj child/nn was/bedz one/cd who/wps appeared/vbd relatively/ql unconcerned/jj about/in such/jj matters/nns ./.
For/in instance/nn ,/, the/at following/vbg statement/nn was/bedz rated/vbn low/jj in/in compulsivity/nn ,/, ``/`` She's/pps+bez naturally/rb quite/ql neat/jj about/in things/nns ,/, but/cc it/pps doesn't/doz* bother/vb her/ppo at/in all/abn if/cs her/pp$ room/nn gets/vbz messy/jj ./.
But/cc she/pps cleans/vbz it/ppo up/rp very/ql well/rb when/wrb I/ppss remind/vb her/ppo ''/'' ./.
Measurement/nn-hl of/in-hl anxiety/nn-hl 
Castaneda/np ,/, et/fw-cc al/fw-nns revised/vbd the/at Taylor/np-tl Anxiety/nn-tl Scale/nn-tl for/in use/nn with/in children/nns ./.
The/at Taylor/np-tl Scale/nn-tl was/bedz adapted/vbn from/in the/at Minnesota/np-tl Multiphastic/jj-tl Personality/nn-tl Inventory/nn-tl ,/, with/in item/nn selection/nn based/vbn upon/in clinical/jj definitions/nns of/in anxiety/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez much/ap research/nn evidence/nn to/to validate/vb the/at use/nn of/in the/at instrument/nn in/in differentiating/vbg individuals/nns who/wps are/ber likely/jj to/to manifest/vb anxiety/nn in/in varying/vbg degrees/nns ./.
Reliability/nn and/cc validation/nn work/nn with/in the/at Children's/nns$-tl Anxiety/nn-tl Scale/nn-tl by/in Castaneda/np ,/, et/fw-cc al/fw-nns demonstrated/vbd results/nns closely/ql similar/jj to/in the/at findings/nns with/in the/at adult/nn scale/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at Taylor/np-tl Scale/nn-tl was/bedz designed/vbn as/cs a/at group/nn testing/nn device/nn ,/, in/in this/dt study/nn it/pps was/bedz individually/rb administered/vbn by/in psychologically/rb trained/vbn workers/nns who/wps established/vbd rapport/nn and/cc assisted/vbd the/at children/nns in/in reading/vbg the/at items/nns ./.
Relationship/nn-hl of/in-hl Anxiety/nn-tl-hl to/in-hl compulsivity/nn-hl 
The/at question/nn may/md be/be raised/vbn whether/cs or/cc not/* we/ppss are/ber dealing/vbg with/in a/at common/jj factor/nn in/in anxiety/nn and/cc compulsivity/nn ./.
The/at two/cd ratings/nns yield/vb a/at correlation/nn of/in ,/, which/wdt is/bez not/* significantly/ql different/jj from/in zero/cd ;/. ;/.
therefore/rb ,/, we/ppss have/hv measured/vbn two/cd different/jj characteristics/nns ./.
In/in theory/nn ,/, compulsive/jj behavior/nn is/bez a/at way/nn of/in diminishing/vbg anxiety/nn ,/, and/cc one/pn might/md expect/vb a/at negative/jj association/nn except/in for/in the/at possibility/nn that/cs for/in many/ap children/nns the/at obsessive-compulsive/jj defenses/nns are/ber not/* sufficient/jj to/to quell/vb the/at amount/nn of/in anxiety/nn they/ppss suffer/vb ./.
The/at issue/nn of/in interaction/nn between/in anxiety/nn and/cc compulsivity/nn will/md be/be taken/vbn up/rp later/rbr ./.
Criterion/nn-hl measurement/nn-hl 
In/in the/at primary/jj grades/nns ,/, reading/vbg permeates/vbz almost/rb every/at aspect/nn of/in school/nn progress/nn ,/, and/cc the/at children's/nns$ early/jj experiences/nns of/in success/nn or/cc failure/nn in/in learning/vbg to/to read/vb often/rb set/vb a/at pattern/nn of/in total/nn achievement/nn that/wps is/bez relatively/ql enduring/vbg throughout/in the/at following/vbg years/nns ./.
In/in establishing/vbg criterion/nn measurements/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz therefore/rb thought/vbn best/jjt to/to broaden/vb the/at scope/nn beyond/in the/at reading/vbg act/nn itself/ppl ./.
The/at predicted/vbn interaction/nn effect/nn should/md ,/, if/cs potent/jj ,/, extend/vb its/pp$ influence/nn over/in all/abn academic/jj achievement/nn ./.


	The/at Stanford/np-tl Achievement/nn-tl Test/nn-tl ,/, Form/nn-tl J/np-tl ,/, was/bedz administered/vbn by/in classroom/nn teachers/nns ,/, consisting/vbg of/in a/at battery/nn of/in six/cd sub-tests/nns :/: Paragraph/nn-tl Meaning/nn-tl ,/, Word/nn-tl Meaning/nn-tl ,/, Spelling/nn-tl ,/, Language/nn-tl ,/, Arithmetic/nn-tl Computation/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Arithmetic/nn-tl Reasoning/nn-tl ./.
All/abn of/in these/dts sub-tests/nns involve/vb reading/vbg except/in Arithmetic/nn-tl Computation/nn-tl ./.
Scores/nns are/ber stated/vbn in/in grade-equivalents/nns on/in a/at national/jj norm/nn ./.
The/at battery/nn median/nn grade-equivalent/nn was/bedz used/vbn in/in data/nn analysis/nn in/in this/dt study/nn ./.


	The/at Wechsler/np-tl Intelligence/nn-tl Scale/nn-tl For/in-tl Children/nns-tl was/bedz administered/vbn to/in each/dt sample/nn third-grade/nn child/nn by/in a/at clinical/jj worker/nn ./.
The/at relationship/nn of/in intelligence/nn test/nn scores/nns to/in school/nn achievement/nn is/bez a/at well-established/jj fact/nn (/( in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, Af/nn )/) ;/. ;/.
therefore/rb ,/, in/in the/at investigation/nn of/in the/at present/jj hypothesis/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz necessary/jj to/to control/vb this/dt factor/nn ./.


	The/at criterion/nn score/nn used/vbn in/in the/at statistical/jj analysis/nn is/bez an/at index/nn of/in over-/jj or/cc under-achievement/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at discrepancy/nn between/in the/at actual/jj attained/vbn achievement/nn test/nn score/nn and/cc the/at score/nn that/wps would/md be/be predicted/vbn by/in the/at I.Q./np ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, on/in the/at basis/nn of/in the/at regression/nn equation/nn ,/, a/at child/nn with/in an/at I.Q./np of/in 120/cd in/in this/dt sample/nn would/md be/be expected/vbn to/to earn/vb an/at achievement/nn test/nn score/nn of/in 4.8/cd (/( grade/nn equivalent/nn )/) ./.
If/cs a/at child/nn with/in an/at I.Q./np of/in 120/cd scored/vbd 5.5/cd in/in achievement/nn ,/, his/pp$ discrepancy/nn score/nn would/md be/be ,/, representing/vbg of/in one/cd year/nn of/in over-achievement/nn ./.
A/at child/nn with/in an/at I.Q./np of/in 98/cd would/md be/be expected/vbn to/to earn/vb an/at achievement/nn test/nn score/nn of/in 3.5/cd ./.
If/cs such/abl a/at child/nn scored/vbd 3.0/cd ,/, his/pp$ discrepancy/nn score/nn would/md be/be -.5/cd ,/, representing/vbg of/in one/cd year/nn of/in under-achievement/nn ./.
In/in this/dt manner/nn ,/, the/at factors/nns measured/vbn by/in the/at intelligence/nn test/nn were/bed controlled/vbn ,/, allowing/vbg discovered/vbn differences/nns in/in achievement/nn to/to be/be interpreted/vbn as/cs resulting/vbg from/in other/ap variables/nns ./.



Results/nns-hl 
test/nn-hl of/in-hl interaction/nn-hl of/in-hl compulsivity/nn-hl and/cc-hl teaching/vbg-hl methods/nns-hl 
Tables/nns 1/cd and/cc 2/cd present/vb the/at results/nns of/in the/at statistical/jj analysis/nn of/in the/at data/nns when/wrb compulsivity/nn is/bez used/vbn as/cs the/at descriptive/jj variable/nn ./.
Figure/nn 1/cd portrays/vbz the/at mean/jj achievement/nn scores/nns of/in each/dt sub-group/nn graphically/rb ./.
First/rb of/in all/abn ,/, as/cs we/ppss had/hvd surmised/vbn ,/, the/at highly/ql compulsive/jj children/nns in/in the/at structured/vbn setting/nn score/nn significantly/ql better/rbr (/( Af/nn )/) on/in achievement/nn than/cs do/do similar/jj children/nns in/in the/at unstructured/jj schools/nns ./.
It/pps can/md be/be seen/vbn too/rb that/cs when/wrb we/ppss contrast/vb levels/nns of/in compulsivity/nn within/in the/at structured/vbn schools/nns ,/, the/at high/jj compulsive/jj children/nns do/do better/rbr (/( Af/nn )/) ./.
No/at significant/jj difference/nn was/bedz found/vbn in/in achievement/nn between/in high/jj and/cc low/jj compulsive/jj children/nns within/in the/at unstructured/jj school/nn ./.
The/at hypothesis/nn of/in there/ex being/beg an/at interaction/nn between/in compulsivity/nn and/cc teaching/vbg method/nn was/bedz supported/vbn ,/, in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, at/in the/at level/nn ./.


	While/cs we/ppss had/hvd expected/vbn that/cs compulsive/jj children/nns in/in the/at unstructured/jj school/nn setting/nn would/md have/hv difficulty/nn when/wrb compared/vbn to/in those/dts in/in the/at structured/vbn ,/, we/ppss were/bed surprised/vbn to/to find/vb that/cs the/at achievement/nn of/in the/at high/jj compulsives/nns within/in the/at schools/nns where/wrb the/at whole-word/nn method/nn is/bez used/vbn in/in beginning/vbg reading/nn compares/vbz favorably/rb with/in that/dt of/in the/at low/jj compulsives/nns ./.
Indeed/rb their/pp$ achievement/nn scores/nns were/bed somewhat/ql better/jjr on/in an/at absolute/jj basis/nn although/cs the/at difference/nn was/bedz not/* significant/jj ./.
We/ppss speculate/vb that/cs compulsives/nns in/in the/at unstructured/jj schools/nns are/ber under/in greater/jjr strain/nn because/rb of/in the/at lack/nn of/in systemization/nn in/in their/pp$ school/nn setting/nn ,/, but/cc that/cs their/pp$ need/nn to/to organize/vb (/( for/in comfort/nn )/) is/bez so/ql intense/jj that/cs they/ppss struggle/vb to/to induce/vb the/at phonic/jj rules/nns and/cc achieve/vb in/in spite/nn of/in the/at lack/nn of/in direction/nn from/in the/at environment/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez interesting/jj to/to note/vb that/cs medium/jj compulsives/nns in/in the/at unstructured/jj schools/nns made/vbd the/at lowest/jjt achievement/nn scores/nns (/( although/cs not/* significantly/ql lower/jjr )/) ./.
Possibly/rb their/pp$ compulsivity/nn was/bedz not/* strong/jj enough/qlp to/to cause/vb them/ppo to/to build/vb their/pp$ own/jj structure/nn ./.


	Our/pp$ conjecture/nn is/bez ,/, then/rb ,/, that/cs regardless/rb of/in the/at manner/nn in/in which/wdt school/nn lessons/nns are/ber taught/vbn ,/, the/at compulsive/jj child/nn accentuates/vbz those/dts elements/nns of/in each/dt lesson/nn that/wps aid/vb him/ppo in/in systematizing/vbg his/pp$ work/nn ./.
When/wrb helped/vbn by/in a/at high/jj degree/nn of/in structure/nn in/in lesson/nn presentation/nn ,/, then/rb ,/, and/cc only/rb then/rb ,/, does/doz such/abl a/at child/nn attain/vb unusual/jj success/nn ./.
Test/nn-hl of/in-hl interaction/nn-hl of/in-hl anxiety/nn-hl and/cc-hl teaching/vbg-hl methods/nns-hl 
The/at statistical/jj analyses/nns of/in achievement/nn in/in relation/nn to/in anxiety/nn and/cc teaching/vbg methods/nns and/cc the/at interactions/nns of/in the/at two/cd are/ber presented/vbn in/in Tables/nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl ./.
Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl is/bez a/at graph/nn of/in the/at mean/jj achievement/nn scores/nns of/in each/dt group/nn ./.
As/cs predicted/vbn ,/, the/at highly/ql anxious/jj children/nns in/in the/at unstructured/jj schools/nns score/vb more/ql poorly/rb (/( Af/nn )/) than/cs those/dts in/in the/at structured/vbn schools/nns ./.
The/at interaction/nn effect/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez significant/jj at/in the/at level/nn ,/, can/md be/be seen/vbn best/rbt in/in the/at contrast/nn of/in mean/jj scores/nns ./.
While/cs high/jj anxiety/nn children/nns achieve/vb significantly/rb less/ql well/rb (/( Af/nn )/) in/in the/at unstructured/jj school/nn than/cs do/do low/jj anxiety/nn children/nns ,/, they/ppss appear/vb to/to do/do at/in least/ap as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at average/nn in/in the/at structured/vbn classroom/nn ./.


	The/at most/ql striking/jj aspect/nn of/in the/at interaction/nn demonstrated/vbn is/bez the/at marked/vbn decrement/nn in/in performance/nn suffered/vbn by/in the/at highly/ql anxious/jj children/nns in/in unstructured/jj schools/nns ./.
According/in to/in the/at theory/nn proposed/vbn ,/, this/dt is/bez a/at consequence/nn of/in the/at severe/jj condition/nn of/in perceived/vbn threat/nn that/wps persists/vbz unabated/jj for/in the/at anxious/jj child/nn in/in an/at ambiguous/jj sort/nn of/in school/nn environment/nn ./.
The/at fact/nn that/cs such/jj threat/nn is/bez potent/jj in/in the/at beginning/vbg reading/nn lessons/nns is/bez thought/vbn to/to be/be a/at vital/jj factor/nn in/in the/at continued/vbn pattern/nn of/in failure/nn or/cc under-achievement/nn these/dts children/nns exhibit/vb ./.
The/at child/nn with/in high/jj anxiety/nn may/md first/rb direct/vb his/pp$ anxiety-released/jj energy/nn toward/in achievement/nn ,/, but/cc because/cs his/pp$ distress/nn severely/rb reduces/vbz the/at abilities/nns of/in discrimination/nn and/cc memorization/nn of/in complex/jj symbols/nns ,/, the/at child/nn may/md fail/vb in/in his/pp$ initial/jj attempts/nns to/to master/vb the/at problem/nn ./.
Failure/nn confirms/vbz the/at threat/nn ,/, and/cc the/at intensity/nn of/in anxiety/nn is/bez increased/vbn as/cs the/at required/vbn learning/nn becomes/vbz more/ql difficult/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs by/in the/at time/nn the/at child/nn reaches/vbz the/at third/od grade/nn the/at decrement/nn in/in performance/nn is/bez pronounced/vbn ./.


	The/at individual/nn with/in high/jj anxiety/nn in/in the/at structured/vbn classroom/nn may/md approach/vb the/at learning/vbg task/nn with/in the/at same/ap increased/vbn energy/nn and/cc lowered/vbn powers/nns of/in discrimination/nn ./.
But/cc the/at symbols/nns he/pps is/bez asked/vbn to/to learn/vb are/ber simple/jj ./.
As/cs shown/vbn earlier/rbr ,/, the/at highly/ql anxious/jj individual/nn may/md be/be superior/jj in/in his/pp$ memorizing/nn of/in simple/jj elements/nns ./.
Success/nn reduces/vbz the/at prospect/nn of/in threat/nn and/cc his/pp$ powers/nns of/in discrimination/nn are/ber improved/vbn ./.
By/in the/at time/nn the/at child/nn first/rb attacks/vbz the/at actual/jj problem/nn of/in reading/vbg ,/, he/pps is/bez completely/ql familiar/jj and/cc at/in ease/nn with/in all/abn of/in the/at elements/nns of/in words/nns ./.
Apparently/rb academic/jj challenge/nn in/in the/at structured/vbn setting/nn creates/vbz an/at optimum/nn of/in stress/nn so/cs that/cs the/at child/nn with/in high/jj anxiety/nn is/bez able/jj to/to achieve/vb because/cs he/pps is/bez aroused/vbn to/in an/at energetic/jj state/nn without/in becoming/vbg confused/vbn or/cc panicked/vbn ./.


	Sarason/np et/fw-cc al/fw-nns present/vb evidence/nn that/cs the/at anxious/jj child/nn will/md suffer/vb in/in the/at test-like/jj situation/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs his/pp$ performance/nn will/md be/be impaired/vbn unless/cs he/pps receives/vbz supporting/vbg and/cc accepting/vbg treatment/nn from/in the/at teacher/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at present/jj study/nn was/bedz not/* a/at direct/jj replication/nn of/in their/pp$ investigations/nns ,/, the/at results/nns do/do not/* confirm/vb their/pp$ conclusion/nn ./.
Observers/nns ,/, in/in the/at two/cd school/nn systems/nns studied/vbn here/rb ,/, judged/vbd the/at teachers/nns in/in the/at structured/vbn schools/nns to/to be/be more/ql impersonal/jj and/cc demanding/vbg ,/, while/cs the/at atmosphere/nn in/in the/at unstructured/jj schools/nns was/bedz judged/vbn to/to be/be more/ql supporting/vbg and/cc accepting/jj ./.
Yet/cc the/at highly/ql anxious/jj child/nn suffered/vbd a/at tremendous/jj disadvantage/nn only/rb in/in the/at unstructured/jj school/nn ,/, and/cc performed/vbd as/ql well/rb or/cc better/rbr than/cs average/jj in/in the/at structured/vbn setting/nn ./.

Analysis/nn-hl 
Analysis/nn means/vbz the/at evaluation/nn of/in subparts/nns ,/, the/at comparative/jj ratings/nns of/in parts/nns ,/, the/at comprehension/nn of/in the/at meaning/nn of/in isolated/vbn elements/nns ./.
Analysis/nn in/in roleplaying/nn is/bez usually/rb done/vbn for/in the/at purpose/nn of/in understanding/vbg strong/jj and/cc weak/jj points/nns of/in an/at individual/nn or/cc as/cs a/at process/nn to/to eliminate/vb weak/jj parts/nns and/cc strengthen/vb good/jj parts/nns ./.
Impersonal/jj-hl purposes/nns-hl 
Up/rp to/in this/dt point/nn stress/nn has/hvz been/ben placed/vbn on/in roleplaying/nn in/in terms/nns of/in individuals/nns ./.
Roleplaying/nn can/md be/be done/vbn for/in quite/abl a/at different/jj purpose/nn :/: to/to evaluate/vb procedures/nns ,/, regardless/rb of/in individuals/nns ./.
For/in example/nn :/: a/at sales/nns presentation/nn can/md be/be analyzed/vbn and/cc evaluated/vbn through/in roleplaying/nn ./.
Examples/nns-hl 
Let/vb us/ppo now/rb put/vb some/dti flesh/nn on/in the/at theoretical/jj bones/nns we/ppss have/hv assembled/vbn by/in giving/vbg illustrations/nns of/in roleplaying/nn used/vbn for/in evaluation/nn and/cc analysis/nn ./.
One/pn should/md keep/vb in/in mind/nn that/cs many/ap of/in the/at exciting/jj possiblities/nns of/in roleplaying/nn are/ber largely/ql unexplored/jj and/cc have/hv not/* been/ben used/vbn in/in industry/nn to/in the/at extent/nn that/cs they/ppss have/hv been/ben in/in military/jj and/cc other/ap areas/nns ./.
Evaluation/nn-hl 
The/at president/nn of/in a/at small/jj firm/nn selling/vbg restaurant/nn products/nns ,/, had/hvd considerable/jj difficulty/nn in/in finding/vbg suitable/jj salesmen/nns for/in his/pp$ business/nn ./.
Interviewing/vbg ,/, checking/vbg references/nns ,/, training/vbg the/at salesmen/nns ,/, having/hvg them/ppo go/vb with/in more/ql experienced/vbn salesmen/nns was/bedz expensive/jj --/-- and/cc the/at rate/nn of/in attrition/nn due/jj to/in resignations/nns or/cc unsatisfactory/jj performance/nn was/bedz too/ql high/jj ./.
It/pps was/bedz his/pp$ experience/nn that/cs only/rb one/cd good/jj salesman/nn was/bedz found/vbn out/rp of/in every/at seven/cd hired/vbn --/-- and/cc only/rb one/cd was/bedz hired/vbn out/rp of/in every/at seven/cd interviewed/vbn ./.


	Roleplaying/nn was/bedz offered/vbn as/cs a/at solution/nn --/-- and/cc the/at procedure/nn worked/vbd as/cs follows/vbz :/: all/abn candidates/nns were/bed invited/vbn to/in a/at hotel/nn conference/nn room/nn ,/, where/wrb the/at president/nn explained/vbd the/at difficulty/nn he/pps had/hvd ,/, and/cc how/wql unnecessary/jj it/pps seemed/vbd to/in him/ppo to/to hire/vb people/nns who/wps just/rb did/dod not/* work/vb out/rp ./.
In/in place/nn of/in asking/vbg salesmen/nns to/to fill/vb questionnaires/nns ,/, checking/vbg their/pp$ references/nns ,/, interviewing/vbg them/ppo ,/, asking/vbg them/ppo to/to be/be tried/vbn out/rp ,/, he/pps told/vbd them/ppo he/pps would/md prefer/vb to/to test/vb them/ppo ./.
Each/dt person/nn was/bedz to/to enter/vb the/at testing/vbg room/nn ,/, carrying/vbg a/at suitcase/nn of/in samples/nns ./.
Each/dt salesman/nn was/bedz to/to read/vb a/at sheet/nn containing/vbg a/at description/nn of/in the/at product/nn ./.
In/in the/at testing/vbg room/nn he/pps was/bedz to/to make/vb ,/, successively/rb ,/, three/cd presentations/nns to/in three/cd different/jj people/nns ./.


	In/in the/at testing/vbg room/nn ,/, three/cd of/in the/at veteran/jj salesmen/nns served/vbd as/cs antagonists/nns ./.
One/cd handled/vbd the/at salesman/nn in/in a/at friendly/jj manner/nn ,/, another/dt in/in a/at rough/jj manner/nn ,/, and/cc the/at third/od in/in a/at hesitating/vbg manner/nn ./.
Each/dt was/bedz told/vbn to/to purchase/vb material/nn if/cs he/pps felt/vbd like/cs it/pps ./.
The/at antagonists/nns came/vbd in/rp ,/, one/cd at/in a/at time/nn ,/, and/cc did/dod not/* see/vb or/cc hear/vb the/at other/ap presentations/nns ./.
After/in each/dt presentation/nn ,/, the/at antagonist/nn wrote/vbd his/pp$ judgment/nn of/in the/at salesmen/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc so/rb did/dod the/at observers/nns consisting/vbg of/in the/at president/nn ,/, three/cd of/in his/pp$ salesmen/nns and/cc a/at psychologist/nn ./.


	Ten/cd salesmen/nns were/bed tested/vbn in/in the/at morning/nn and/cc ten/cd more/ap in/in the/at afternoon/nn ./.
This/dt procedure/nn was/bedz repeated/vbn one/cd day/nn a/at month/nn for/in four/cd months/nns ./.
The/at batting/vbg average/nn of/in one/cd success/nn out/rp of/in seven/cd increased/vbd to/in one/cd out/rp of/in three/cd ./.
The/at president/nn of/in the/at firm/nn ,/, calculating/vbg expenses/nns alone/rb ,/, felt/vbd his/pp$ costs/nns had/hvd dropped/vbn one-half/nn while/cs success/nn in/in selection/nn had/hvd improved/vbn over/rp one/cd hundred/cd per/in cent/nn ./.


	The/at reason/nn for/in the/at value/nn of/in this/dt procedure/nn was/bedz simply/rb that/cs the/at applicants/nns were/bed tested/vbn ``/`` at/in work/nn ''/'' in/in different/jj situations/nns by/in the/at judgment/nn of/in a/at number/nn of/in experts/nns who/wps could/md see/vb how/wrb the/at salesmen/nns conducted/vbd themselves/ppls with/in different/jj ,/, but/cc typical/jj restaurant/nn owners/nns and/cc managers/nns ./.
They/ppss were/bed ,/, in/in a/at sense/nn ,/, ``/`` tried/vbn out/rp ''/'' in/in realistic/jj situations/nns ./.


	From/in the/at point/nn of/in view/nn of/in the/at applicants/nns ,/, less/ap time/nn was/bedz wasted/vbn in/in being/beg evaluated/vbn --/-- and/cc they/ppss got/vbd a/at meal/nn out/rp of/in it/ppo as/ql well/rb as/cs some/dti insights/nns into/in their/pp$ performances/nns ./.


	Another/dt use/nn of/in roleplaying/nn for/in evaluation/nn illustrates/vbz how/wrb this/dt procedure/nn can/md be/be used/vbn in/in real/jj life/nn situations/nns without/in special/jj equipment/nn or/cc special/jj assistants/nns during/in the/at daily/jj course/nn of/in work/nn ./.


	The/at position/nn of/in receptionist/nn was/bedz opened/vbn in/in a/at large/jj office/nn and/cc an/at announcement/nn was/bedz made/vbn to/in the/at other/ap girls/nns already/rb working/vbg that/cs they/ppss could/md apply/vb for/in this/dt job/nn which/wdt had/hvd higher/jjr prestige/nn and/cc slightly/ql higher/jjr salary/nn than/cs typing/vbg and/cc clerking/vbg positions/nns ./.
All/abn applicants/nns were/bed generally/ql familiar/jj with/in the/at work/nn of/in the/at receptionist/nn ./.
At/in the/at end/nn of/in work/nn one/cd day/nn ,/, the/at personnel/nns man/nn took/vbd the/at applicants/nns one/cd at/in a/at time/nn ,/, asked/vbd them/ppo to/to sit/vb behind/in the/at receptionist's/nn$ desk/nn and/cc he/pps then/rb played/vbd the/at role/nn of/in a/at number/nn of/in people/nns who/wps might/md come/vb to/in the/at receptionist/nn with/in a/at number/nn of/in queries/nns and/cc for/in a/at number/nn of/in purposes/nns ./.
Each/dt girl/nn was/bedz independently/rb ``/`` tested/vbn ''/'' by/in the/at personnel/nns man/vb ,/, and/cc he/pps served/vbd not/* only/rb as/cs the/at director/nn ,/, but/cc as/cs the/at antagonist/nn and/cc the/at observer/nn ./.


	Somewhat/rb to/in his/pp$ surprise/nn he/pps found/vbd that/cs one/cd girl/nn ,/, whom/wpo he/pps would/md never/rb have/hv considered/vbn for/in the/at job/nn since/cs she/pps had/hvd appeared/vbn somewhat/ql mousy/jj and/cc also/rb had/hvd been/ben in/in the/at office/nn a/at relatively/ql short/jj time/nn ,/, did/dod the/at most/ql outstanding/jj job/nn of/in playing/vbg the/at role/nn of/in receptionist/nn ,/, showing/vbg wit/nn ,/, sparkle/nn ,/, and/cc aplomb/nn ./.
She/pps was/bedz hired/vbn and/cc was/bedz found/vbn to/to be/be entirely/ql satisfactory/jj when/wrb she/pps played/vbd the/at role/nn eight/cd hours/nns a/at day/nn ./.
Analysis/nn-hl 
In/in considering/vbg roleplaying/nn for/in analysis/nn we/ppss enter/vb a/at more/ql complex/jj area/nn ,/, since/cs we/ppss are/ber now/rb no/ql longer/rbr dealing/vbg with/in a/at simple/jj over-all/jj decision/nn but/cc rather/rb with/in the/at examination/nn and/cc evaluation/nn of/in many/ap elements/nns seen/vbn in/in dynamic/jj functioning/nn ./.
Some/dti cases/nns in/in evidence/nn of/in the/at use/nn of/in roleplaying/nn for/in analysis/nn may/md help/vb explain/vb the/at procedure/nn ./.


	An/at engineer/nn had/hvd been/ben made/vbn the/at works/nns manager/nn of/in a/at firm/nn ,/, supplanting/vbg a/at retired/vbn employee/nn who/wps had/hvd been/ben considered/vbn outstandingly/ql successful/jj ./.
The/at engineer/nn had/hvd more/ap than/in seven/cd years/nns of/in experience/nn in/in the/at firm/nn ,/, was/bedz well/rb trained/vbn ,/, was/bedz considered/vbn a/at hard/jj worker/nn ,/, was/bedz respected/vbn by/in his/pp$ fellow/nn engineers/nns for/in his/pp$ technical/jj competence/nn and/cc was/bedz regarded/vbn as/cs a/at ``/`` comer/nn ''/'' ./.
However/rb ,/, he/pps turned/vbd out/rp to/to be/be a/at complete/jj failure/nn in/in his/pp$ new/jj position/nn ./.
He/pps seemed/vbd to/to antagonize/vb everyone/pn ./.
Turnover/nn rates/nns of/in personnel/nns went/vbd up/rp ,/, production/nn dropped/vbd ,/, and/cc morale/nn was/bedz visibly/rb reduced/vbn ./.
Despite/in the/at fact/nn that/cs he/pps was/bedz regarded/vbn as/cs an/at outstanding/jj engineer/nn ,/, he/pps seemed/vbd to/to be/be a/at very/ql poor/jj administrator/nn ,/, although/cs no/at one/pn quite/rb knew/vbd what/wdt was/bedz wrong/jj with/in him/ppo ./.
At/in the/at insistence/nn of/in his/pp$ own/jj supervisor/nn --/-- the/at president/nn of/in the/at firm/nn --/-- he/pps enrolled/vbd in/in a/at course/nn designed/vbn to/to develop/vb leaders/nns ./.


	He/pps played/vbd a/at number/nn of/in typical/jj situations/nns before/in observers/nns ,/, other/ap supervisors/nns who/wps kept/vbd notes/nns and/cc then/rb explained/vbd to/in him/ppo in/in detail/nn what/wdt he/pps did/dod they/ppss thought/vbd was/bedz wrong/jj ./.
Entirely/rb concerned/vbn with/in efficiency/nn ,/, he/pps was/bedz merciless/jj in/in criticizing/vbg people/nns who/wps made/vbd mistakes/nns ,/, condemning/vbg them/ppo to/in too/ql great/jj an/at extent/nn ./.
He/pps did/dod not/* really/rb listen/vb to/in others/nns ,/, had/hvd little/ap interest/nn in/in their/pp$ ideas/nns ,/, and/cc wanted/vbd to/to have/hv his/pp$ own/jj way/nn --/-- which/wdt was/bedz the/at only/ap right/jj way/nn ./.
The/at entire/jj group/nn of/in managers/nns explained/vbd ,/, in/in great/jj detail/nn ,/, a/at number/nn of/in human/jj relations/nns errors/nns that/cs he/pps made/vbd ./.


	One/cd by/in one/cd ,/, these/dts errors/nns were/bed discussed/vbn and/cc one/cd by/in one/cd he/pps rejected/vbd accepting/vbg them/ppo as/cs errors/nns ./.
He/pps admitted/vbd his/pp$ behavior/nn ,/, and/cc defended/vbd it/ppo ./.
He/pps refused/vbd to/to change/vb his/pp$ approach/nn ,/, and/cc instead/rb he/pps attacked/vbd high/nn and/cc low/rb --/-- the/at officials/nns for/in their/pp$ not/* backing/vbg him/ppo ,/, and/cc subordinates/nns for/in their/pp$ laxness/nn ,/, stupidity/nn ,/, and/cc stubbornness/nn ./.
After/in the/at diagnosing/nn ,/, he/pps left/vbd the/at course/nn ,/, convinced/vbn that/cs it/pps could/md do/do him/ppo no/at good/nn ./.


	We/ppss may/md say/vb that/cs his/pp$ problem/nn was/bedz diagnosed/vbn but/cc that/cs he/pps refused/vbd treatment/nn ./.
The/at engineer/nn turned/vbn works/nns manager/nn had/hvd a/at particular/jj view/nn of/in life/nn --/-- and/cc refused/vbd to/to change/vb it/ppo ./.
We/ppss may/md say/vb that/cs his/pp$ attitude/nn was/bedz foolish/jj ,/, since/cs he/pps may/md have/hv been/ben a/at success/nn had/hvd he/pps learned/vbn some/dti human/jj relations/nns skills/nns ;/. ;/.
or/cc we/ppss may/md say/vb that/cs his/pp$ attitude/nn was/bedz commendable/jj ,/, showing/vbg his/pp$ independence/nn of/in mind/nn ,/, in/in his/pp$ refusal/nn to/to adjust/vb to/in the/at opinions/nns of/in others/nns ./.
In/in any/dti case/nn ,/, he/pps refused/vbd to/to accept/vb the/at implications/nns of/in the/at analysis/nn ,/, that/cs he/pps needed/vbd to/to be/be made/vbn over/rp ./.


	Another/dt case/nn may/md be/be given/vbn in/in illustration/nn of/in a/at successful/jj use/nn of/in analysis/nn ,/, and/cc also/rb of/in the/at employment/nn of/in a/at procedure/nn for/in intensive/jj analysis/nn ./.
In/in a/at course/nn for/in supermarket/nn operators/nns ,/, a/at district/nn manager/nn who/wps had/hvd been/ben recently/rb appointed/vbn to/in his/pp$ position/nn after/cs being/beg outstandingly/ql successful/jj as/cs a/at store/nn manager/nn ,/, found/vbd that/cs in/in supervising/vbg other/ap managers/nns he/pps was/bedz having/hvg a/at difficult/jj time/nn ./.
On/in playing/vbg some/dti typical/jj situations/nns before/in a/at jury/nn of/in his/pp$ peers/nns he/pps showed/vbd some/dti characteristics/nns rated/vbn as/cs unsatisfactory/jj ./.
He/pps was/bedz told/vbn he/pps displayed/vbd ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, a/at sense/nn of/in superiority/nn --/-- and/cc he/pps answered/vbd :/: ``/`` Well/uh ,/, I/ppss am/bem supposed/vbn to/to know/vb all/abn the/at answers/nns ,/, aren't/ber* I/ppss ''/'' ?/. ?/.
He/pps was/bedz criticized/vbn for/in his/pp$ curtness/nn and/cc abruptness/nn --/-- and/cc he/pps answered/vbd :/: ``/`` I/ppss am/bem not/* working/vbg to/to become/vb popular/jj ''/'' ./.
On/in being/beg criticized/vbn for/in his/pp$ arbitrary/jj behavior/nn --/-- he/pps answered/vbd :/: ``/`` I/ppss have/hv to/to make/vb decisions/nns ./.
That's/dt+bez my/pp$ job/nn ''/'' ./.
In/in short/jj ,/, as/cs frequently/rb happens/vbz in/in analyses/nns ,/, the/at individual/nn feels/vbz threatened/vbn and/cc defends/vbz himself/ppl ./.
However/rb ,/, in/in this/dt case/nn the/at district/nn manager/nn was/bedz led/vbn to/to see/vb the/at errors/nns of/in his/pp$ ways/nns ./.
The/at necessary/jj step/nn between/in diagnosis/nn and/cc training/nn is/bez acceptance/nn of/in the/at validity/nn of/in the/at criticisms/nns ./.
How/wrb this/dt was/bedz accomplished/vbn may/md be/be described/vbn ,/, since/cs this/dt sometimes/rb is/bez a/at crucial/jj problem/nn ./.


	The/at director/nn helped/vbd tailor-make/vb a/at check/nn list/nn of/in the/at district/nn manager's/nn$ errors/nns by/in asking/vbg various/ap observers/nns to/to write/vb out/rp sentences/nns commenting/vbg on/in the/at mistakes/nns they/ppss felt/vbd he/pps made/vbd ./.
These/dts errors/nns were/bed then/rb collected/vbn and/cc written/vbn on/in a/at blackboard/nn ,/, condensing/vbg similar/jj ideas/nns ./.
Eighteen/cd errors/nns were/bed located/vbn ,/, and/cc then/rb the/at director/nn asked/vbd each/dt individual/nn to/to vote/vb whether/cs or/cc not/* they/ppss felt/vbd that/cs this/dt manager/nn had/hvd made/vbn the/at particular/jj errors/nns ./.
They/ppss were/bed asked/vbn to/to vote/vb ``/`` true/jj-nc ''/'' if/cs they/ppss thought/vbd they/ppss had/hvd seen/vbn him/ppo make/vb the/at error/nn ,/, ``/`` false/jj-nc ''/'' if/cs they/ppss thought/vbd he/pps had/hvd not/* ;/. ;/.
and/cc ``/`` cannot/md* say/vb-nc ''/'' if/cs they/ppss were/bed not/* certain/jj ./.


	The/at manager/nn sat/vbd behind/in the/at group/nn so/cs he/pps could/md see/vb and/cc count/vb the/at hands/nns that/wps went/vbd up/rp ,/, and/cc the/at director/nn wrote/vbd the/at numbers/nns on/in the/at blackboard/nn ./.
No/at comments/nns were/bed made/vbn during/in the/at voting/nn ./.
The/at results/nns looked/vbd as/cs follows/vbz :/: Af/nn ./.


	The/at first/od eight/cd of/in these/dts eighteen/cd statements/nns ,/, which/wdt received/vbd at/in least/ap one-half/nn of/in the/at votes/nns ,/, were/bed duplicated/vbn to/to form/vb an/at analysis/nn checklist/nn for/in the/at particular/jj manager/nn ,/, and/cc when/wrb this/dt particular/jj manager/nn roleplayed/vbd in/in other/ap situations/nns ,/, the/at members/nns checked/vbd any/dti items/nns that/wps appeared/vbd ./.
To/to prevent/vb the/at manager/nn from/in deliberately/rb controlling/vbg himself/ppl only/rb during/in the/at sessions/nns ,/, they/ppss were/bed rather/ql lengthy/jj (/( about/rb twenty/cd minutes/nns )/) ,/, the/at situations/nns were/bed imperfectly/rb described/vbn to/in the/at manager/nn so/cs that/cs he/pps would/md not/* know/vb what/wdt to/to expect/vb ,/, new/jj antagonists/nns were/bed brought/vbn on/in the/at scene/nn unexpectedly/rb ,/, and/cc the/at antagonists/nns were/bed instructed/vbn to/to deliberately/rb behave/vb in/in such/jj ways/nns as/cs to/to upset/vb the/at manager/nn and/cc get/vb him/ppo to/to operate/vb in/in a/at manner/nn for/in which/wdt he/pps had/hvd been/ben previously/rb criticized/vbn ./.


	After/in every/at session/nn ,/, the/at check/nn marks/nns were/bed totaled/vbn up/rp and/cc graphed/vbn ,/, and/cc in/in this/dt way/nn the/at supervisor's/nn$ progress/nn was/bedz charted/vbn ./.
Summary/nn-hl 
In/in life/nn we/ppss learn/vb to/to play/vb our/pp$ roles/nns and/cc we/ppss ``/`` freeze/vb ''/'' into/in patterns/nns which/wdt become/vb so/ql habitual/jj that/cs we/ppss are/ber not/* really/ql aware/jj of/in what/wdt we/ppss do/do ./.
We/ppss can/md see/vb others/nns more/ql clearly/rb than/cs we/ppss can/md see/vb ourselves/ppls ,/, and/cc others/nns can/md see/vb us/ppo better/rbr than/cs we/ppss see/vb ourselves/ppls ./.
To/to learn/vb what/wdt we/ppss do/do is/bez the/at first/od step/nn for/in improvement/nn ./.
To/to accept/vb the/at validity/nn of/in the/at judgments/nns of/in others/nns is/bez the/at second/od step/nn ./.
To/to want/vb to/to change/vb is/bez the/at third/od step/nn ./.
To/to practice/vb new/jj procedures/nns under/in guided/vbn supervision/nn and/cc with/in constant/jj feedback/nn is/bez the/at fourth/od step/nn ./.
To/to use/vb these/dts new/jj ways/nns in/in daily/jj life/nn is/bez the/at last/ap step/nn ./.
Roleplaying/nn used/vbn for/in analysis/nn follows/vbz these/dts general/jj steps/nns leading/vbg to/in training/vbg ./.


	When/wrb an/at evaluative/jj situation/nn is/bez set/vbn up/rp ,/, and/cc no/at concern/nn is/bez with/in the/at details/nns that/wps lead/vb to/in an/at over-all/jj estimate/nn ,/, we/ppss say/vb that/cs roleplaying/nn is/bez used/vbn for/in evaluation/nn ./.
Observers/nns can/md see/vb a/at person/nn engaged/vbn in/in spontaneous/jj behavior/nn ,/, and/cc watch/vb him/ppo operating/vbg in/in a/at totalistic/jj fashion/nn ./.
This/dt behavior/nn is/bez more/ql ``/`` veridical/jj ''/'' --/-- or/cc true/jj --/-- than/cs other/ap testing/vbg behavior/nn for/in some/dti types/nns of/in evaluation/nn ,/, and/cc so/rb can/md give/vb quick/jj and/cc accurate/jj estimates/nns of/in complex/jj functioning/nn ./.


	While/cs roleplaying/nn for/in testing/vbg is/bez not/* too/ql well/rb understood/vbn at/in the/at present/jj time/nn ,/, it/pps represents/vbz one/cd of/in the/at major/jj uses/nns of/in this/dt procedure/nn ./.



Chapter/nn-tl-hl 10/cd-tl-hl ,/, spontaneity/nn training/nn 
the/at objective/nn of/in this/dt chapter/nn is/bez to/to clarify/vb the/at distinctions/nns between/in spontaneity/nn theory/nn and/cc other/ap training/vbg concepts/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at basic/jj approach/nn utilized/vbn in/in applying/vbg roleplaying/nn will/md be/be reviewed/vbn ./.
The/at goal/nn will/md be/be to/to provide/vb the/at reader/nn with/in an/at integrated/vbn rationale/nn to/to aid/vb him/ppo in/in applying/vbg roleplaying/nn techniques/nns in/in this/dt unique/jj training/vbg area/nn ./.
The/at reasons/nns for/in extracting/vbg this/dt particular/jj roleplaying/nn application/nn from/in the/at previous/jj discussion/nn of/in training/vbg are/ber twofold/jj ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Spontaneity/nn training/vbg theory/nn is/bez unique/jj and/cc relatively/ql new/jj ./.



	It/pps is/bez not/* easy/jj for/cs the/at therapist/nn to/to discern/vb when/wrb ,/, in/in the/at patient's/nn$ communicating/nn ,/, an/at introject/nn has/hvz appeared/vbn and/cc is/bez holding/vbg sway/nn ./.
One/pn learns/vbz to/to become/vb alert/jj to/in changes/nns in/in his/pp$ vocal/jj tone/nn --/-- to/in his/pp$ voice's/nn$ suddenly/rb shifting/vbg to/in a/at quality/nn not/* like/cs his/pp$ usual/jj one/cd ,/, a/at quality/nn which/wdt sounds/vbz somehow/rb artificial/jj or/cc ,/, in/in some/dti instances/nns ,/, parrot-like/jj ./.
The/at content/nn of/in his/pp$ words/nns may/md lapse/vb back/rb into/in monotonous/jj repetition/nn ,/, as/cs if/cs a/at phonograph/nn needle/nn were/bed stuck/vbn in/in one/cd groove/nn ;/. ;/.
only/rb seldom/rb is/bez it/pps so/ql simple/jj as/cs to/to be/be a/at matter/nn of/in his/pp$ obviously/rb parroting/vbg some/dti timeworn/jj axiom/nn ,/, common/jj to/in our/pp$ culture/nn ,/, which/wdt he/pps has/hvz evidently/rb heard/vbn ,/, over/rp and/cc over/rp ,/, from/in a/at parent/nn until/cs he/pps experiences/vbz it/ppo as/cs part/nn of/in him/ppo ./.


	One/cd hebephrenic/jj woman/nn often/rb became/vbd submerged/vbn in/in what/wdt felt/vbd to/in me/ppo like/cs a/at somehow/rb phony/jj experience/nn of/in pseudo-emotion/nn ,/, during/in which/wdt ,/, despite/in her/ppo wracking/vbg sobs/nns and/cc streaming/vbg cheeks/nns ,/, I/ppss felt/vbd only/rb a/at cold/jj annoyance/nn with/in her/ppo ./.
Eventually/rb such/jj incidents/nns became/vbd more/ql sporadic/jj ,/, and/cc more/ql sharply/rb demarcated/vbn from/in her/pp$ day-after-day/jj behavior/nn ,/, and/cc in/in one/cd particular/jj session/nn ,/, after/in several/ap minutes/nns of/in such/jj behavior/nn --/-- which/wdt ,/, as/cs usual/jj ,/, went/vbd on/rp without/in any/dti accompanying/vbg words/nns from/in her/ppo --/-- she/pps asked/vbd ,/, eagerly/rb ,/, ``/`` Did/dod you/ppss see/vb Granny/np ''/'' ?/. ?/.
At/in first/rb I/ppss did/dod not/* know/vb what/wdt she/pps meant/vbd ;/. ;/.
I/ppss thought/vbd she/pps must/md be/be seeing/vbg me/ppo as/cs some/dti one/pn who/wps had/hvd just/rb come/vbn from/in seeing/vbg her/pp$ grandmother/nn ,/, in/in their/pp$ distant/jj home-city/nn ./.
Then/rb I/ppss realized/vbd that/cs she/pps had/hvd been/ben deliberately/rb showing/vbg me/ppo ,/, this/dt time/nn ,/, what/wdt Granny/np was/bedz like/cs ;/. ;/.
and/cc when/wrb I/ppss replied/vbd in/in this/dt spirit/nn ,/, she/pps corroborated/vbd my/pp$ hunch/nn ./.


	At/in another/dt phase/nn in/in the/at therapy/nn ,/, when/wrb a/at pathogenic/jj mother-introject/nn began/vbd to/to emerge/vb more/rbr and/cc more/rbr upon/in the/at investigative/jj scene/nn ,/, she/pps muttered/vbd in/in a/at low/jj but/cc intense/jj voice/nn ,/, to/in herself/ppl ,/, ``/`` I/ppss hate/vb that/dt woman/nn inside/in me/ppo ''/'' !/. !/.
I/ppss could/md evoke/vb no/at further/jjr elaboration/nn from/in her/ppo about/in this/dt ;/. ;/.
but/cc a/at few/ap seconds/nns later/rbr she/pps was/bedz standing/vbg directly/rb across/in the/at room/nn from/in me/ppo ,/, looking/vbg me/ppo in/in the/at eyes/nns and/cc saying/vbg in/in a/at scathingly/ql condemnatory/jj tone/nn ,/, ``/`` Your/pp$ father/nn despises/vbz you/ppo ''/'' !/. !/.
Again/rb ,/, I/ppss at/in first/rb misconstrued/vbd this/dt disconcertingly/ql intense/jj communication/nn ,/, and/cc I/ppss quickly/rb cast/vbd through/in my/pp$ mind/nn to/to account/vb for/in her/pp$ being/beg able/jj to/to speak/vb ,/, with/in such/ql utter/jj conviction/nn ,/, of/in an/at opinion/nn held/vbn by/in my/pp$ father/nn ,/, now/rb several/ap years/nns deceased/jj ./.
Then/rb I/ppss replied/vbd ,/, coldly/rb ,/, ``/`` If/cs you/ppss despise/vb me/ppo ,/, why/wrb don't/do* you/ppss say/vb so/rb ,/, directly/rb ''/'' ?/. ?/.
She/pps looked/vbd confused/vbn at/in this/dt ,/, and/cc I/ppss felt/vbd sure/jj it/pps had/hvd been/ben a/at wrong/jj response/nn for/cs me/ppo to/to make/vb ./.
It/pps then/rb occurred/vbd to/in me/ppo to/to ask/vb ,/, ``/`` Is/bez that/dt what/wdt that/dt woman/nn told/vbd you/ppo ''/'' ?/. ?/.
She/pps clearly/rb agreed/vbd that/cs this/dt had/hvd been/ben the/at case/nn ./.
I/ppss realized/vbd ,/, now/rb ,/, that/cs she/pps had/hvd been/ben showing/vbg me/ppo ,/, in/in what/wdt impressed/vbd me/ppo as/cs being/beg a/at very/ql accurate/jj way/nn ,/, something/pn her/pp$ mother/nn had/hvd once/rb said/vbn to/in her/ppo ;/. ;/.
it/pps was/bedz as/cs if/cs she/pps was/bedz showing/vbg me/ppo one/cd of/in the/at reasons/nns why/wrb she/pps hated/vbd that/dt woman/nn inside/in her/ppo ./.
What/wdt had/hvd been/ben an/at unmanageably/ql powerful/jj introject/nn was/bedz now/rb ,/, despite/in its/pp$ continuing/vbg charge/nn of/in energy/nn disconcerting/jj to/in me/ppo ,/, sufficiently/rb within/in control/nn of/in her/pp$ ego/nn that/cs she/pps could/md use/vb it/ppo to/to show/vb me/ppo what/wdt this/dt introjected/vbn mother/nn was/bedz like/cs ./.


	Earlier/rbr ,/, this/dt woman/nn had/hvd been/ben so/ql filled/vbn with/in a/at chaotic/jj variety/nn of/in introjects/nns that/cs at/in times/nns ,/, when/wrb she/pps was/bedz in/in her/pp$ room/nn alone/rb ,/, it/pps would/md sound/vb to/in a/at passerby/nn as/cs though/cs there/ex were/bed several/ap different/jj persons/nns in/in the/at room/nn ,/, as/cs she/pps would/md vocalize/vb in/in various/ap kinds/nns of/in voice/nn ./.
A/at somewhat/ql less/ql fragmented/vbn hebephrenic/jj patient/nn of/in mine/pp$$ ,/, who/wps used/vbd to/to often/rb seclude/vb herself/ppl in/in her/pp$ room/nn ,/, often/rb sounded/vbd through/in the/at closed/vbn door/nn --/-- as/cs I/ppss would/md find/vb on/in passing/vbg by/rb ,/, between/in our/pp$ sessions/nns --/-- for/in all/abn the/at world/nn like/cs two/cd persons/nns ,/, a/at scolding/vbg mother/nn and/cc a/at defensive/jj child/nn ./.


	Particularly/ql hard/jj for/in the/at therapist/nn to/in grasp/nn are/ber those/dts instances/nns in/in which/wdt the/at patient/nn is/bez manifesting/vbg an/at introject/nn traceable/jj to/in something/pn in/in the/at therapist/nn ,/, some/dti aspect/nn of/in the/at therapist/nn of/in which/wdt the/at latter/ap is/bez himself/ppl only/ql poorly/ql aware/jj ,/, and/cc the/at recognition/nn of/in which/wdt ,/, as/cs a/at part/nn of/in himself/ppl ,/, he/pps finds/vbz distinctly/rb unwelcome/jj ./.
I/ppss have/hv found/vbn ,/, time/nn and/cc again/rb ,/, that/cs some/dti bit/nn of/in particularly/ql annoying/jj and/cc intractable/jj behavior/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in a/at patient/nn rests/vbz ,/, in/in the/at final/jj analysis/nn ,/, on/in this/dt basis/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc only/rb when/wrb I/ppss can/md acknowledge/vb this/dt ,/, to/in myself/ppl ,/, as/cs being/beg indeed/rb an/at aspect/nn of/in my/pp$ personality/nn ,/, does/doz it/pps cease/vb to/to be/be a/at prominently/ql troublesome/jj aspect/nn of/in the/at patient's/nn$ behavior/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, one/cd hebephrenic/jj man/nn used/vbd to/to annoy/vb me/ppo ,/, month/nn after/in month/nn ,/, by/in saying/vbg ,/, whenever/wrb I/ppss got/vbd up/rp to/to leave/vb and/cc made/vbd my/pp$ fairly/ql steoreotyped/vbn comment/nn that/cs I/ppss would/md be/be seeing/vbg him/ppo on/in the/at following/vbg day/nn ,/, or/cc whenever/wrb ,/, ``/`` You're/ppss+ber welcome/jj ''/'' ,/, in/in a/at notably/ql condescending/vbg fashion/nn --/-- as/cs though/cs it/pps were/bed his/pp$ due/nn for/in me/ppo to/to thank/vb him/ppo for/in the/at privilege/nn of/in spending/vbg the/at hour/nn with/in him/ppo ,/, and/cc he/pps were/bed thus/rb pointing/vbg up/rp my/pp$ failure/nn to/to utter/vb a/at humbly/ql grateful/jj ,/, ``/`` thank/vb-nc you/ppo-nc ''/'' to/in him/ppo at/in the/at end/nn of/in each/dt session/nn ./.
Eventually/rb it/pps became/vbd clear/jj to/in me/ppo ,/, partly/rb with/in the/at aid/nn of/in another/dt schizophrenic/jj patient/nn who/wps could/md point/vb out/rp my/pp$ condescension/nn to/in me/ppo somewhat/ql more/ql directly/rb ,/, that/cs this/dt man/nn ,/, with/in his/pp$ condescending/vbg ,/, ``/`` You're/ppss+ber-n welcome/jj-nc ''/'' ,/, was/bedz very/ql accurately/rb personifying/vbg an/at element/nn of/in obnoxious/jj condescension/nn which/wdt had/hvd been/ben present/rb in/in my/pp$ own/jj demeanor/nn ,/, over/in these/dts months/nns ,/, on/in each/dt of/in these/dts occasions/nns when/wrb I/ppss had/hvd bid/vbn him/ppo good-bye/uh with/in the/at consoling/vbg note/nn ,/, each/dt time/nn ,/, that/cs the/at healing/vbg Christ/np would/md be/be stooping/vbg to/to dispense/vb this/dt succor/nn to/in the/at poor/jj sufferer/nn again/rb on/in the/at morrow/nn ./.


	Another/dt patient/nn ,/, a/at paranoid/jj woman/nn ,/, for/in many/ap months/nns infuriated/vbd not/* only/rb me/ppo but/cc the/at ward-personnel/nns and/cc her/pp$ fellow/nn patients/nns by/in arrogantly/rb behaving/vbg as/cs though/cs she/pps owned/vbd the/at whole/jj building/nn ,/, as/cs though/cs she/pps were/bed the/at only/ap person/nn in/in it/ppo whose/wp$ needs/nns were/bed to/to be/be met/vbn ./.
This/dt behavior/nn on/in her/pp$ part/nn subsided/vbd only/rb after/cs I/ppss had/hvd come/vbn to/to see/vb the/at uncomfortably/ql close/jj similarity/nn between/in ,/, on/in the/at one/cd hand/nn ,/, her/pp$ arranging/vbg the/at ventilation/nn of/in the/at common/jj living/vbg room/nn to/in her/pp$ own/jj liking/nn ,/, or/cc turning/vbg the/at television/nn off/rp or/cc on/rp without/in regard/nn to/in the/at wishes/nns of/in the/at others/nns ,/, and/cc on/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, my/pp$ own/jj coming/nn stolidly/rb into/in her/pp$ room/nn despite/in her/pp$ persistent/jj and/cc vociferous/jj objections/nns ,/, bringing/vbg my/pp$ big/jj easy/jj chair/nn with/in me/ppo ,/, usually/rb shutting/vbg the/at windows/nns of/in her/pp$ room/nn which/wdt she/pps preferred/vbd to/to keep/vb in/in a/at very/ql cold/jj state/nn ,/, and/cc plunking/vbg myself/ppl down/rp in/in my/pp$ chair/nn --/-- in/in short/jj ,/, behaving/vbg as/cs if/cs I/ppss owned/vbd her/pp$ room/nn ./.



4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Condensation/nn-hl ./.-hl

Here/rb a/at variety/nn of/in meanings/nns and/cc emotions/nns are/ber concentrated/vbn ,/, or/cc reduced/vbn ,/, in/in their/pp$ communicative/jj expression/nn ,/, to/in some/dti comparatively/ql simple-seeming/jj verbal/jj or/cc nonverbal/jj statement/nn ./.


	One/pn finds/vbz ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, that/cs a/at terse/jj and/cc stereotyped/vbn verbal/jj expression/nn ,/, seeming/vbg at/in first/rb to/to be/be a/at mere/jj hollow/jj convention/nn ,/, reveals/vbz itself/ppl over/in the/at months/nns of/in therapy/nn as/cs the/at vehicle/nn for/in expressing/vbg the/at most/ql varied/vbn and/cc intense/jj feelings/nns ,/, and/cc the/at most/ql unconventional/jj of/in meanings/nns ./.
More/ap than/cs anything/pn ,/, it/pps is/bez the/at therapist's/nn$ intuitive/jj sensing/nn of/in these/dts latent/jj meanings/nns in/in the/at stereotype/nn which/wdt helps/vbz these/dts meanings/nns to/to become/vb revealed/vbn ,/, something/pn like/cs a/at spread-out/jj deck/nn of/in cards/nns ,/, on/in sporadic/jj occasions/nns over/in the/at passage/nn of/in the/at patient's/nn$ and/cc his/pp$ months/nns of/in work/nn together/rb ./.
One/pn cannot/md* assume/vb ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, that/cs all/abn these/dts accumulated/vbn meanings/nns were/bed inherent/jj in/in the/at stereotype/nn at/in the/at beginning/nn of/in the/at therapy/nn ,/, or/cc at/in any/dti one/cd time/nn later/rbr on/rp when/wrb the/at stereotype/nn was/bedz uttered/vbn ;/. ;/.
probably/rb it/pps is/bez correct/jj to/to think/vb of/in it/ppo as/cs a/at matter/nn of/in a/at well-grooved/jj ,/, stereotyped/vbn mode/nn of/in expression/nn --/-- and/cc no/at ,/, or/cc but/rb a/at few/ap ,/, other/ap communicational/jj grooves/nns ,/, as/ql yet/rb --/-- being/beg there/rb ,/, available/jj for/in the/at patient's/nn$ use/nn ,/, as/cs newly-emerging/jj emotions/nns and/cc ideas/nns well/vb up/rp in/in him/ppo over/in the/at course/nn of/in months/nns ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez true/jj that/cs the/at therapist/nn can/md sense/vb ,/, when/wrb he/pps hears/vbz this/dt stereotype/nn ,/, that/cs there/ex are/ber at/in this/dt moment/nn many/ap emotional/jj determinants/nns at/in work/nn in/in it/ppo ,/, a/at blurred/vbn babel/nn of/in indistinct/jj voices/nns which/wdt have/hv yet/rb to/to become/vb clearly/rb delineated/vbn from/in one/cd another/dt ./.


	Sometimes/rb it/pps is/bez not/* a/at verbal/jj stereotype/nn --/-- a/at ``/`` How/wrb-nc are/ber-nc you/ppss-nc now/rb-nc ''/'' ?/. ?/.
Or/cc an/at ``/`` I/ppss-nc want/vb-nc to/to-nc go/vb-nc home/nr-nc ''/'' ,/, or/cc whatever/wdt --/-- but/cc a/at nonverbal/jj one/cd which/wdt reveals/vbz itself/ppl ,/, gradually/rb ,/, as/cs the/at condensed/vbn expression/nn of/in more/ap than/in one/cd latent/jj meaning/nn ./.
A/at hebephrenic/jj man/nn used/vbd to/to give/vb a/at repetitious/jj wave/nn of/in his/pp$ hand/nn a/at number/nn of/in times/nns during/in his/pp$ largely-silent/jj hours/nns with/in his/pp$ therapist/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at therapist/nn came/vbd to/to feel/vb on/in sufficiently/ql sure/jj ground/nn with/in him/ppo to/to ask/vb him/ppo ,/, ``/`` What/wdt is/bez that/dt ,/, Bill/np --/-- hello/uh-nc or/cc farewell/uh-nc ''/'' ?/. ?/.
,/, the/at patient/nn replied/vbd ,/, ``/`` Both/abx ,/, Dearie/np --/-- two/cd in/in one/cd ''/'' ./.


	Of/in all/abn the/at possible/jj forms/nns of/in nonverbal/jj expression/nn ,/, that/dt which/wdt seems/vbz best/jjt to/to give/vb release/nn ,/, and/cc communicational/jj expression/nn ,/, to/in complex/jj and/cc undifferentiated/jj feelings/nns is/bez laughter/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez no/at coincidence/nn that/cs the/at hebephrenic/jj patient/nn ,/, the/at most/ql severely/rb dedifferentiated/vbn of/in all/abn schizophrenic/jj patients/nns ,/, shows/vbz ,/, as/cs one/cd of/in his/pp$ characteristic/jj symptoms/nns ,/, laughter/nn --/-- laughter/nn which/wdt now/rb makes/vbz one/pn feel/vb scorned/vbn or/cc hated/vbn ,/, which/wdt now/rb makes/vbz one/pn feel/vb like/cs weeping/vbg ,/, or/cc which/wdt now/rb gives/vbz one/pn a/at glimpse/nn of/in the/at bleak/jj and/cc empty/jj expanse/nn of/in man's/nn$ despair/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc which/wdt ,/, more/ql often/rb than/cs all/abn these/dts ,/, conveys/vbz a/at welter/nn of/in feelings/nns which/wdt could/md in/in no/at way/nn be/be conveyed/vbn by/in any/dti number/nn of/in words/nns ,/, words/nns which/wdt are/ber so/ql unlike/in this/dt welter/nn in/in being/beg formed/vbn and/cc discrete/jj from/in one/cd another/dt ./.
To/in a/at much/ql less/ql full/jj extent/nn ,/, the/at hebephrenic/jj person's/nn$ belching/nn or/cc flatus/nn has/hvz a/at comparable/jj communicative/jj function/nn ;/. ;/.
in/in working/vbg with/in these/dts patients/nns the/at therapist/nn eventually/rb gets/vbz to/to do/do some/dti at/in least/ap private/jj mulling/nn over/rp of/in the/at possible/jj meaning/nn of/in a/at belch/nn ,/, or/cc the/at passage/nn of/in flatus/nn ,/, not/* only/rb because/cs he/pps is/bez reduced/vbn to/in this/dt for/in lack/nn of/in anything/pn else/rb to/to analyze/vb ,/, but/cc also/rb because/cs he/pps learns/vbz that/cs even/rb these/dts animal-like/jj sounds/nns constitute/vb forms/nns of/in communication/nn in/in which/wdt ,/, from/in time/nn to/in time/nn ,/, quite/ql different/jj things/nns are/ber being/beg said/vbn ,/, long/rb before/cs the/at patient/nn can/md become/vb sufficiently/ql aware/jj of/in these/dts ,/, as/cs distinct/jj feelings/nns and/cc concepts/nns ,/, to/to say/vb them/ppo in/in words/nns ./.


	As/cs I/ppss have/hv been/ben intimating/vbg ,/, in/in the/at schizophrenic/nn --/-- and/cc perhaps/rb also/rb in/in the/at dreams/nns of/in the/at neurotic/nn ;/. ;/.
this/dt is/bez a/at question/nn which/wdt I/ppss have/hv no/at wish/nn to/to take/vb up/rp --/-- condensation/nn is/bez a/at phenomenon/nn in/in which/wdt one/pn finds/vbz not/* a/at condensed/vbn expression/nn of/in various/ap feelings/nns and/cc ideas/nns which/wdt are/ber ,/, at/in an/at unconscious/jj level/nn ,/, well/rb sorted/vbn out/rp ,/, but/cc rather/rb a/at condensed/vbn expression/nn of/in feelings/nns and/cc ideas/nns which/wdt ,/, even/rb in/in the/at unconscious/nn ,/, have/hv yet/rb to/to become/vb well/ql differentiated/vbn from/in one/cd another/dt ./.
Freeman/np ,/, Cameron/np and/cc McGhie/np ,/, in/in their/pp$ description/nn of/in the/at disturbances/nns of/in thinking/vbg found/vbn in/in chronic/jj schizophrenic/jj patients/nns ,/, say/vb ,/, in/in regard/nn to/in condensation/nn ,/, that/cs ``/`` the/at lack/nn of/in adequate/jj discrimination/nn between/in the/at self/nn and/cc the/at environment/nn ,/, and/cc the/at objects/nns contained/vbn therein/rb in/in itself/ppl is/bez the/at prototypical/jj condensation/nn ''/'' ./.


	In/in my/pp$ experience/nn ,/, a/at great/ql many/ap of/in the/at patient's/nn$ more/ql puzzling/jj verbal/jj communications/nns are/ber so/rb for/in the/at reason/nn that/cs concrete/jj meanings/nns have/hv not/* become/vbn differentiated/vbn from/in figurative/jj meanings/nns in/in his/pp$ subjective/jj experience/nn ./.
Thus/rb he/pps may/md be/be referring/vbg to/in some/dti concrete/jj thing/nn ,/, or/cc incident/nn ,/, in/in his/pp$ immediate/jj environment/nn by/in some/dti symbolic-sounding/jj ,/, hyperbolic/jj reference/nn to/in transcendental/jj events/nns on/in the/at global/jj scene/nn ./.
Recently/rb ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, a/at paranoid/jj woman's/nn$ large-scale/nn philosophizing/vbg ,/, in/in the/at session/nn ,/, about/in the/at intrusive/jj curiosity/nn which/wdt has/hvz become/vbn ,/, in/in her/pp$ opinion/nn ,/, a/at deplorable/jj characteristic/nn of/in mid-twentieth-century/nn human/jj culture/nn ,/, developed/vbd itself/ppl ,/, before/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at session/nn ,/, into/in a/at suspicion/nn that/cs I/ppss was/bedz surreptitiously/rb peeking/vbg at/in her/pp$ partially/rb exposed/vbn breast/nn ,/, as/cs indeed/rb I/ppss was/bedz ./.
Or/cc ,/, equally/rb often/rb ,/, a/at concretistic-seeming/jj ,/, particularistic-seeming/jj statement/nn may/md consist/vb ,/, with/in its/pp$ mundane/jj exterior/nn ,/, in/in a/at form/nn of/in poetry/nn --/-- may/md be/be full/jj of/in meaning/nn and/cc emotion/nn when/wrb interpreted/vbn as/cs a/at figurative/jj expression/nn :/: a/at metaphor/nn ,/, a/at smile/nn ,/, an/at allegory/nn ,/, or/cc some/dti other/ap symbolic/jj mode/nn of/in speaking/vbg ./.


	Of/in such/jj hidden/vbn meanings/nns the/at patient/nn himself/ppl is/bez ,/, more/ql often/rb than/cs not/* ,/, entirely/ql unaware/jj ./.
His/pp$ subjective/jj experience/nn may/md be/be a/at remarkably/ql concretistic/jj one/cd ./.
One/cd hebephrenic/jj women/nns confided/vbd to/in me/ppo ,/, ``/`` I/ppss live/vb in/in a/at world/nn of/in words/nns ''/'' ,/, as/cs if/cs ,/, to/in her/ppo ,/, words/nns were/bed fully/ql concrete/jj objects/nns ;/. ;/.
Burnham/np ,/, in/in his/pp$ excellent/jj article/nn (/( 1955/cd )/) concerning/in schizophrenic/jj communication/nn ,/, includes/vbz mention/nn of/in similar/jj clinical/jj material/nn ./.
A/at borderline/nn schizophrenic/jj young/jj man/nn told/vbd me/ppo that/cs to/in him/ppo the/at various/ap theoretical/jj concepts/nns about/in which/wdt he/pps had/hvd been/ben expounding/vbg ,/, in/in a/at most/ql articulate/jj fashion/nn ,/, during/in session/nn after/in session/nn with/in me/ppo ,/, were/bed like/cs great/jj cubes/nns of/in almost/ql tangibly/ql solid/jj matter/nn up/rp in/in the/at air/nn above/in him/ppo ;/. ;/.
as/cs he/pps spoke/vbd I/ppss was/bedz reminded/vbn of/in the/at great/jj bales/nns of/in cargo/nn which/wdt are/ber swung/vbn ,/, high/rb in/in the/at air/nn ,/, from/in a/at docked/vbn steamship/nn ./.



	The/at many/ap linguistic/jj techniques/nns for/in reducing/vbg the/at amount/nn of/in dictionary/nn information/nn that/wps have/hv been/ben proposed/vbn all/abn organize/vb the/at dictionary's/nn$ contents/nns around/in prefixes/nns ,/, stems/nns ,/, suffixes/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.
A/at significant/jj reduction/nn in/in the/at voume/nn of/in store/nn information/nn is/bez thus/rb realized/vbn ,/, especially/rb for/in a/at highly/ql inflected/vbn language/nn such/jj as/cs Russian/np ./.
For/in English/np the/at reduction/nn in/in size/nn is/bez less/ql striking/jj ./.
This/dt approach/nn requires/vbz that/cs :/: (/( 1/cd )/) each/dt text/nn word/nn be/be separated/vbn into/in smaller/jjr elements/nns to/to establish/vb a/at correspondence/nn between/in the/at occurrence/nn and/cc dictionary/nn entries/nns ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) the/at information/nn retrieved/vbn from/in several/ap entries/nns in/in the/at dictionary/nn be/be synthesized/vbn into/in a/at description/nn of/in the/at particular/jj word/nn ./.
The/at logical/jj scheme/nn used/vbn to/to accomplish/vb the/at former/ap influences/vbz the/at placement/nn of/in information/nn in/in the/at dictionary/nn file/nn ./.
Implementation/nn of/in the/at latter/ap requires/vbz storage/nn of/in information/nn needed/vbn only/rb for/in synthesis/nn ./.


	We/ppss suggest/vb the/at application/nn of/in certain/ap data-processing/nn techniques/nns as/cs a/at solution/nn to/in the/at problem/nn ./.
But/cc first/rb ,/, we/ppss must/md define/vb two/cd terms/nns so/cs that/cs their/pp$ meaning/nn will/md be/be clearly/rb understood/vbn :/: form/nn-nc --/-- any/dti unique/jj sequence/nn of/in alphabetic/jj characters/nns that/wps can/md appear/vb in/in a/at language/nn preceded/vbn and/cc followed/vbn by/in a/at space/nn ;/. ;/.
occurrence/nn-nc --/-- an/at instance/nn of/in a/at form/nn in/in text/nn ./.


	We/ppss propose/vb a/at method/nn for/in selecting/vbg only/ap dictionary/nn information/nn required/vbn by/in the/at text/nn being/beg translated/vbn and/cc a/at means/nn for/in passing/vbg the/at information/nn directly/rb to/in the/at occurrences/nns in/in text/nn ./.
We/ppss accomplish/vb this/dt by/in compiling/vbg a/at list/nn of/in text/nn forms/nns as/cs text/nn is/bez read/vbn by/in the/at computer/nn ./.
A/at random-storage/nn scheme/nn ,/, based/vbn on/in the/at spelling/nn of/in forms/nns ,/, provides/vbz an/at economical/jj way/nn to/to compile/vb this/dt text-form/nn list/nn ./.
Dictionary/nn forms/nns found/vbn to/to match/vb forms/nns in/in the/at text/nn list/nn are/ber marked/vbn ./.
A/at location/nn in/in the/at computer/nn store/nn is/bez also/rb named/vbn for/in each/dt marked/vbn form/nn ;/. ;/.
dictionary/nn information/nn about/in the/at form/nn stored/vbn at/in this/dt location/nn can/md be/be retrieved/vbn directly/rb by/in occurrences/nns of/in the/at form/nn in/in text/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, information/nn is/bez retrieved/vbn from/in the/at dictionary/nn as/cs required/vbn by/in stages/nns of/in the/at translation/nn process/nn --/-- the/at grammatical/jj description/nn for/in sentence-structure/nn determination/nn ,/, equivalent-choice/nn information/nn for/in semantic/jj analysis/nn ,/, and/cc target-language/nn equivalents/nns for/in output/nn construction/nn ./.


	The/at dictionary/nn is/bez a/at form/nn dictionary/nn ,/, at/in least/ap in/in the/at sense/nn that/cs complete/jj forms/nns are/ber used/vbn as/cs the/at basis/nn for/in matching/vbg text/nn occurrences/nns with/in dictionary/nn entries/nns ./.
Also/rb ,/, the/at dictionary/nn is/bez divided/vbn into/in at/in least/ap two/cd parts/nns :/: the/at list/nn of/in dictionary/nn forms/nns and/cc the/at file/nn of/in information/nn that/wps pertains/vbz to/in these/dts forms/nns ./.
A/at more/ql detailed/vbn description/nn of/in dictionary/nn operations/nns --/-- text/nn lookup/nn and/cc dictionary/nn modification/nn --/-- gives/vbz a/at clearer/jjr picture/nn ./.


	Text/nn lookup/nn ,/, as/cs we/ppss will/md describe/vb it/ppo ,/, consists/vbz of/in three/cd steps/nns ./.
The/at first/od is/bez compiling/vbg a/at list/nn of/in text/nn forms/nns ,/, assigning/vbg an/at information/nn cell/nn to/in each/dt ,/, and/cc replacing/vbg text/nn occurrences/nns with/in the/at information/nn cell/nn assigned/vbn to/in the/at form/nn of/in each/dt occurrence/nn ./.
For/in this/dt step/nn the/at computer/nn memory/nn is/bez separated/vbn into/in three/cd regions/nns :/: cells/nns in/in the/at W-region/nn are/ber used/vbn for/in storage/nn of/in the/at forms/nns in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ;/. ;/.
cells/nns in/in the/at X-region/nn and/cc Y/nn region/nn are/ber reserved/vbn as/cs information/nn cells/nns for/in text/nn forms/nns ./.


	When/wrb an/at occurrence/nn Af/nn is/bez isolated/vbn during/in text/nn reading/nn ,/, a/at random/jj memory/nn address/nn Af/nn ,/, the/at address/nn of/in a/at cell/nn in/in the/at X-region/nn ,/, is/bez computed/vbn from/in the/at form/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Let/vb Af/nn denote/vb the/at form/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs cell/nn Af/nn has/hvz not/* previously/rb been/ben assigned/vbn as/cs the/at information/nn cell/nn of/in a/at form/nn in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez now/rb assigned/vbn as/cs the/at information/nn cell/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at form/nn itself/ppl is/bez stored/vbn in/in the/at next/ap available/jj cells/nns of/in the/at W-region/nn ,/, beginning/vbg in/in cell/nn Af/nn ./.
The/at address/nn Af/nn and/cc the/at number/nn of/in cells/nns required/vbn to/to store/vb the/at form/nn are/ber written/vbn in/in Af/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at information/nn cell/nn Af/nn is/bez saved/vbn to/to represent/vb the/at text/nn occurrence/nn ./.
Text/nn reading/nn continues/vbz with/in the/at next/ap occurrence/nn ./.


	Let/vb us/ppo assume/vb that/cs Af/nn is/bez identical/jj to/in the/at form/nn of/in an/at occurrence/nn Af/nn which/wdt preceded/vbd Af/nn in/in the/at text/nn ./.
When/wrb this/dt situation/nn exists/vbz ,/, the/at address/nn Af/nn will/md equal/vb Af/nn which/wdt was/bedz produced/vbn from/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs Af/nn was/bedz assigned/vbn as/cs the/at information/nn cell/nn for/in Af/nn ,/, the/at routine/nn can/md detect/vb that/dt Af/nn is/bez identical/jj to/in Af/nn by/in comparing/vbg Af/nn with/in the/at form/nn stored/vbn at/in location/nn Af/nn ./.
The/at address/nn Af/nn is/bez stored/vbn in/in the/at cell/nn Af/nn ./.
When/wrb ,/, as/cs in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, the/at two/cd forms/nns match/vb ,/, the/at address/nn Af/nn is/bez saved/vbn to/to represent/vb the/at occurrence/nn Af/nn ./.
Text/nn reading/nn continues/vbz with/in the/at next/ap occurrence/nn ./.


	A/at third/od situation/nn is/bez possible/jj ./.
The/at formula/nn for/in computing/vbg random/jj addresses/nns from/in the/at form/nn of/in each/dt occurrence/nn will/md not/* give/vb a/at distinct/jj address/nn for/in each/dt distinct/jj form/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, when/wrb more/ap than/in one/cd distinct/jj form/nn leads/vbz to/in a/at particular/jj cell/nn in/in the/at X-region/nn ,/, a/at chain/nn of/in information/nn cells/nns must/md be/be created/vbn to/to accommodate/vb the/at forms/nns ,/, one/cd cell/nn in/in the/at chain/nn for/in each/dt form/nn ./.
If/cs Af/nn leads/vbz to/in an/at address/nn Af/nn that/wps is/bez equal/jj to/in the/at address/nn computed/vbn from/in Af/nn ,/, even/rb though/cs Af/nn does/doz not/* match/vb Af/nn ,/, the/at chain/nn of/in information/nn cells/nns is/bez extended/vbn from/in Af/nn by/in storing/vbg the/at address/nn of/in the/at next/ap available/jj cell/nn in/in the/at Y-region/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, in/in Af/nn ./.
The/at cell/nn Af/nn becomes/vbz the/at second/od information/nn cell/nn in/in the/at chain/nn and/cc is/bez assigned/vbn as/cs the/at information/nn cell/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
A/at third/od cell/nn can/md be/be added/vbn by/in storing/vbg the/at address/nn of/in another/dt Y-cell/nn in/in Af/nn ;/. ;/.
similarly/rb ,/, as/ql many/ap cells/nns are/ber added/vbn as/cs are/ber required/vbn ./.
Each/dt information/nn cell/nn in/in the/at chain/nn contains/vbz the/at address/nn of/in the/at Y-cell/nn where/wrb the/at form/nn to/in which/wdt it/pps is/bez assigned/vbn is/bez stored/vbn ./.
Each/dt cell/nn except/in the/at last/ap in/in the/at chain/nn also/rb contains/vbz the/at address/nn of/in the/at Y-cell/nn that/wps is/bez the/at next/ap element/nn of/in the/at chain/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at absence/nn of/in such/abl a/at link/nn in/in the/at last/ap cell/nn indicates/vbz the/at end/nn of/in the/at chain/nn ./.
Hence/rb ,/, when/wrb the/at address/nn Af/nn is/bez computed/vbn from/in Af/nn ,/, the/at cell/nn Af/nn and/cc all/abn Y-cells/nn in/in its/pp$ chain/nn must/md be/be inspected/vbn to/to determine/vb whether/cs Af/nn is/bez already/rb in/in the/at form/nn list/nn or/cc whether/cs it/pps should/md be/be added/vbn to/in the/at form/nn list/nn and/cc the/at chain/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at information/nn cell/nn for/in Af/nn has/hvz been/ben determined/vbn ,/, it/pps is/bez saved/vbn as/cs a/at representation/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
Text/nn reading/nn continues/vbz with/in the/at next/ap occurrence/nn ./.


	Text/nn reading/nn is/bez terminated/vbn when/wrb a/at pre-determined/vbn number/nn of/in forms/nns have/hv been/ben stored/vbn in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ./.
This/dt initiates/vbz the/at second/od step/nn of/in glossary/nn lookup/nn --/-- connecting/vbg the/at information/nn cell/nn of/in forms/nns in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn to/in dictionary/nn forms/nns ./.
Each/dt form/nn represented/vbn by/in the/at dictionary/nn is/bez looked/vbn up/rp in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ./.
Each/dt time/nn a/at dictionary/nn form/nn matches/vbz a/at text/nn form/nn ,/, the/at information/nn cell/nn of/in the/at matching/vbg text/nn form/nn is/bez saved/vbn ./.
The/at number/nn of/in dictionary/nn forms/nns skipped/vbn since/in the/at last/ap one/cd matched/vbn is/bez also/rb saved/vbn ./.
These/dts two/cd pieces/nns of/in information/nn for/in each/dt dictionary/nn form/nn that/wps is/bez matched/vbn by/in a/at text/nn form/nn constitute/vb the/at table/nn of/in dictionary/nn usage/nn ./.
If/cs each/dt text/nn form/nn is/bez marked/vbn when/wrb matched/vbn with/in a/at dictionary/nn form/nn ,/, the/at text/nn forms/nns not/* contained/vbn in/in the/at dictionary/nn can/md be/be identified/vbn when/wrb all/abn dictionary/nn forms/nns have/hv been/ben read/vbn ./.
The/at appropriate/jj action/nn for/in handling/vbg these/dts forms/nns can/md be/be taken/vbn at/in that/dt time/nn ./.


	Each/dt dictionary/nn form/nn is/bez looked/vbn up/rp in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn by/in the/at same/ap method/nn used/vbn to/to look/vb up/rp a/at new/jj text/nn occurrence/nn in/in the/at form/nn list/nn during/in text/nn reading/nn ./.
A/at random/jj address/nn Af/nn that/wps lies/vbz within/in the/at X-region/nn of/in memory/nn mentioned/vbn earlier/rbr is/bez computed/vbn from/in the/at i-th/nn dictionary/nn form/nn ./.
If/cs cell/nn Af/nn is/bez an/at information/nn cell/nn ,/, it/pps and/cc any/dti information/nn cells/nns in/in the/at Y-region/nn that/wps have/hv been/ben linked/vbn to/in Af/nn each/dt contain/vb an/at address/nn in/in the/at W-region/nn where/wrb a/at potentially/rb matching/jj form/nn is/bez stored/vbn ./.
The/at dictionary/nn form/nn is/bez compared/vbn with/in each/dt of/in these/dts text/nn forms/nns ./.
When/wrb a/at match/nn is/bez found/vbn ,/, an/at entry/nn is/bez made/vbn in/in the/at table/nn of/in dictionary/nn usage/nn ./.
If/cs cell/nn Af/nn is/bez not/* an/at information/nn cell/nn we/ppss conclude/vb that/cs the/at i-th/nn dictionary/nn form/nn is/bez not/* in/in the/at text/nn list/nn ./.


	These/dts two/cd steps/nns essentially/rb complete/vb the/at lookup/nn operation/nn ./.
The/at final/jj step/nn merely/rb uses/vbz the/at table/nn of/in dictionary/nn usage/nn to/to select/vb the/at dictionary/nn information/nn that/wps pertains/vbz to/in each/dt form/nn matched/vbn in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ,/, and/cc uses/vbz the/at list/nn of/in information/nn cells/nns recorded/vbn in/in text/nn order/nn to/to attach/vb the/at appropriate/jj information/nn to/in each/dt occurrence/nn in/in text/nn ./.
The/at list/nn of/in text/nn forms/nns in/in the/at W-region/nn of/in memory/nn and/cc the/at contents/nns of/in the/at information/nn cells/nns in/in the/at X/nn and/cc Y-regions/nn are/ber no/ql longer/rbr required/vbn ./.
Only/rb the/at assignment/nn of/in the/at information/nn cells/nns is/bez important/jj ./.


	The/at first/od stage/nn of/in translation/nn after/in glossary/nn lookup/nn is/bez structural/jj analysis/nn of/in the/at input/nn text/nn ./.
The/at grammatical/jj description/nn of/in each/dt occurrence/nn in/in the/at text/nn must/md be/be retrieved/vbn from/in the/at dictionary/nn to/to permit/vb such/abl an/at analysis/nn ./.
A/at description/nn of/in this/dt process/nn will/md serve/vb to/to illustrate/vb how/wrb any/dti type/nn of/in information/nn can/md be/be retrieved/vbn from/in the/at dictionary/nn and/cc attached/vbn to/in each/dt text/nn occurrence/nn ./.


	The/at grammatical/jj descriptions/nns of/in all/abn forms/nns in/in the/at dictionary/nn are/ber recorded/vbn in/in a/at separate/jj part/nn of/in the/at dictionary/nn file/nn ./.
The/at order/nn is/bez identical/jj to/in the/at ordering/nn of/in the/at forms/nns they/ppss describe/vb ./.
When/wrb entries/nns are/ber being/beg retrieved/vbn from/in this/dt file/nn ,/, the/at table/nn of/in dictionary/nn usage/nn indicates/vbz which/wdt entries/nns to/to skip/vb and/cc which/wdt entries/nns to/to store/vb in/in the/at computer/nn ./.
This/dt selection-rejection/nn process/nn takes/vbz place/nn as/cs the/at file/nn is/bez read/vbn ./.
Each/dt entry/nn that/wps is/bez selected/vbn for/in storage/nn is/bez written/vbn into/in the/at next/ap available/jj cells/nns of/in the/at Aj/nn ./.
The/at address/nn of/in the/at first/od cell/nn and/cc the/at number/nn of/in cells/nns used/vbn is/bez written/vbn in/in the/at information/nn cell/nn for/in the/at form/nn ./.
(/( The/at address/nn of/in the/at information/nn cell/nn is/bez also/rb supplied/vbn by/in the/at table/nn of/in dictionary/nn usage/nn ./.
)/) When/wrb the/at complete/jj file/nn has/hvz been/ben read/vbn ,/, the/at grammatical/jj descriptions/nns for/in all/abn text/nn forms/nns found/vbn in/in the/at dictionary/nn have/hv been/ben stored/vbn in/in the/at W-region/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at information/nn cell/nn assigned/vbn to/in each/dt text/nn form/nn contains/vbz the/at address/nn of/in the/at grammatical/jj description/nn of/in the/at form/nn it/pps represents/vbz ./.
Hence/rb ,/, the/at description/nn of/in each/dt text/nn occurrence/nn can/md be/be retrieved/vbn by/in reading/vbg the/at list/nn of/in text-ordered/jj information-cell/nn addresses/nns and/cc outputting/vbg the/at description/nn indicated/vbn by/in the/at information/nn cell/nn for/in each/dt occurrence/nn ./.


	The/at only/ap requirements/nns on/in dictionary/nn information/nn made/vbn by/in the/at text-lookup/nn operation/nn are/ber that/cs each/dt form/nn represented/vbn by/in the/at dictionary/nn be/be available/jj for/in lookup/nn in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn and/cc that/cs information/nn for/in each/dt form/nn be/be available/jj in/in a/at sequence/nn identical/jj with/in the/at sequence/nn of/in the/at forms/nns ./.
This/dt leaves/vbz the/at ordering/nn of/in entries/nns variable/jj ./.
(/( Here/rb an/at entry/nn is/bez a/at form/nn plus/in the/at information/nn that/wps pertains/vbz to/in it/ppo ./.
)/) 

	Two/cd very/ql useful/jj ways/nns for/in modifying/vbg a/at form-dictionary/nn are/ber the/at addition/nn to/in the/at dictionary/nn of/in complete/jj paradigms/nns rather/rb than/cs single/ap forms/nns and/cc the/at application/nn of/in a/at single/ap change/nn to/in more/ap than/in one/cd dictionary/nn form/nn ./.
The/at former/ap is/bez intended/vbn to/to decrease/vb the/at amount/nn of/in work/nn necessary/jj to/to extend/vb dictionary/nn coverage/nn ./.
The/at latter/ap is/bez useful/jj for/in modifying/vbg information/nn about/in some/dti or/cc all/abn forms/nns of/in a/at word/nn ,/, hence/rb reducing/vbg the/at work/nn required/vbn to/to improve/vb dictionary/nn contents/nns ./.
Applying/vbg the/at techniques/nns developed/vbn at/in Harvard/np for/in generating/vbg a/at paradigm/nn from/in a/at representative/jj form/nn and/cc its/pp$ classification/nn ,/, we/ppss can/md add/vb all/abn forms/nns of/in a/at word/nn to/in the/at dictionary/nn at/in once/rb ./.
An/at extension/nn of/in the/at principle/nn would/md permit/vb entering/vbg a/at grammatical/jj description/nn of/in each/dt form/nn ./.
Equivalents/nns could/md be/be assigned/vbn to/in the/at paradigm/nn either/cc at/in the/at time/nn it/pps is/bez added/vbn to/in the/at dictionary/nn or/cc after/cs the/at word/nn has/hvz been/ben studied/vbn in/in context/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, one/pn can/md think/vb of/in a/at dictionary/nn entry/nn as/cs a/at word/nn rather/rb than/cs a/at form/nn ./.


	If/cs all/abn forms/nns of/in a/at paradigm/nn are/ber grouped/vbn together/rb within/in the/at dictionary/nn ,/, a/at considerable/jj reduction/nn in/in the/at amount/nn of/in information/nn required/vbn is/bez possible/jj ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at inflected/vbn forms/nns of/in a/at word/nn can/md be/be represented/vbn ,/, insofar/rb as/cs regular/jj inflection/nn allows/vbz ,/, by/in a/at stem/nn and/cc a/at set/nn of/in endings/nns to/to be/be attached/vbn ./.
(/( Indeed/rb ,/, the/at set/nn of/in endings/nns can/md be/be replaced/vbn by/in the/at name/nn of/in a/at set/nn of/in endings/nns ./.
)/) The/at full/jj forms/nns can/md be/be derived/vbn from/in such/jj information/nn just/ql prior/rb to/in the/at lookup/nn of/in the/at form/nn in/in the/at text-form/nn list/nn ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, if/cs the/at equivalents/nns for/in the/at forms/nns of/in a/at word/nn do/do not/* vary/vb ,/, the/at equivalents/nns need/md be/be entered/vbn only/ql once/rb with/in an/at indication/nn that/cs they/ppss apply/vb to/in each/dt form/nn ./.
The/at dictionary/nn system/nn is/bez in/in no/at way/nn dependent/jj upon/in such/jj summarization/nn or/cc designed/vbn around/in it/ppo ./.
When/wrb irregularity/nn and/cc variation/nn prevent/vb summarizing/vbg ,/, information/nn is/bez written/vbn in/in complete/jj detail/nn ./.
Entries/nns are/ber summarized/vbn only/rb when/wrb by/in doing/vbg so/rb the/at amount/nn of/in information/nn retained/vbn in/in the/at dictionary/nn is/bez reduced/vbn and/cc the/at time/nn required/vbn for/in dictionary/nn operations/nns is/bez decreased/vbn ./.

In/in sentences/nns ,/, patterns/nns of/in stress/nn are/ber determined/vbn by/in complex/jj combinations/nns of/in influences/nns that/wps can/md only/rb be/be suggested/vbn here/rb ./.
The/at tendency/nn is/bez toward/in putting/vbg dominant/jj stress/nn at/in the/at end/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at parallel/nn to/in this/dt tendency/nn in/in the/at assignment/nn of/in time/nn in/in long-known/jj hymn/nn tunes/nns ./.
Thus/rb the/at first/od lines/nns of/in one/cd of/in Charles/np Wesley's/np$ hymns/nns are/ber as/cs follows/vbz ./.
``/`` A/at-nc charge/nn-nc to/to-nc keep/vb-nc I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc ,/,-nc A/at God/np to/to glorify/vb ''/'' ./.
In/in the/at tune/nn to/in which/wdt this/dt hymn/nn is/bez most/ql often/rb sung/vbn ,/, ``/`` Boylston/np ''/'' ,/, the/at syllables/nns have/hv-nc and/cc fy/nn-nc ,/, ending/vbg their/pp$ lines/nns ,/, have/hv twice/rb the/at time/nn any/dti other/ap syllables/nns have/hv ./.
Dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez of/in course/nn more/ap than/cs extended/vbn duration/nn ,/, and/cc normally/rb centers/vbz on/in syllables/nns that/wps would/md have/hv primary/jj stress/nn or/cc phrase/nn stress/nn if/cs the/at words/nns or/cc longer/jjr units/nns they/ppss are/ber parts/nns of/in were/bed spoken/vbn alone/rb :/: a/at dominant/jj stress/nn given/vbn to/in glorify/vb-nc would/md normally/rb center/vb on/in its/pp$ first/od syllable/nn rather/rb than/cs its/pp$ last/ap ./.
But/cc the/at parallel/nn is/bez significant/jj ./.
When/wrb the/at answer/nn to/in what's/wdt+bez-nc wrong/jj-nc now/rb-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
Is/bez Bill's/np+hvz-nc broken/vbn-nc a/at-nc chair/nn-nc ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn will/md usually/rb be/be on/in the/at complement/nn a/at-nc chair/nn-nc ./.
From/in the/at point/nn of/in view/nn of/in syntactic/jj analysis/nn the/at head/nn word/nn in/in the/at statement/nn is/bez the/at predicator/nn has/hvz-nc broken/vbn-nc ,/, and/cc from/in the/at point/nn of/in view/nn of/in meaning/nn it/pps would/md seem/vb that/cs the/at trouble/nn centers/vbz in/in the/at breaking/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc dominant/jj stress/nn will/md be/be assigned/vbn to/in broken/vbn-nc only/rb in/in rather/ql exceptional/jj versions/nns of/in the/at sentence/nn ./.
In/in I/ppss-nc know/vb-nc one/cd-nc thing/nn-nc dominant/jj stress/nn will/md usually/rb be/be on/in the/at complement/nn one/cd-nc thing/nn-nc ;/. ;/.
in/in one/cd-nc thing/nn-nc I/ppss-nc know/vb-nc it/pps will/md usually/rb be/be on/in the/at predicator/nn know/vb-nc ./.
In/in small-town/nn-nc people/nns-nc are/ber-nc very/ql-nc friendly/jj-nc dominant/jj stress/nn will/md generally/rb be/be on/in the/at complement/nn very/ql-nc friendly/jj-nc ;/. ;/.
in/in the/at double/jj sentence/nn the/at-nc smaller/jjr-nc the/at-nc town/nn-nc ,/,-nc the/at-nc friendlier/jjr-nc the/at-nc people/nns-nc it/pps will/md generally/rb be/be on/in the/at subjects/nns the/at-nc town/nn-nc and/cc the/at-nc people/nns-nc ./.
In/in what's/wdt+bez-nc a/at-nc linguist/nn-nc ?/. ?/.
dominant/jj stress/nn will/md generally/rb be/be on/in the/at subject/nn a/at-nc linguist/nn-nc ;/. ;/.
in/in who's/wps+bez-nc a/at-nc linguist/nn-nc ?/nil it/pps will/md generally/rb be/be on/in the/at complement/nn a/at-nc linguist/nn-nc ./.
Dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez on/in her/pp$-nc luggage/nn-nc both/abx in/in that's/dt+bez-nc her/pp$-nc luggage/nn-nc ,/, where/wrb her/pp$-nc luggage/nn-nc is/bez the/at complement/nn ,/, and/cc in/in there's/rb+bez-nc her/pp$-nc luggage/nn-nc ,/, where/wrb it/pps is/bez the/at subject/nn ./.
Adverbial/jj second/od complements/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, are/ber likely/jj not/* to/to have/hv dominant/jj stress/nn when/wrb they/ppss terminate/vb sentences/nns ./.
If/cs the/at answer/nn to/in what/wdt-nc was/bedz-nc that/dt-nc noise/nn-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
Is/bez George/np-nc put/vbd-nc the/at-nc cat/nn-nc out/rp-nc ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn will/md ordinarily/rb be/be on/in the/at first/od complement/nn ,/, the/at-nc cat/nn-nc ,/, not/* the/at second/od complement/nn out/rp-nc ./.
Final/jj adjuncts/nns may/md or/cc may/md not/* have/hv dominant/jj stress/nn ./.
If/cs the/at answer/nn to/in what/wdt-nc was/bedz-nc that/dt-nc noise/nn-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
Is/bez George/np-nc reads/vbz-nc the/at-nc news/nn-nc emotionally/rb-nc ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn may/md or/cc may/md not/* be/be on/in the/at adjunct/nn emotionally/rb-nc ./.
When/wrb prepositional/jj complements/nns are/ber divided/vbn as/cs in/in what/wdt-nc are/ber-nc you/ppss-nc looking/vbg-nc for/in-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
They/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to lose/vb dominant/jj stress/nn ./.


	Context/nn is/bez of/in extreme/jj importance/nn ./.
What/wdt is/bez new/jj in/in the/at context/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be made/vbn more/ql prominent/jj than/cs what/wdt is/bez not/* ./.
Thus/rb in/in a/at context/nn in/in which/wdt there/ex has/hvz been/ben discussion/nn of/in snow/nn but/cc mention/nn of/in local/jj conditions/nns is/bez new/jj ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn will/md probably/rb be/be on/in here/rb-nc in/in it/pps-nc rarely/rb-nc snows/vbz-nc here/rb-nc ,/, but/cc in/in a/at context/nn in/in which/wdt there/ex has/hvz been/ben discussion/nn of/in local/jj weather/nn but/cc no/at mention/nn of/in snow/nn ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn will/md probably/rb be/be on/in snows/vbz-nc ./.
The/at personal/jj pronouns/nns and/cc substitute/jj one/pn-nc are/ber normally/rb unstressed/jj because/cs they/ppss refer/vb to/in what/wdt is/bez prominent/jj in/in the/at immediate/jj context/nn ./.
In/in I'll/ppss+md-nc go/vb-nc with/in-nc George/np-nc dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez probably/rb on/in George/np-nc ;/. ;/.
but/in if/cs George/np has/hvz just/rb been/ben mentioned/vbn prominently/rb (/( and/cc the/at trip/nn to/to be/be made/vbn has/hvz been/ben under/in discussion/nn )/) ,/, what/wdt is/bez said/vbn is/bez probably/rb I'll/ppss+md-nc go/vb-nc with/in-nc him/ppo-nc ,/, and/cc dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez probably/rb on/in the/at preposition/nn with/in-nc ./.
When/wrb a/at gesture/nn accompanies/vbz who's/wps+bez-nc he/pps-nc ?/. ?/.
the/at personal/jj pronoun/nn has/hvz dominant/jj stress/nn because/cs ``/`` he/pps-nc ''/'' has/hvz not/* been/ben mentioned/vbn previously/rb ./.
If/cs both/abx George/np and/cc a/at piece/nn of/in information/nn George/np does/doz not/* have/hv are/ber prominent/jj in/in the/at context/nn ,/, but/cc the/at idea/nn of/in telling/vbg George/np is/bez new/jj ,/, then/rb dominant/jj stress/nn will/md probably/rb be/be on/in tell/vb-nc in/in why/wrb-nc not/*-nc tell/vb-nc George/np-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
But/cc when/wrb what/wdt is/bez new/jj in/in a/at particular/jj context/nn is/bez also/rb fairly/ql obvious/jj ,/, there/ex is/bez normally/rb only/rb light/jj stress/nn or/cc no/at stress/nn at/in all/abn ./.
Thus/rb the/at unstressed/jj it/pps-nc of/in it/pps-nc rarely/rb-nc snows/vbz-nc here/rb-nc gets/vbz its/pp$ significance/nn from/in its/pp$ use/nn with/in snows/vbz-nc :/: nothing/pn can/md snow/vb snow/nn but/in ``/`` it/ppo ''/'' ./.
In/in there/ex-nc aren't/ber*-nc many/ap-nc young/jj-nc people/nns-nc in/in-nc the/at-nc neighborhood/nn-nc the/at modifier/nn young/jj-nc takes/vbz dominant/jj stress/nn away/rb from/in its/pp$ head/nn people/nns-nc :/: the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at young/jj creatures/nns of/in interest/nn are/ber people/nns seems/vbz rather/ql obvious/jj ./.
If/cs women/nns-nc replaced/vbd people/nns-nc ,/, it/pps would/md normally/rb have/hv dominant/jj stress/nn ./.
In/in I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc things/nns-nc to/to-nc do/do-nc the/at word/nn things/nns-nc makes/vbz little/ap real/jj contribution/nn to/in meaning/nn and/cc has/hvz weaker/jjr stress/nn than/cs do/do-nc ./.
If/cs work/nn-nc is/bez substituted/vbn for/in things/nns-nc (/( with/in more/ql exact/jj contribution/nn to/in meaning/nn )/) ,/, it/pps will/md have/hv dominant/jj stress/nn ./.
In/in I/ppss-nc know/vb-nc one/cd-nc thing/nn-nc dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to go/vb to/in one/cd-nc rather/rb than/cs to/in semantically/rb pale/jj thing/nn-nc ./.
In/in I/ppss-nc knew/vbd-nc you/ppo-nc when/wrb-nc you/ppss-nc were/bed-nc a/at-nc child/nn-nc ,/, and/cc-nc you/ppss-nc were/bed-nc pretty/jj-nc then/rb-nc dominant/jj stress/nn on/in then/rb-nc implies/vbz that/cs the/at young/jj woman/nn spoken/vbn to/in is/bez still/rb pretty/jj ./.
Dominant/jj stress/nn on/in pretty/jj-nc would/md be/be almost/ql insulting/jj here/rb ./.
In/in the/at written/vbn language/nn then/rb-nc can/md be/be underlined/vbn or/cc italicized/vbn to/to guide/vb the/at reader/nn here/rb ,/, but/cc much/ap of/in the/at time/nn the/at written/vbn language/nn simply/rb depends/vbz on/in the/at reader's/nn$ alertness/nn ,/, and/cc a/at careless/jj reader/nn will/md have/hv to/to back/vb up/rp and/cc reread/vb ./.


	Often/rb ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn simply/rb indicates/vbz a/at centering/nn of/in attention/nn or/cc emotion/nn ./.
Thus/rb in/in it's/pps+bez-nc incredible/jj-nc what/wdt-nc that/dt-nc boy/nn-nc can/md-nc eat/vb-nc dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be on/in incredible/jj-nc ,/, and/cc eat/vb-nc will/md have/hv strong/jj stress/nn also/rb ./.
In/in she/pps-nc has/hvz-nc it/ppo-nc in/rp-nc for/in-nc George/np-nc dominant/jj stress/nn will/md ordinarily/rb be/be on/in in/rp-nc ,/, where/wrb the/at notion/nn of/in stored-up/jj antipathy/nn seems/vbz to/to center/vb ./.
In/in we're/ppss+ber-nc painting/vbg-nc at/in-nc our/pp$-nc garage/nn-nc strong/jj stress/nn on/in at/in-nc indicates/vbz that/cs the/at job/nn being/beg done/vbn is/bez not/* real/jj painting/nn but/cc simply/rb an/at effort/nn at/in painting/vbg ./.
Where/wrb there/ex is/bez comparison/nn or/cc contrast/nn ,/, dominant/jj stresses/nns normally/rb operate/vb to/to center/vb attention/nn ./.
Thus/rb in/in his/pp$-nc friends/nns-nc are/ber-nc stranger/jjr-nc than/cs-nc his/pp$-nc sisters'/nns$-nc strong/jj stresses/nns are/ber normal/jj for/in his/pp$-nc and/cc sisters'/nns$-nc ,/, but/cc in/in his/pp$-nc friends/nns-nc are/ber-nc stranger/jjr-nc than/in-nc his/pp$-nc sisters/nns-nc strong/jj stresses/nns are/ber normal/jj for/in friends/nns-nc and/cc sisters/nns-nc ./.
In/in he's/pps+bez-nc hurting/vbg-nc himself/ppl-nc more/rbr-nc than/cs-nc he's/pps+bez-nc hurting/vbg-nc you/ppo-nc both/abx himself/ppl-nc and/cc you/ppo-nc have/hv stronger/jjr stress/nn than/cs they/ppss would/md ordinarily/rb have/hv if/cs there/ex were/bed no/at contrast/nn ./.
In/in is/bez-nc she/pps-nc Chinese/jj-nc or/cc-nc Japanese/jj-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
The/at desire/nn to/to contrast/vb the/at first/od parts/nns of/in words/nns which/wdt are/ber alike/jj in/in their/pp$ last/ap components/nns produces/vbz an/at exceptional/jj disregard/nn of/in the/at normal/jj patterns/nns of/in stress/nn of/in Chinese/np-nc and/cc Japanese/jj-nc ./.
Sometimes/rb strong/jj stress/nn serves/vbz to/to focus/vb an/at important/jj secondary/jj relationship/nn ./.
Thus/rb in/in Mary/np-nc wrote/vbd-nc an/at-nc account/nn-nc of/in-nc the/at-nc trip/nn-nc first/od-nc strong/jj stress/nn on/in Mary/np-nc marks/vbz Mary/np-nc as/cs the/at first/od in/in a/at series/nn of/in people/nns who/wps wrote/vbd accounts/nns of/in the/at trip/nn ,/, strong/jj stress/nn on/in wrote/vbd-nc marks/vbz the/at writing/nn as/cs the/at first/od of/in a/at series/nn of/in actions/nns of/in Mary's/np$ concerned/vbn with/in an/at account/nn of/in her/pp$ trip/nn (/( about/in which/wdt she/pps may/md later/rbr have/hv made/vbn speeches/nns ,/, for/in example/nn )/) ,/, and/cc strong/jj stress/nn on/in trip/nn-nc makes/vbz the/at trip/nn the/at first/od of/in a/at series/nn of/in subjects/nns about/in which/wdt Mary/np wrote/vbd accounts/nns ./.
In/in hunger/nn-nc stimulates/vbz-nc man/nn-nc too/rb-nc the/at situation/nn is/bez very/ql similar/jj ./.
Strong/jj stress/nn on/in hunger/nn-nc treats/vbz hunger/nn as/cs an/at additional/jj stimulus/nn ,/, strong/jj stress/nn on/in stimulates/vbz-nc treats/nns stimulation/nn as/cs an/at additional/jj effect/nn of/in hunger/nn ,/, strong/jj stress/nn on/in man/nn-nc treats/vbz man/nn as/cs an/at additional/jj creature/nn who/wps responds/vbz to/in the/at stimulation/nn of/in hunger/nn ./.
Here/rb again/rb ,/, in/in the/at written/vbn language/nn it/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to help/vb the/at reader/nn get/vb his/pp$ stresses/nns right/jj by/in using/vbg underlining/vbg or/cc italics/nns ,/, but/cc much/ap of/in the/at time/nn there/ex is/bez simply/rb reliance/nn on/in his/pp$ understanding/nn in/in the/at light/nn of/in context/nn ./.


	When/wrb a/at word/nn represents/vbz a/at larger/jjr construction/nn of/in which/wdt it/pps is/bez the/at only/ap expressed/vbn part/nn ,/, it/pps normally/rb has/hvz more/ap stress/nn than/cs it/pps would/md have/hv in/in fully/ql expressed/vbn construction/nn ./.
Thus/rb when/wrb yes/rb-nc ,/, I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc is/bez the/at response/nn to/in have/hv-nc you/ppss-nc finished/vbn-nc reading/vbg-nc the/at-nc paper/nn-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
The/at stress/nn on/in have/hv-nc ,/, which/wdt here/rb represents/vbz have/hv-nc finished/vbn-nc reading/vbg-nc the/at-nc paper/nn-nc ,/, is/bez quite/ql strong/jj ./.
In/in Mack's/np+bez-nc the/at-nc leader/nn-nc at/in-nc camp/nn-nc ,/, but/cc-nc Jack/np-nc is/bez-nc here/rb-nc the/at is/bez-nc of/in the/at second/od main/jjs declarative/nn represents/vbz is/bez-nc the/at-nc leader/nn-nc and/cc therefore/rb has/hvz stress/nn ./.
Mack's/np+bez-nc the/at-nc leader/nn-nc at/in-nc camp/nn-nc ,/,-nc but/cc-nc Jack's/np+bez-nc here/rb-nc ,/, with/in this/dt is/bez-nc deprived/vbn of/in stress/nn ,/, makes/vbz here/rb-nc the/at complement/nn in/in the/at clause/nn ./.
In/in of/in-nc all/abn-nc the/at-nc suggestions/nns-nc that/wps-nc were/bed-nc made/vbn-nc ,/,-nc his/pp$-nc was/bedz-nc the/at-nc silliest/jjt-nc the/at possessive/nn his/pp$-nc represents/vbz his/pp$-nc suggestion/nn-nc and/cc is/bez stressed/vbn ./.
When/wrb go/vb-nc represents/vbz itself/ppl and/cc a/at complement/nn (/( being/beg equivalent/jj ,/, say/uh ,/, to/in go/vb-nc to/in-nc Martinique/np-nc )/) in/in which/wdt-nc boat/nn-nc did/dod-nc Jack/np-nc go/vb-nc on/in-nc ?/.-nc ?/.-nc
It/pps has/hvz strong/jj stress/nn ;/. ;/.
when/wrb it/pps represents/vbz only/rb itself/ppl and/cc on/in-nc which/wdt-nc is/bez its/pp$ complement/nn (/( so/cs that/cs go/vb-nc on/in-nc is/bez semantically/rb equivalent/jj to/in board/vb-nc )/) ,/, on/in-nc has/hvz stronger/jjr stress/nn than/cs go/vb-nc does/doz ./.
Omission/nn of/in a/at subordinator/nn pronoun/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, does/doz not/* result/vb in/in an/at increase/nn in/in stress/nn on/in a/at prepositional/jj adverb/nn for/in which/wdt the/at subordinator/nn pronoun/nn would/md be/be object/nn ./.
Thus/rb to/in-nc has/hvz light/jj stress/nn both/abx in/in that/dt-nc was/bedz-nc the/at-nc conclusion/nn-nc that/wpo-nc I/ppss-nc came/vbd-nc to/in-nc and/cc in/in that/dt-nc was/bedz-nc the/at-nc conclusion/nn-nc I/ppss-nc came/vbd-nc to/in-nc ./.
But/cc when/wrb to/to-nc represents/vbz to/in-nc consciousness/nn-nc in/in that/wps-nc was/bedz-nc the/at-nc moment/nn-nc that/cs-nc I/ppss-nc came/vbd-nc to/in-nc ,/, and/cc similarly/rb in/in that/wps-nc was/bedz-nc the/at-nc moment/nn-nc I/ppss-nc came/vbd-nc to/in-nc ,/, there/ex is/bez much/ql stronger/jjr stress/nn on/in to/in-nc ./.
In/in I/ppss-nc wanted/vbd-nc to/to-nc tell/vb-nc him/ppo-nc ,/,-nc but/cc-nc I/ppss-nc was/bedz-nc afraid/jj-nc to/to-nc the/at final/jj to/to-nc is/bez lightly/rb stressed/vbn because/cs it/pps represents/vbz to/to-nc tell/vb-nc him/ppo-nc ./.
In/in to/to-nc tell/vb-nc him/ppo-nc ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, to/to-nc is/bez normally/rb unstressed/jj ./.
When/wrb I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc instructions/nns-nc to/to-nc leave/vb-nc is/bez equivalent/jj in/in meaning/nn to/in I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc instructions/nns-nc that/cs-nc I/ppss-nc am/bem-nc to/to-nc leave/vb-nc this/dt-nc place/nn-nc ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez ordinarily/rb on/in leave/vb-nc ./.
When/wrb the/at same/ap sequence/nn is/bez equivalent/jj in/in meaning/nn to/in I/ppss-nc have/hv-nc instructions/nns-nc which/wdt-nc I/ppss-nc am/bem-nc to/to-nc leave/vb-nc ,/, dominant/jj stress/nn is/bez ordinarily/rb on/in instructions/nns-nc ./.


	It/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs patterns/nns of/in stress/nn sometimes/rb show/vb construction/nn unambiguously/rb in/in the/at spoken/vbn language/nn where/wrb without/in the/at help/nn of/in context/nn it/pps would/md be/be ambiguous/jj in/in the/at written/vbn ./.
Other/ap examples/nns follow/vb ./.
``/`` I'll/ppss+md come/vb by/rb Tuesday/nr ./.
I/ppss can't/md* be/be happy/jj long/rb without/in drinking/vbg water/nn ''/'' ./.
In/in the/at first/od of/in these/dts sentences/nns if/cs by/in-nc is/bez the/at complement/nn of/in come/vb-nc and/cc Tuesday/nr-nc is/bez an/at adjunct/nn of/in time/nn equivalent/jj to/in on/in-nc Tuesday/nr-nc ,/, there/ex will/md be/be strong/jj stress/nn on/in by/in-nc in/in the/at spoken/vbn language/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc if/cs a/at complement/nn for/in come/vb-nc is/bez implied/vbn and/cc by/in-nc Tuesday/nr-nc is/bez a/at prepositional/jj unit/nn used/vbn as/cs an/at adjunct/nn ,/, by/in-nc will/md be/be unstressed/jj or/cc lightly/rb stressed/vbn at/in most/ap ./.
In/in the/at second/od sentence/nn if/cs drinking/vbg-nc water/nn-nc is/bez a/at gerundial/jj clause/nn and/cc without/in-nc drinking/vbg-nc water/nn-nc is/bez roughly/ql equivalent/jj in/in meaning/nn to/in unless/cs-nc I/ppss-nc drink/vb-nc water/nn-nc ,/, there/ex will/md be/be stronger/jjr stress/nn on/in water/nn-nc than/cs on/in drinking/vbg-nc ;/. ;/.
but/cc if/cs drinking/vbg-nc is/bez a/at gerundial/jj noun/nn modifying/vbg water/nn-nc and/cc without/in-nc drinking/vbg-nc water/nn-nc is/bez equivalent/jj to/in without/in-nc water/nn-nc for/in-nc drinking/vbg-nc ,/, there/ex will/md be/be stronger/jjr stress/nn on/in drinking/vbg-nc than/cs on/in water/nn-nc ./.
But/cc the/at use/nn of/in stress/nn in/in comparison/nn and/cc contrast/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, can/md undermine/vb distinctions/nns such/jj as/cs these/dts ./.
And/cc patterns/nns of/in stress/nn are/ber not/* always/rb unambiguous/jj by/in any/dti means/nns ./.
In/in the/at-nc Steiners/nps-nc have/hv-nc busy/jj-nc lives/nns-nc without/in-nc visiting/vbg-nc relatives/nns-nc only/ap context/nn can/md indicate/vb whether/cs visiting/vbg-nc relatives/nns-nc is/bez equivalent/jj in/in meaning/nn to/in paying/vbg visits/nns to/in relatives/nns or/cc to/in relatives/nns who/wps are/ber visiting/vbg them/ppo ,/, and/cc in/in I/ppss-nc looked/vbd-nc up/rp-nc the/at-nc number/nn-nc and/cc I/ppss-nc looked/vbd-nc up/in-nc the/at-nc chimney/nn-nc only/rb the/at meanings/nns of/in number/nn-nc and/cc chimney/nn-nc make/vb it/ppo clear/jj that/cs up/in-nc is/bez syntactically/rb a/at second/od complement/nn in/in the/at first/od sentence/nn and/cc a/at preposition/nn followed/vbn by/in its/pp$ object/nn in/in the/at second/od ./.



Syllabification/nn-hl ./.-hl

--/-- Syllables/nns are/ber linguistic/jj units/nns centering/vbg in/in peaks/nns which/wdt are/ber usually/rb vocalic/jj but/cc ,/, as/cs has/hvz been/ben noted/vbn ,/, are/ber consonantal/jj under/in certain/ap circumstances/nns ,/, and/cc which/wdt may/md or/cc may/md not/* be/be combined/vbn with/in preceding/vbg and/or/cc following/vbg consonants/nns or/cc combinations/nns of/in consonants/nns ./.
Syllables/nns are/ber genuine/jj units/nns ,/, but/cc division/nn of/in words/nns and/cc sentences/nns into/in them/ppo presents/vbz great/jj difficulties/nns ./.
Sometimes/rb even/rb the/at number/nn of/in syllables/nns is/bez not/* clear/jj ./.
Doubt/nn on/in this/dt point/nn is/bez strongest/jjt before/in /l//nn and/cc AAb//nn or/cc /r//nn ./.
From/in the/at point/nn of/in view/nn of/in word/nn formation/nn real/jj-nc might/md be/be expected/vbn to/to have/hv two/cd syllables/nns ./.
Historically/rb re/nn is/bez the/at formative/nn that/wps is/bez employed/vbn also/rb in/in republic/nn-nc ,/, and/cc al/nn is/bez the/at common/jj suffix/nn ./.
When/wrb ity/nn is/bez added/vbn ,/, real/jj-nc clearly/rb has/hvz two/cd syllables/nns ./.
But/cc there/ex is/bez every/at reason/nn to/to regard/vb deal/vb-nc as/cs a/at monosyllable/nn ,/, and/cc because/rb of/in the/at fact/nn that/cs /l//nn commonly/rb has/hvz the/at quality/nn of/in AAb//nn when/wrb it/pps follows/vbz vowel/nn sounds/nns ,/, deal/vb-nc seems/vbz to/to be/be a/at perfectly/ql satisfactory/jj rhyme/nn with/in deal/vb-nc ./.



	It/pps is/bez obvious/jj enough/qlp that/cs linguists/nns in/in general/jj have/hv been/ben less/ql successful/jj in/in coping/vbg with/in tone/nn systems/nns than/cs with/in consonants/nns or/cc vowels/nns ./.
No/at single/ap explanation/nn is/bez adequate/jj to/to account/vb for/in this/dt ./.
Improvement/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez urgent/jj ,/, and/cc at/in least/ap three/cd things/nns will/md be/be needed/vbn ./.


	The/at first/od is/bez a/at wide-ranging/jj sample/nn of/in successful/jj tonal/jj analyses/nns ./.
Even/rb beginning/vbg students/nns in/in linguistics/nn are/ber made/vbn familiar/jj with/in an/at appreciable/jj variety/nn of/in consonant/nn systems/nns ,/, both/abx in/in their/pp$ general/jj outlines/nns and/cc in/in many/ap specific/jj details/nns ./.
An/at advanced/vbn student/nn has/hvz read/vbn a/at considerable/jj number/nn of/in descriptions/nns of/in consonantal/jj systems/nns ,/, including/in some/dti of/in the/at more/ql unusual/jj types/nns ./.
By/in contrast/nn ,/, even/rb experienced/vbn linguists/nns commonly/rb know/vb no/ql more/ap of/in the/at range/nn of/in possibilities/nns in/in tone/nn systems/nns than/cs the/at over-simple/jj distinction/nn between/in register/nn and/cc contour/nn languages/nns ./.
This/dt limited/vbn familiarity/nn with/in the/at possible/jj phenomena/nns has/hvz severely/rb hampered/vbn work/nn with/in tone/nn ./.
Tone/nn analysis/nn will/md continue/vb to/to be/be difficult/jj and/cc unsatisfactory/jj until/cs a/at more/ql representative/jj selection/nn of/in systems/nns is/bez familar/jj to/in every/at practicing/vbg field/nn linguist/nn ./.
Papers/nns like/cs these/dts four/cd ,/, if/cs widely/rb read/vbn ,/, will/md contribute/vb importantly/rb to/in improvement/nn of/in our/pp$ analytic/jj work/nn ./.


	The/at second/od need/nn is/bez better/jjr field/nn techniques/nns ./.
The/at great/jj majority/nn of/in present-day/jj linguists/nns fall/vb into/in one/cd or/cc more/ap of/in a/at number/nn of/in overlapping/vbg types/nns :/: those/dts who/wps are/ber convinced/vbn that/cs tone/nn cannot/md* be/be analysed/vbn ,/, those/dts who/wps are/ber personally/rb scared/vbn of/in tone/nn and/cc tone/nn languages/nns generally/rb ,/, those/dts who/wps are/ber convinced/vbn that/cs tone/nn is/bez merely/rb an/at unnecessary/jj marginal/jj feature/nn in/in those/dts languages/nns where/wrb it/pps occurs/vbz ,/, those/dts who/wps have/hv no/at idea/nn how/wrb to/to proceed/vb with/in tone/nn analysis/nn ,/, those/dts who/wps take/vb a/at simplistic/jj view/nn of/in the/at whole/jj matter/nn ./.
The/at result/nn has/hvz been/ben neglect/nn ,/, fumbling/vbg efforts/nns ,/, or/cc superficial/jj treatment/nn ./.
As/cs these/dts maladies/nns overlap/vb ,/, so/rb must/md the/at cure/nn ./.
Analyses/nns such/jj as/cs these/dts four/cd will/md simultaneously/rb combat/vb the/at assumptions/nns that/cs tone/nn is/bez impossible/jj and/cc that/cs it/pps is/bez simple/jj ./.
They/ppss will/md give/vb suggestions/nns that/wps can/md be/be worked/vbn up/rp into/in field/nn procedures/nns ./.
Good/jj field/nn techniques/nns will/md not/* only/rb equip/vb linguists/nns for/in better/jjr work/nn ,/, but/cc also/rb help/vb them/ppo overcome/vb negative/jj attitudes/nns ./.
Actually/rb ,/, none/pn of/in these/dts papers/nns says/vbz much/ap directly/rb about/in field/nn techniques/nns ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez worth/jj pondering/vbg that/cs very/ql little/ap has/hvz been/ben published/vbn on/in any/dti phase/nn of/in field/nn techniques/nns in/in linguistics/nn ./.
These/dts things/nns have/hv been/ben disseminated/vbn by/in other/ap means/nns ,/, but/cc always/rb in/in the/at wake/nn of/in extensive/jj publication/nn of/in analytic/jj results/nns ./.


	The/at third/od need/nn is/bez for/in better/jjr theory/nn ./.
We/ppss should/md expect/vb that/cs general/jj phonologic/jj theory/nn should/md be/be as/ql adequate/jj for/in tone/nn as/cs for/in consonants/nns and/cc vowels/nns ,/, but/cc it/pps has/hvz not/* been/ben ./.
This/dt can/md only/rb be/be for/in one/cd of/in two/cd reasons/nns :/: either/cc the/at two/cd are/ber quite/ql different/jj and/cc will/md require/vb totally/ql different/jj theory/nn (/( and/cc hence/rb techniques/nns )/) ,/, or/cc our/pp$ existing/vbg theories/nns are/ber insufficiently/rb general/jj ./.
If/cs ,/, as/cs I/ppss suspect/vb ,/, the/at problem/nn is/bez largely/rb of/in the/at second/od sort/nn ,/, then/rb development/nn of/in a/at theory/nn better/ql able/jj to/to handle/vb tone/nn will/md result/vb automatically/rb in/in better/jjr theory/nn for/in all/abn phonologic/jj subsystems/nns ./.


	One/cd issue/nn that/wps must/md be/be faced/vbn is/bez the/at relative/jj difficulty/nn of/in analysis/nn of/in different/jj phonologic/jj subsystems/nns ./.
Since/cs tone/nn systems/nns typically/rb comprise/vb fewer/ap units/nns than/cs either/cc consonant/nn or/cc vowel/nn systems/nns ,/, we/ppss might/md expect/vb that/cs they/ppss would/md be/be the/at easiest/jjt part/nn of/in a/at phonologic/jj analysis/nn ./.
Actual/jj practice/nn does/doz not/* often/rb work/vb out/rp this/dt way/nn ./.
Tone/nn systems/nns are/ber certainly/rb more/ql complex/jj than/cs the/at number/nn of/in units/nns would/md suggest/vb ,/, and/cc often/rb analytically/rb more/ql difficult/jj than/cs much/ql larger/jjr consonantal/jj systems/nns ./.


	Welmers/np has/hvz suggested/vbn one/cd explanation/nn ./.
Tone/nn languages/nns use/vb for/in linguistic/jj contrasts/nns speech/nn parameters/nns which/wdt also/rb function/vb heavily/rb in/in nonlinguistic/jj use/nn ./.
This/dt may/md both/abx divert/vb the/at attention/nn of/in the/at uninitiate/nn and/cc cause/vb confusion/nn for/in the/at more/ql knowledgeable/jj ./.
The/at problem/nn is/bez to/to disentangle/vb the/at linguistic/jj features/nns of/in pitch/nn from/in the/at co-occurring/vbg nonlinguistic/jj features/nns ./.
Of/in course/nn ,/, something/pn of/in the/at same/ap sort/nn occurs/vbz with/in other/ap sectors/nns of/in the/at phonology/nn :/: consonantal/jj articulations/nns have/hv both/abx a/at linguistic/jj and/cc an/at individual/jj component/nn ./.
But/cc in/in general/jj the/at individual/jj variation/nn is/bez a/at small/jj thing/nn added/vbn onto/in basic/jj linguistic/jj features/nns of/in greater/jjr magnitude/nn ./.
With/in tone/nn ,/, individual/jj differences/nns may/md be/be greater/jjr than/cs the/at linguistic/jj contrasts/nns which/wdt are/ber superimposed/vbn on/in them/ppo ./.
Pitch/nn differences/nns from/in one/cd speaker/nn to/in another/dt ,/, or/cc from/in one/cd emotional/jj state/nn to/in another/dt ,/, may/md far/rb exceed/vb the/at small/jj differences/nns between/in tones/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, any/dti such/jj suggestion/nn accounts/vbz for/in only/rb some/dti of/in the/at difficulties/nns in/in hearing/vbg tone/nn ,/, or/cc in/in developing/vbg a/at realistic/jj attitude/nn about/in tone/nn ,/, but/cc not/* for/in the/at analytic/jj difficulties/nns that/wps occur/vb even/rb when/wrb tone/nn is/bez meticulously/rb recorded/vbn ./.


	A/at second/od explanation/nn is/bez suggested/vbn by/in the/at material/nn described/vbn in/in Rowlands'/np$ paper/nn ./.
Tone/nn and/cc intonation/nn often/rb become/vb seriously/rb intermeshed/vbn ./.
Neither/dtx can/md be/be adequately/rb systematized/vbn until/cs we/ppss are/ber able/jj to/to separate/vb the/at two/cd and/cc assign/vb the/at observed/vbn phenomena/nns individually/rb to/in one/cd or/cc the/at other/ap ./.
Other/ap pairs/nns of/in phonologic/jj subsystems/nns also/rb interact/vb or/cc overlap/vb in/in this/dt way/nn ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, duration/nn sometimes/rb figures/vbz in/in both/abx the/at vowel/nn system/nn and/cc the/at intonation/nn ./.
Some/dti phonetic/jj features/nns ,/, for/in example/nn glottal/jj catch/nn or/cc murmur/nn ,/, are/ber sometimes/rb to/to be/be assigned/vbn to/in segmental/jj phonemics/nn and/cc sometimes/rb to/in accentual/jj systems/nns ./.
But/cc no/at other/ap two/cd phonologic/jj systems/nns are/ber as/ql difficult/jj to/to disentangle/vb as/cs are/ber tone/nn and/cc intonation/nn in/in some/dti languages/nns ./.
This/dt explanation/nn of/in tone/nn difficulties/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, does/doz not/* apply/vb in/in all/abn languages/nns ./.
In/in some/dti (/( the/at Ewe/np type/nn mentioned/vbn above/rb )/) interaction/nn of/in tone/nn and/cc intonation/nn is/bez restricted/vbn to/in the/at ends/nns of/in intonation/nn spans/nns ./.
In/in many/ap of/in the/at syllables/nns ,/, intonation/nn can/md be/be safely/rb ignored/vbn ,/, and/cc much/ap of/in the/at tonal/jj analysis/nn can/md be/be done/vbn without/in any/dti study/nn of/in intonation/nn ./.
Still/rb ,/, even/rb in/in such/jj languages/nns tone/nn analysis/nn has/hvz not/* been/ben as/ql simple/jj as/cs one/pn might/md expect/vb ./.


	A/at third/od explanation/nn is/bez suggested/vbn by/in Richardson's/np$ analysis/nn of/in Sukuma/np tone/nn ./.
There/rb we/ppss see/vb a/at basically/ql simple/jj phonemic/jj system/nn enmeshed/vbn in/in a/at very/ql complex/jj and/cc puzzling/jj morphophonemic/jj system/nn ./.
While/cs the/at phonemes/nns can/md be/be very/ql easily/rb stated/vbn ,/, no/at one/pn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be satisfied/vbn with/in the/at statement/nn until/cs phonemic/jj occurrences/nns can/md be/be related/vbn in/in some/dti way/nn to/in morphemic/jj units/nns ,/, i.e./rb until/cs the/at morphophonemics/nn is/bez worked/vbn out/rp ,/, or/cc at/in least/ap far/rb enough/qlp that/cs it/pps seems/vbz reasonable/jj to/to expect/vb success/nn ./.


	In/in the/at ``/`` typical/jj tone/nn language/nn ''/'' ,/, tonal/jj morphophonemics/nn is/bez of/in the/at same/ap order/nn of/in complexity/nn as/cs consonantal/jj morphophonemics/nn ./.
The/at phonemic/jj systems/nns which/wdt must/md support/vb these/dts morphophonemic/jj systems/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, are/ber very/ql different/jj ./.
The/at inventory/nn of/in tones/nns is/bez much/ql smaller/jjr ,/, and/cc commonly/rb the/at contrasts/nns range/vb along/in one/cd single/ap dimension/nn ,/, pitch/nn level/nn ./.
Consonantal/jj systems/nns are/ber not/* merely/rb larger/jjr ,/, they/ppss are/ber multidimensional/jj ./.
Morphophonemic/jj rules/nns may/md be/be thought/vbn of/in as/cs joining/vbg certain/ap points/nns in/in the/at system/nn ./.
The/at possibilities/nns in/in the/at consonantal/jj system/nn are/ber very/ql numerous/jj ,/, and/cc only/rb a/at small/jj portion/nn of/in them/ppo are/ber actually/rb used/vbn ./.
Phonemes/nns connected/vbn by/in a/at morphophonemic/jj rule/nn commonly/rb show/vb a/at good/jj bit/nn of/in phonetic/jj similarity/nn ,/, possible/jj because/rb of/in the/at several/ap dimensions/nns of/in contrast/nn in/in the/at system/nn ./.
Tonal/jj morphophonemics/nn ,/, in/in a/at common/jj case/nn ,/, can/md do/do nothing/pn but/in either/cc raise/vb or/cc lower/vb the/at tone/nn ./.
The/at possibilities/nns are/ber few/ap ,/, and/cc the/at total/nn number/nn of/in rules/nns may/md be/be considerably/ql greater/jjr ./.
Often/rb ,/, therefore/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber a/at number/nn of/in rules/nns having/hvg the/at same/ap effect/nn ,/, and/cc commonly/rb other/ap sets/nns of/in rules/nns as/ql well/rb ,/, having/hvg the/at opposite/jj effect/nn ./.
Tonal/jj morphophonemics/nn is/bez much/ql more/ql confusing/jj to/in the/at beginning/vbg analyst/nn than/cs consonantal/jj morphophonemics/nn ,/, even/rb when/wrb the/at total/nn number/nn of/in rules/nns is/bez no/ql greater/jjr ./.


	The/at difficulty/nn of/in analysis/nn of/in any/dti subsystem/nn in/in the/at phonology/nn is/bez an/at inverse/jj function/nn of/in the/at size/nn --/-- smaller/jjr systems/nns are/ber more/ql troublesome/jj --/-- for/in any/dti given/vbn degree/nn of/in morphophonemic/jj complexity/nn ./.
This/dt hypothesis/nn will/md account/vb for/in a/at large/jj part/nn of/in the/at difficulties/nns of/in tonal/jj analysis/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at fact/nn that/cs vowel/nn systems/nns are/ber often/rb more/ql puzzling/jj than/cs consonantal/jj systems/nns ./.
The/at statement/nn of/in the/at system/nn is/bez a/at different/jj matter/nn ./.
Smaller/jjr systems/nns can/md of/in course/nn be/be stated/vbn much/ql more/ql succinctly/rb ./.
A/at phonemic/jj system/nn can/md be/be stated/vbn without/in reference/nn to/in morphophonemics/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps cannot/md* always/rb be/be found/vbn without/in morphophonemics/nn ./.
And/cc the/at more/ql complex/jj the/at morphophonemic/jj system/nn is/bez in/in relation/nn to/in the/at phonemic/jj base/nn ,/, the/at less/ql easily/rb a/at phonemic/jj system/nn will/md be/be analysed/vbn without/in close/jj attention/nn to/in the/at morphophonemics/nn --/-- at/in least/ap ,/, the/at less/ql satisfying/jj will/md a/at phonemic/jj statement/nn be/be if/cs it/pps cannot/md* be/be related/vbn through/in morphophonemic/jj rules/nns to/in grammatically/rb meaningful/jj structures/nns ./.


	The/at design/nn of/in orthographies/nns has/hvz received/vbn much/ql less/ap attention/nn from/in linguists/nns than/cs the/at problem/nn deserves/vbz ./.
There/ex has/hvz been/ben a/at tendency/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in many/ap American/jj linguists/nns to/to assume/vb that/cs a/at phonemic/jj transcription/nn will/md automatically/rb be/be the/at best/jjt possible/jj orthography/nn and/cc that/cs the/at only/ap real/jj problem/nn will/md then/rb be/be the/at social/jj one/cd of/in securing/vbg acceptance/nn ./.
This/dt seems/vbz naive/jj ./.
Most/ap others/nns have/hv been/ben content/jj to/to give/vb only/rb the/at most/ql general/jj attention/nn to/in the/at broadest/jjt and/cc most/ql obvious/jj features/nns of/in the/at phonology/nn when/wrb designing/vbg orthographies/nns ./.
Apparently/rb the/at feeling/nn is/bez that/cs anything/pn more/ap would/md be/be involvement/nn in/in technical/jj abstrusenesses/nns of/in possible/jj pedantic/jj interest/nn but/cc of/in no/at visible/jj significance/nn in/in practical/jj affairs/nns ./.
The/at result/nn of/in this/dt attitude/nn has/hvz been/ben the/at domination/nn of/in many/ap orthography/nn conferences/nns by/in such/jj considerations/nns as/cs typographic/jj '/' esthetics/nn '/' ,/, which/wdt usually/rb turns/vbz out/rp to/to be/be nothing/pn more/ap than/cs certain/ap prejudices/nns carried/vbn over/rp from/in European/jj languages/nns ./.
Many/ap of/in the/at suggested/vbn systems/nns seem/vb to/to have/hv only/rb the/at most/ql tenuous/jj relationship/nn to/in the/at language/nn structures/nns that/wpo they/ppss purport/vb to/to represent/vb ./.
Linguists/nns have/hv not/* always/rb been/ben more/ql enlightened/vbn than/cs ``/`` practical/jj people/nns ''/'' and/cc sometimes/rb have/hv insisted/vbn on/in incredibly/ql trivial/jj points/nns while/cs neglecting/vbg things/nns of/in much/ql greater/jjr significance/nn ./.
As/cs a/at result/nn ,/, many/ap people/nns have/hv been/ben confirmed/vbn in/in their/pp$ conviction/nn that/cs orthography/nn design/nn is/bez not/* an/at activity/nn to/in which/wdt experts/nns can/md contribute/vb anything/pn but/in confusion/nn ./.


	A./np E./np Sharp/np ,/, in/in Vowel-Length/nn-tl And/cc-tl Syllabicity/nn-tl In/in-tl Kikuyu/np-tl ,/, examines/vbz one/cd set/nn of/in related/vbn orthographic/jj questions/nns and/cc its/pp$ phonologic/jj background/nn in/in detail/nn ./.
His/pp$ objective/nn is/bez merely/rb to/to determine/vb ``/`` what/wdt distinctions/nns of/in length/nn and/cc syllabicity/nn it/pps may/md be/be desirable/jj to/to make/vb explicit/jj in/in a/at Kikuyu/np orthography/nn ''/'' (/( 59/cd )/) ./.
To/to do/do so/rb ,/, he/pps finds/vbz it/ppo necessary/jj to/to examine/vb the/at relevant/jj parts/nns of/in the/at phonology/nn thoroughly/rb and/cc in/in detail/nn ./.
In/in the/at process/nn ,/, he/pps develops/vbz some/dti very/ql significant/jj observations/nns about/in problems/nns of/in a/at sort/nn that/wps are/ber often/rb difficult/jj ./.
A/at few/ap of/in his/pp$ examples/nns are/ber of/in very/ql great/jj interest/nn ,/, and/cc the/at whole/jj discussion/nn of/in some/dti importance/nn for/in theory/nn ./.
His/pp$ orthographic/jj recommendations/nns are/ber no/at simplistic/jj acceptance/nn of/in phonemics/nn on/in the/at one/cd hand/nn or/cc of/in superficiality/nn on/in the/at other/ap ./.
Rather/rb he/pps weighs/vbz each/dt phonologic/jj fact/nn in/in the/at light/nn of/in its/pp$ orthographic/jj usefulness/nn ./.
He/pps concludes/vbz that/cs some/dti changes/nns can/md be/be made/vbn in/in the/at current/jj orthography/nn which/wdt will/md appreciably/rb improve/vb its/pp$ usefulness/nn ,/, but/cc hesitates/vbz to/to suggest/vb precise/jj graphic/jj devices/nns to/to effect/vb these/dts changes/nns ./.
I/ppss hope/vb his/pp$ suggestions/nns are/ber given/vbn the/at consideration/nn they/ppss deserve/vb in/in Kikuyu/np circles/nns ./.
This/dt ,/, however/rb ,/, will/md not/* exhaust/vb their/pp$ practical/jj usefulness/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss rather/ql clearly/rb indicate/vb what/wdt thorough/jj phonologic/jj investigation/nn can/md contribute/vb to/in orthography/nn design/nn ./.
We/ppss need/vb many/ql more/ap studies/nns of/in this/dt sort/nn if/cs the/at design/nn of/in written/vbn languages/nns is/bez to/to be/be put/vbn on/in a/at sound/jj basis/nn ./.


	One/cd other/ap paper/nn deals/vbz with/in a/at phonologic/jj problem/nn :/: Vowel/nn-tl Harmony/nn-tl In/in-tl Igbo/np ,/, by/in J./np Carnochan/np ./.
This/dt restates/vbz the/at already/rb widely/rb known/vbn facts/nns in/in terms/nns of/in prosodies/nns ./.
As/cs a/at restatement/nn it/pps makes/vbz only/rb a/at small/jj contribution/nn to/in knowledge/nn of/in Igbo/np ./.
But/cc it/pps would/md seem/vb more/ql intended/vbn as/cs a/at tract/nn advocating/vbg the/at prosodic/jj theory/nn than/cs a/at paper/nn directed/vbn to/in the/at specific/jj problems/nns of/in Igbo/np phonology/nn ./.
The/at paper/nn has/hvz a/at certain/ap value/nn as/cs a/at comparatively/ql easy/jj introduction/nn to/in this/dt approach/nn ,/, particularly/rb since/cs it/pps treats/vbz a/at fairly/ql simple/jj and/cc straightforward/jj phenomenon/nn where/wrb it/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to compare/vb it/ppo with/in a/at more/ql traditional/jj (/( though/cs not/* structural/jj )/) statement/nn ./.
It/pps does/doz show/vb one/cd feature/nn of/in the/at system/nn that/wps has/hvz not/* been/ben previously/rb described/vbn ./.
But/cc it/pps does/doz not/* ,/, as/cs it/pps claims/vbz ,/, demonstrate/vb that/cs this/dt could/md not/* be/be treated/vbn by/in traditional/jj methods/nns ./.
It/pps seems/vbz to/in me/ppo that/cs it/pps rather/ql easily/rb can/md ./.


	Five/cd of/in the/at papers/nns deal/vb with/in grammatical/jj problems/nns ./.
On/in the/at whole/jj they/ppss maintain/vb much/rb the/at same/ap high/jj standard/nn ,/, but/cc they/ppss are/ber much/ql more/ql difficult/jj to/to discuss/vb in/in detail/nn because/rb of/in their/pp$ wider/jjr variety/nn of/in subject/nn matter/nn ./.
My/pp$ comments/nns must/md be/be briefer/jjr than/cs the/at papers/nns deserve/vb ./.


	W./np H./np Whiteley/np writes/vbz on/in The/at-tl Verbal/jj-tl Radical/nn-tl In/in-tl Iraqw/np-tl ./.
This/dt must/md be/be considered/vbn primarily/rb an/at amendment/nn and/cc supplement/nn to/in his/pp$ early/jj A/at-tl Short/jj-tl Description/nn-tl Of/in-tl Item-Categories/nns-tl In/in-tl Iraqw/np-tl ./.
It/pps exhibits/vbz much/rb the/at same/ap descriptive/jj technique/nn and/cc is/bez open/jj to/in much/rb the/at same/ap criticisms/nns ./.
The/at treatment/nn seems/vbz unnecessarily/rb loose-jointed/jj and/cc complex/jj ,/, largely/rb because/cs the/at method/nn is/bez lax/jj and/cc the/at analysis/nn seems/vbz never/rb to/to be/be pushed/vbn to/in a/at satisfactory/jj or/cc even/rb a/at consistent/jj stopping-point/nn ./.

There/ex are/ber more/ap stems/nns per/in item/nn in/in Athabascan/np ,/, which/wdt expresses/vbz the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at Athabascan/np languages/nns have/hv undergone/vbn somewhat/ql more/ap change/nn in/in diverging/vbg from/in proto-Athabascan/np than/cs the/at Yokuts/np languages/nns from/in proto-Yokuts/np ./.
This/dt may/md be/be because/cs the/at Athabascan/np divergence/nn began/vbd earlier/rbr ;/. ;/.
or/cc again/rb because/cs the/at Athabascan/np languages/nns spread/vb over/in a/at very/ql much/ql larger/jjr territory/nn (/( including/in three/cd wholly/rb separated/vbn areas/nns )/) ;/. ;/.
or/cc both/abx ./.
The/at differentiation/nn ,/, however/wrb ,/, is/bez not/* very/ql much/ql greater/jjr ,/, as/cs shown/vbn by/in the/at fact/nn that/cs Athabascan/np shows/vbz 3.46/cd stems/nns per/in meaning/nn slot/nn as/cs against/in 2.75/cd for/in Yokuts/np ,/, with/in a/at slightly/ql greater/jjr number/nn of/in languages/nns represented/vbn in/in our/pp$ sample/nn :/: 24/cd as/cs against/in 21/cd ./.
(/( On/in deduction/nn of/in one-eighth/nn from/in 3.46/cd ,/, the/at stem/nn //in item/nn rate/nn becomes/vbz 3.03/cd against/in 2.75/cd in/in equivalent/jj number/nn of/in languages/nns ./.
)/) These/dts general/jj facts/nns are/ber mentioned/vbn to/to make/vb clear/jj that/cs the/at total/nn situation/nn in/in the/at two/cd families/nns is/bez similar/jj enough/qlp to/to warrant/vb comparison/nn ./.


	The/at greatest/jjt difference/nn in/in the/at two/cd sets/nns of/in figures/nns is/bez due/jj to/in differences/nns in/in the/at two/cd sets/nns of/in lists/nns used/vbn ./.
These/dts differences/nns in/in turn/nn result/vb from/in the/at fact/nn that/cs my/pp$ Yokuts/np vocabularies/nns were/bed built/vbn up/rp of/in terms/nns selected/vbn mainly/rb to/to insure/vb unambiguity/nn of/in English/np meaning/nn between/in illiterate/jj informants/nns and/cc myself/ppl ,/, within/in a/at compact/jj and/cc uniform/jj territorial/jj area/nn ,/, but/cc that/cs Hoijer's/np$ vocabulary/nn is/bez based/vbn on/in Swadesh's/np$ second/od glottochronological/jj list/nn which/wdt aims/vbz at/in eliminating/vbg all/abn items/nns which/wdt might/md be/be culturally/rb or/cc geographically/rb determined/vbn ./.
Swadesh/np in/in short/jj was/bedz trying/vbg to/to develop/vb a/at basic/jj list/nn that/wps was/bedz universal/jj ;/. ;/.
I/ppss ,/, one/cd that/wps was/bedz specifically/rb adapted/vbn to/in the/at San/np-tl Joaquin/np-tl Valley/nn-tl ./.
The/at result/nn is/bez that/cs I/ppss included/vbd 70/cd animal/nn names/nns ,/, but/cc Swadesh/np only/rb 4/cd ;/. ;/.
and/cc somewhat/ql similarly/jj for/in plants/nns ,/, 16/cd as/cs against/in 4/cd ./.
Swadesh/np ,/, and/cc therefore/rb Hoijer/np ,/, felt/vbd compelled/vbn to/to omit/vb all/abn terms/nns denoting/vbg species/nns or/cc even/rb genera/nns (/( ox/nn ,/, vulture/nn ,/, salmon/nn ,/, yellow/jj pine/nn ,/, manzanita/nn )/) ;/. ;/.
their/pp$ classes/nns of/in animal/nn and/cc plant/nn terms/nns are/ber restricted/vbn to/in generalizations/nns or/cc recurrent/jj parts/nns (/( fish/nn ,/, bird/nn ,/, tree/nn ,/, grass/nn ,/, horn/nn ,/, tail/nn ,/, bark/nn ,/, root/nn )/) ./.
The/at groups/nns are/ber therefore/rb really/rb non-comparable/jj in/in content/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs in/in size/nn ./.


	Other/ap classes/nns are/ber included/vbn only/rb by/in myself/ppl (/( interrogatives/nns ,/, adverbs/nns )/) or/cc only/rb by/in Swadesh/np and/cc Hoijer/np (/( pronouns/nns ,/, demonstratives/nns )/) ./.


	What/wdt we/ppss have/hv left/vbn as/cs reasonably/ql comparable/jj are/ber four/cd classes/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) body/nn parts/nns and/cc products/nns ,/, which/wdt with/in a/at proportionally/rb nearly/ql even/jj representation/nn (/( 51/cd terms/nns out/rp of/in 253/cd ,/, 25/cd out/rp of/in 100/cd )/) come/vb out/rp with/in nearly/ql even/jj ratios/nns ;/. ;/.
2.6/cd and/cc 2.7/cd ;/. ;/.
(/( 2/cd )/) Nature/nn-tl (/( 29/cd terms/nns against/in 17/cd )/) ,/, ratios/nns 3.3/cd versus/in 4.1/cd ;/. ;/.
(/( 3/cd )/) adjectives/nns (/( 16/cd ,/, 15/cd terms/nns )/) ,/, ratios/nns 3.9/cd versus/in 4.7/cd ;/. ;/.
(/( 4/cd )/) verbs/nns (/( 9/cd ,/, 22/cd terms/nns )/) ,/, ratios/nns 4.0/cd versus/in 3.4/cd ./.


	It/pps will/md be/be seen/vbn that/cs where/wrb the/at scope/nn is/bez similar/jj ,/, the/at Athabascan/np ratios/nns come/vb out/rp somewhat/ql higher/jjr (/( as/cs indeed/rb they/ppss ought/md to/to with/in a/at total/nn ratio/nn of/in 2.8/cd as/cs against/in 3.5/cd or/cc 4/cd :/in 5/cd )/) except/in for/in verbs/nns ,/, where/wrb alone/rb the/at Athabascan/np ratio/nn is/bez lower/jjr ./.
This/dt exception/nn may/md be/be connected/vbn with/in Hoijer's/np$ use/nn of/in a/at much/ql higher/jjr percentage/nn of/in verbs/nns :/: 22%/nn of/in his/pp$ total/nn list/nn as/cs against/in 3.5%/nn in/in mine/pp$$ ./.
Or/cc the/at exception/nn may/md be/be due/jj to/in a/at particular/jj durability/nn peculiar/jj to/in the/at Athabascan/np verb/nn ./.
More/ap word/nn class/nn ratios/nns determined/vbn in/in more/ap languages/nns will/md no/at doubt/nn ultimately/rb answer/vb the/at question/nn ./.



5/cd-hl ./.-hl

If/cs word/nn classes/nns differ/vb in/in their/pp$ resistance/nn or/cc liability/nn to/in stem/nn replacement/nn within/in meaning/nn slot/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez conceivable/jj that/cs individual/jj meanings/nns also/rb differ/vb with/in fair/jj consistence/nn trans-lingually/rb ./.
Hoijer's/np$ Athabascan/np and/cc my/pp$ Yokuts/np share/vb 71/cd identical/jj meanings/nns (/( with/in allowance/nn for/in several/ap near-synonyms/nns like/cs stomach-belly/nn+nn-nc ,/, big-large/jj+jj-nc ,/, long-far/jj+jj-nc ,/, many-much/ap+ap-nc ,/, die-dead/vb+jj-nc ,/, say-speak/vb+vb-nc )/) ./.
For/in Yokuts/np ,/, I/ppss tabulated/vbd these/dts 71/cd items/nns in/in five/cd columns/nns ,/, according/rb as/cs they/ppss were/bed expressed/vbn by/in 1/cd ,/, 2/cd ,/, 3/cd ,/, 4/cd ,/, and/cc more/ap than/in 4/cd stems/nns ./.
The/at totals/nns for/in these/dts five/cd categories/nns are/ber not/* too/ql uneven/jj ,/, namely/rb 20/cd ,/, 15/cd ,/, 11/cd ,/, 16/cd ,/, 9/cd respectively/rb ./.
For/in Athabascan/np ,/, with/in a/at greater/jjr range/nn of/in stems/nns ,/, the/at first/od two/cd of/in five/cd corresponding/jj columns/nns were/bed identical/jj ,/, 1/cd and/cc 2/cd stems/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at three/cd others/nns had/hvd to/to be/be spread/vbn somewhat/rb ,/, and/cc are/ber headed/vbn respectively/rb Af/nn ;/. ;/.
Af/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc Af/nn stems/nns ./.
While/cs the/at particular/jj limits/nns of/in these/dts groupings/nns may/md seem/vb artificially/rb arbitrary/jj ,/, they/ppss do/do fairly/rb express/vb a/at corresponding/jj grouping/vbg of/in more/ql variable/jj material/nn ,/, and/cc they/ppss eventuate/vb also/rb in/in five/cd classes/nns ,/, along/in a/at similar/jj scale/nn ,/, containing/vbg approximately/ql equal/jj numbers/nns of/in cases/nns ,/, namely/rb 19/cd ,/, 14/cd ,/, 15/cd ,/, 11/cd ,/, 12/cd in/in Athabascan/np ./.


	When/wrb now/rb we/ppss count/vb the/at frequency/nn of/in the/at 71/cd items/nns in/in the/at two/cd language/nn families/nns appearing/vbg in/in the/at same/ap column/nn or/cc grade/nn ,/, or/cc one/cd column/nn or/cc grade/nn apart/rb ,/, or/cc two/cd or/cc three/cd or/cc four/cd ,/, we/ppss find/vb these/dts differences/nns :/: Af/nn 

	./.
This/dt distribution/nn can/md be/be summarized/vbn by/in averaging/vbg the/at distance/nn in/in grades/nns apart/rb :/: Af/nn ;/. ;/.
which/wdt ,/, divided/vbn by/in Af/nn gives/vbz a/at mean/nn of/in 1.07/cd grades/nns apart/rb ./.
If/cs the/at distribution/nn of/in the/at 71/cd items/nns were/bed wholly/ql concordant/jj in/in the/at two/cd families/nns ,/, the/at distance/nn would/md of/in course/nn be/be 0/cd ./.
If/cs it/pps were/bed wholly/rb random/jj and/cc unrelated/jj ,/, it/pps would/md be/be 2.0/cd ,/, assuming/vbg the/at five/cd classes/nns were/bed equal/jj in/in n/nn ,/, which/wdt approximately/rb they/ppss are/ber ./.
The/at actual/jj mean/nn of/in 1.07/cd being/beg about/rb halfway/rb between/in 0/cd of/in complete/jj correlation/nn and/cc 2.0/cd of/in no/at correlation/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez evident/jj that/cs there/ex is/bez a/at pretty/ql fair/jj degree/nn of/in similarity/nn in/in the/at behavior/nn even/rb of/in particular/jj individual/jj items/nns of/in meaning/nn as/cs regards/vbz long-term/nn stem/nn displacement/nn ./.



6/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in 1960/cd ,/, David/np D./np Thomas/np published/vbd Basic/jj-tl Vocabulary/nn-tl In/in-tl some/dti-tl Mon-Khmer/np-tl Languages/nns-tl (/( AL/np-tl 2/cd ,/, No./nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, pp./nns 7/cd -/in 11/cd )/) ,/, which/wdt compares/vbz 8/cd Mon-Khmer/np languages/nns with/in the/at I-E/nn language/nn data/nn on/in which/wdt Swadesh/np based/vbd the/at revised/vbn retention/nn rate/nn (/( Af/nn )/) in/in place/nn of/in original/jj (/( Af/nn )/) ,/, and/cc his/pp$ revised/vbn 100/cd word/nn basic/jj glottochronological/jj list/nn in/in Towards/in-tl Greater/jjr-tl Accuracy/nn-tl (/( IJAL/np 21/cd :/. :/.
121/cd -/in 137/cd )/) ./.
Thomas'/np$ findings/nns are/ber ,/, first/rb ,/, ``/`` that/cs the/at individual/jj items/nns vary/vb greatly/rb and/cc unpredictably/rb in/in their/pp$ persistence/nn ''/'' ;/. ;/.
but/cc ,/, second/rb ,/, ``/`` that/cs the/at semantic/jj groups/nns are/ber surprisingly/ql unvarying/jj in/in their/pp$ average/jj persistence/nn ''/'' (/( as/cs between/in M-K/nn and/cc I-E/nn )/) ./.
His/pp$ first/od conclusion/nn ,/, on/in behavior/nn of/in individual/jj items/nns ,/, is/bez negative/jj ,/, whereas/cs mine/pp$$ (/( on/in Ath./np and/cc Yok./np )/) was/bedz partially/ql positive/jj ./.
His/pp$ second/od conclusion/nn ,/, on/in semantic/jj word/nn classes/nns ,/, agrees/vbz with/in mine/pp$$ ./.
This/dt second/od conclusion/nn ,/, independently/rb arrived/vbn at/in by/in independent/jj study/nn of/in material/nn from/in two/cd pairs/nns of/in language/nn families/nns as/ql different/jj and/cc remote/jj from/in one/cd another/dt as/cs these/dts four/cd are/ber ,/, cannot/md* be/be ignored/vbn ./.


	Thomas/np also/rb presents/vbz a/at simple/jj equation/nn for/in deriving/vbg an/at index/nn of/in persistence/nn ,/, which/wdt weights/vbz not/* only/rb the/at number/nn of/in stems/nns (/( '/' roots/nns '/' )/) per/in meaning/nn ,/, but/cc their/pp$ relative/jj frequency/nn ./.
Thus/rb his/pp$ persistence/nn values/nns for/in some/dti stem/nn frequencies/nns per/in meaning/nn are/ber :/: stem/nn identical/jj in/in 8/cd languages/nns ,/, 100%/nn ;/. ;/.
stem/nn frequencies/nns 7/cd and/cc 1/cd ,/, 86%/nn ;/. ;/.
stem/nn frequencies/nns 4/cd and/cc 4/cd ,/, 64%/nn ;/. ;/.
stem/nn frequencies/nns 4/cd ,/, 3/cd ,/, and/cc 1/cd ,/, 57%/nn ./.
His/pp$ formula/nn will/md have/hv to/to be/be weighed/vbn ,/, may/md be/be altered/vbn or/cc improved/vbn ,/, and/cc it/pps should/md be/be tested/vbn on/in additional/jj bodies/nns of/in material/nn ./.
But/cc consideration/nn of/in the/at frequency/nn of/in stems/nns per/in constant/jj meaning/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be established/vbn as/cs having/hvg significance/nn in/in comparative/jj situations/nns with/in diachronic/jj and/cc classificatory/jj relevance/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc Gleason/np presumably/rb is/bez on/in the/at way/nn with/in a/at further/jjr contribution/nn in/in this/dt area/nn ./.


	As/in to/in relative/jj frequencies/nns of/in competing/vbg roots/nns (/( 7/cd -/in 1/cd vs./in 4/cd -/in 4/cd ,/, etc./rb )/) ,/, Thomas/np with/in his/pp$ '/' weighting/nn '/' seems/vbz to/to be/be the/at first/od to/to have/hv considered/vbn the/at significance/nn this/dt might/md have/hv ./.
The/at problem/nn needs/vbz further/jjr exploration/nn ./.
I/ppss was/bedz at/in least/ap conscious/jj of/in the/at distinction/nn in/in my/pp$ full/jj Yokuts/np presentation/nn that/wps awaits/vbz publication/nn ,/, in/in which/wdt ,/, in/in listing/vbg '/' Two-Stem/jj-tl Meanings/nns-tl '/' ,/, I/ppss set/vb off/rp by/in asterisks/nns those/dts forms/nns in/in which/wdt N/np of/in stem/nn B/nn was/bedz Af/nn of/in stem/nn A/3/nn ,/, the/at unasterisked/jj ones/nns standing/vbg for/in Af/nn ;/. ;/.
or/cc under/in '/' Four/cd-tl Stems/nns-tl '/' ,/, I/ppss set/vb off/rp by/in asterisks/nns cases/nns where/wrb the/at combined/vbn N/np of/in stems/nns Af/nn was/bedz Af/nn ./.



7/cd-hl ./.-hl

These/dts findings/nns ,/, and/cc others/nns which/wdt will/md in/in time/nn be/be developed/vbn ,/, will/md affect/vb the/at method/nn of/in glottochronological/jj inquiry/nn ./.
If/cs adjectival/jj meanings/nns show/vb relatively/ql low/jj retentiveness/nn of/in stems/nns ,/, as/cs I/ppss am/bem confident/jj will/md prove/vb to/to be/be the/at case/nn in/in most/ap languages/nns of/in the/at world/nn ,/, why/wrb should/md our/pp$ basic/jj lists/nns include/vb 15/cd per/in cent/nn of/in these/dts unstable/jj forms/nns ,/, but/cc only/rb 8/cd per/in cent/nn of/in animals/nns and/cc plants/nns which/wdt replace/vb much/ql more/ql slowly/rb ?/. ?/.
Had/hvd Hoijer/np substituted/vbn for/in his/pp$ 15/cd adjectival/jj slots/nns 15/cd good/jj animal/nn and/cc plant/nn items/nns ,/, his/pp$ rate/nn of/in stem/nn replacement/nn would/md have/hv been/ben lower/jjr and/cc the/at age/nn of/in Athabascan/np language/nn separation/nn smaller/jjr ./.
And/cc irrespective/jj of/in the/at outcome/nn in/in centuries/nns elapsed/vbn since/in splitting/vbg ,/, calculations/nns obviously/rb carry/vb more/ql concordant/jj and/cc comparable/jj meaning/nn if/cs they/ppss deal/vb with/in the/at most/ql stable/jj units/nns than/cs with/in variously/rb unstable/jj ones/nns ./.


	It/pps is/bez evident/jj that/cs Swadesh/np has/hvz not/* only/rb had/hvn much/ap experience/nn with/in basic/jj vocabulary/nn in/in many/ap languages/nns but/cc has/hvz acquired/vbn great/jj tact/nn and/cc feeling/vbg for/in the/at expectable/jj behavior/nn of/in lexical/jj items/nns ./.
Why/wrb then/rb this/dt urge/nn to/to include/vb unstable/jj items/nns in/in his/pp$ basic/jj list/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps is/bez the/at urge/nn to/to obtain/vb a/at list/nn as/ql free/jj of/in geographical/jj and/cc cultural/jj conditioning/nn as/cs possible/jj ./.
And/cc why/wrb that/dt insistence/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps is/bez the/at hope/nn of/in attaining/vbg a/at list/nn of/in items/nns of/in universal/jj occurrence/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez becoming/vbg increasingly/ql evident/jj that/cs such/abl a/at hope/nn is/bez a/at snare/nn ./.
Not/* that/cs such/abl a/at list/nn cannot/md* be/be constructed/vbn ;/. ;/.
but/cc the/at nearer/rbr it/pps comes/vbz to/in attaining/vbg universality/nn ,/, the/at less/ql significant/jj will/md it/pps be/be linguistically/rb ./.
Its/pp$ terms/nns will/md tend/vb to/to be/be labile/jj or/cc vague/jj ,/, and/cc they/ppss will/md fit/vb actual/jj languages/nns more/ql and/cc more/ql badly/rb ./.


	The/at practical/jj operational/jj problem/nn of/in lexicostatistics/nn is/bez the/at establishment/nn of/in a/at basic/jj list/nn of/in items/nns of/in meaning/nn against/in which/wdt the/at particular/jj forms/nns or/cc terms/nns of/in languages/nns can/md be/be matched/vbn as/cs the/at medium/nn of/in comparison/nn ./.
The/at most/ql important/jj quality/nn of/in the/at meanings/nns is/bez that/cs they/ppss should/md be/be as/ql definable/jj as/cs possible/jj ./.
In/in proportion/nn as/cs meanings/nns are/ber concrete/jj ,/, we/ppss can/md better/rbr rely/vb on/in their/pp$ being/beg insulated/vbn and/cc distinctive/jj ./.
An/at elephant/nn or/cc a/at fox/nn or/cc a/at swan/nn or/cc a/at cocopalm/nn or/cc a/at banana/nn possess/vb in/in unusually/ql high/jj degree/nn this/dt quality/nn of/in obvious/jj ,/, common-sense/nn ,/, indubitable/jj identity/nn ,/, as/cs do/do an/at eye/nn or/cc tooth/nn or/cc nail/nn ./.
They/ppss isolate/vb out/rp easily/rb ,/, naturally/rb ,/, and/cc unambiguously/rb from/in the/at continuum/nn of/in nature/nn and/cc existence/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc they/ppss should/md be/be given/vbn priority/nn in/in the/at basic/jj list/nn as/ql long/rb as/cs they/ppss continue/vb to/to show/vb these/dts qualities/nns ./.


	With/in the/at universal/jj list/nn as/cs his/pp$ weapon/nn ,/, Swadesh/np has/hvz extended/vbn his/pp$ march/nn of/in conquest/nn farther/rbr and/cc farther/rbr into/in the/at past/nn ,/, eight/cd ,/, ten/cd ,/, twelve/cd millennia/nns back/rb ./.
And/cc he/pps has/hvz proclaimed/vbn greater/jjr or/cc less/ap affiliation/nn between/in all/abn Western/jj-tl hemisphere/nn languages/nns ./.
Some/dti of/in this/dt may/md prove/vb to/to be/be true/jj ,/, or/cc even/rb considerable/jj of/in it/ppo ,/, whether/cs by/in genetic/jj ramification/nn or/cc by/in diffusion/nn and/cc coalescence/nn ./.
But/cc the/at farther/ql out/rp he/pps moves/vbz ,/, the/at thinner/jjr will/md be/be his/pp$ hold/nn on/in conclusive/jj evidence/nn ,/, and/cc the/at larger/jjr the/at speculative/jj component/nn in/in his/pp$ inferences/nns ./.
He/pps has/hvz traversed/vbn provinces/nns and/cc kingdoms/nns ,/, but/cc he/pps has/hvz not/* consolidated/vbn them/ppo behind/in him/ppo ,/, nor/cc does/doz he/pps control/vb them/ppo ./.
He/pps has/hvz announced/vbn results/nns on/in Hokan/np ,/, Penutian/np ,/, Uto-Aztecan/np ,/, and/cc almost/ql all/abn other/ap American/jj families/nns and/cc phyla/nns ,/, and/cc has/hvz diagrammed/vbn their/pp$ degree/nn of/in interrelation/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc he/pps has/hvz not/* worked/vbn out/rp by/in lexicostatistics/nn one/cd comprehensively/ql complete/jj classification/nn of/in even/rb a/at single/ap family/nn other/ap than/cs Salish/np ./.
That/dt is/bez his/pp$ privilege/nn ./.
The/at remote/jj ,/, cloudy/jj ,/, possible/jj has/hvz values/nns of/in its/pp$ own/jj --/-- values/nns of/in scope/nn ,/, stimulus/nn ,/, potential/nn ,/, and/cc imagination/nn ./.
But/cc there/ex is/bez also/rb a/at firm/jj aspect/nn to/in lexicostatistics/nn :/: the/at aspect/nn of/in learning/vbg the/at internal/jj organization/nn of/in obvious/jj natural/jj genetic/jj groups/nns of/in languages/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs their/pp$ more/ql remote/jj and/cc elusive/jj external/jj links/nns ;/. ;/.
of/in classification/nn first/rb ,/, with/in elapsed/vbn age/nn merely/rb a/at by-product/nn ;/. ;/.
of/in acquiring/vbg evidential/jj knowledge/nn of/in what/wdt happened/vbd in/in Athabascan/np ,/, in/in Yokuts/np ,/, in/in Uto-Aztecan/np in/in the/at last/ap few/ap thousand/cd years/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs forecasting/vbg what/wdt more/ql anciently/rb may/md have/hv happened/vbn between/in them/ppo ./.
This/dt involves/vbz step-by-step/jj progress/nn ,/, and/cc such/jj will/md have/hv to/to be/be the/at day-by-day/jj work/nn of/in lexicostatistics/nn as/cs a/at growing/vbg body/nn of/in scientific/jj inquiry/nn ./.
If/cs of/in the/at founders/nns of/in glottochronology/nn Swadesh/np has/hvz escaped/vbn our/pp$ steady/jj plodding/nn ,/, and/cc Lees/np has/hvz repudiated/vbn his/pp$ own/jj share/nn in/in the/at founding/vbg ,/, that/dt is/bez no/at reason/nn why/wrb we/ppss should/md swerve/vb ./.



8/cd-hl ./.-hl

There/ex is/bez no/at apparent/jj reason/nn why/wrb we/ppss should/md feel/vb bound/vbn by/in Swadesh's/np$ rules/nns and/cc procedure/nn since/cs his/pp$ predilections/nns and/cc aims/nns have/hv grown/vbn so/ql vast/jj ./.
It/pps seems/vbz time/nn to/to consider/vb a/at revision/nn of/in operational/jj procedures/nns for/in lexicostatistic/jj studies/nns on/in a/at more/ql humble/jj ,/, solid/jj ,/, and/cc limited/vbn basis/nn ./.


	I/ppss would/md propose/vb ,/, first/rb ,/, an/at abandonment/nn of/in attempts/nns at/in a/at universal/jj lexical/jj list/nn ,/, as/cs intrinsically/rb unachievable/jj ,/, and/cc operationally/rb inadequate/jj in/in proportion/nn as/cs it/pps is/bez achieved/vbn ./.


	I/ppss would/md propose/vb ,/, next/rb ,/, as/cs the/at prime/jj requirement/nn for/in constitution/nn of/in new/jj basic/jj lists/nns ,/, items/nns whose/wp$ forms/nns show/vb as/ql high/jj an/at empirical/jj retention/nn rate/nn as/cs possible/jj ./.
There/ex would/md be/be no/at conceivable/jj sense/nn in/in going/vbg to/in the/at opposite/jj extreme/nn of/in selecting/vbg items/nns whose/wp$ forms/nns are/ber the/at most/ql unstable/jj ./.
An/at attempted/vbn middle/jj course/nn might/md lead/vb to/in devices/nns like/vb a/at 5000-word/jj alphabetized/vbn dictionary/nn from/in which/wdt every/at fiftieth/od word/nn was/bedz selected/vbn ./.



	Doubtless/rb it/pps was/bedz inevitable/jj that/cs differences/nns of/in opinion/nn should/md arise/vb about/in the/at methods/nns for/in applying/vbg these/dts policies/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz nevertheless/rb almost/ql incredible/jj that/cs four/cd years/nns after/in Yalta/np there/ex should/md be/be a/at complete/jj split/nn over/in Germany/np ,/, with/in hot/jj heads/nns on/in both/abx sides/nns planning/vbg to/to use/vb the/at Germans/nps against/in their/pp$ former/ap allies/nns ,/, and/cc with/in Nazi-minded/jj Germans/nps expecting/vbg to/to recover/vb their/pp$ power/nn by/in fighting/vbg on/in one/cd side/nn or/cc the/at other/ap ./.



5/cd-hl ./.-hl
Poland/np 
frontiers/nns ./.

When/wrb the/at Yalta/np-tl Conference/nn-tl opened/vbd ,/, the/at American/jj policy/nn of/in postponing/vbg all/abn discussion/nn of/in Russia's/np$ western/jj boundaries/nns until/in the/at peace/nn conference/nn had/hvd broken/vbn down/rp ./.
Starting/vbg in/in great/jj force/nn late/rb in/in December/np ,/, from/in a/at line/nn stretching/vbg from/in East/jj-tl Prussia/np-tl to/in Budapest/np ,/, the/at Red/jj-tl armies/nns had/hvd swept/vbn two/cd hundred/cd miles/nns across/in Poland/np to/in the/at Oder/np ,/, thirty/cd miles/nns from/in Berlin/np ,/, and/cc the/at Upper/jj-tl Danube/np-tl region/nn was/bedz being/beg rapidly/rb overrun/vbn ,/, while/cs the/at Western/jj-tl Allies/nns-tl had/hvd not/* yet/rb occupied/vbn all/abn of/in the/at left/jj bank/nn of/in the/at Rhine/np ./.
The/at long/jj delay/nn in/in opening/vbg the/at Second/od-tl Front/nn-tl was/bedz now/rb working/vbg to/in Russia's/np$ advantage/nn ./.


	The/at West/nr-tl was/bedz now/rb glad/jj to/to propose/vb the/at 1919/cd Curzon/np-tl Line/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt was/bedz substantially/rb Russia's/np$ 1941/cd border/nn ,/, as/cs the/at boundary/nn between/in Russia/np and/cc Poland/np ./.
When/wrb this/dt proposal/nn was/bedz made/vbn ,/, Stalin/np spoke/vbd with/in stronger/jjr emotion/nn than/cs at/in any/dti other/ap time/nn during/in the/at Conference/nn-tl ./.
He/pps stood/vbd up/rp to/to emphasize/vb his/pp$ strong/jj feeling/nn on/in the/at subject/nn ./.
The/at bitter/jj memory/nn of/in Russia's/np$ exclusion/nn from/in the/at Paris/np-tl Peace/nn-tl Conference/nn-tl and/cc of/in the/at West's/nr$-tl effort/nn to/to stamp/vb out/rp Bolshevism/np at/in its/pp$ birth/nn boiled/vbd up/rp within/in him/ppo ./.
``/`` You/ppss would/md drive/vb us/ppo into/in shame/nn ''/'' ,/, he/pps declared/vbd ./.
The/at White/jj-tl Russians/nps-tl and/cc the/at Ukrainians/nps would/md say/vb that/cs Stalin/np and/cc Molotov/np were/bed far/ql less/ql reliable/jj defenders/nns of/in Russia/np than/cs Curzon/np and/cc Clemenceau/np ./.


	Yet/cc after/in long/jj and/cc earnest/jj discussion/nn Stalin/np accepted/vbd the/at Curzon/np-tl Line/nn-tl and/cc even/rb agreed/vbd voluntarily/rb that/cs there/ex should/md be/be digressions/nns from/in that/dt line/nn of/in five/cd to/in eight/cd kilometers/nns in/in favor/nn of/in Poland/np in/in some/dti regions/nns ./.
He/pps did/dod not/* mind/vb the/at Line/nn-tl itself/ppl ,/, which/wdt Churchill/np declared/vbd in/in the/at House/nn-tl of/in-tl Commons/nns-tl ,/, on/in February/np 27/cd ,/, 1945/cd ,/, he/pps had/hvd always/rb believed/vbn to/to be/be ``/`` just/jj and/cc right/jj ''/'' ,/, but/cc he/pps did/dod not/* want/vb it/ppo called/vbn by/in a/at hated/vbn name/nn ./.
The/at West/nr-tl had/hvd long/rb since/rb forgotten/vbn the/at events/nns of/in 1919/cd ,/, but/cc it/pps was/bedz not/* so/ql easy/jj for/in the/at Red/jj-tl leaders/nns ,/, who/wps felt/vbd that/cs they/ppss had/hvd suffered/vbn great/jj injustice/nn in/in that/dt period/nn ./.


	In/in the/at Dunn-Atherton/np memorandum/nn of/in February/np 4/cd ,/, 1942/cd ,/, the/at State/nn-tl Department/nn-tl had/hvd expected/vbn to/to be/be able/jj to/to hold/vb Russia/np in/in check/nn by/in withholding/vbg agreement/nn to/in her/pp$ 1941/cd boundaries/nns ./.
Now/rb Stalin/np made/vbd it/ppo clear/jj that/cs he/pps meant/vbd to/to move/vb Poland's/np$ western/jj borders/nns deep/rb into/in Germany/np ,/, back/rb to/in the/at western/jj Neisse-Oder/np-tl River/nn-tl lines/nns ,/, taking/vbg not/* only/rb East/jj-tl Prussia/np-tl and/cc all/abn of/in Silesia/np but/cc Pomerania/np and/cc the/at tip/nn of/in Brandenburg/np ,/, back/rb to/in and/cc including/in Stettin/np ./.
From/in six/cd to/in nine/cd million/cd additional/jj Germans/nps would/md be/be evicted/vbn ,/, though/cs most/ap would/md have/hv fled/vbn ,/, and/cc Poland/np would/md receive/vb far/ql more/ap from/in Germany/np than/cs the/at poor/jj territories/nns ,/, including/in the/at great/jj Pripet/np-tl Marshes/nns-tl ,/, which/wdt she/pps lost/vbd to/in Russia/np ./.
Stalin/np declared/vbd that/cs he/pps preferred/vbd to/to continue/vb the/at war/nn a/at little/ql longer/rbr ,/, ``/`` although/cs it/pps costs/vbz us/ppo blood/nn ''/'' ,/, in/in order/nn to/to give/vb Poland/np compensation/nn in/in the/at West/nr-tl at/in the/at expense/nn of/in the/at Germans/nps ./.


	By/in this/dt time/nn Churchill/np was/bedz not/* so/ql cordial/jj toward/in moving/vbg Poland/np westward/rb as/cs he/pps had/hvd been/ben at/in Teheran/np ,/, where/wrb he/pps and/cc Eden/np had/hvd both/abx heartily/rb approved/vbn the/at idea/nn ./.
After/cs ``/`` a/at prolonged/vbn study/nn of/in the/at Oder/np line/nn on/in a/at map/nn ''/'' ,/, at/in Teheran/np ,/, Churchill/np ``/`` liked/vbd the/at picture/nn ''/'' ./.
He/pps would/md tell/vb the/at Poles/nps ,/, he/pps said/vbd ,/, that/cs they/ppss had/hvd been/ben ``/`` given/vbn a/at fine/jj place/nn to/to live/vb in/in ,/, more/ap than/in three/cd hundred/cd miles/nns each/dt way/nn ''/'' ./.
At/in Yalta/np he/pps thought/vbd more/rbr about/in the/at six/cd million/cd Germans/nps who/wps would/md have/hv to/to leave/vb ,/, trying/vbg to/to find/vb work/nn in/in Germany/np ,/, and/cc Roosevelt/np objected/vbd to/in the/at Western/jj-tl Neisse/np-tl River/nn-tl being/beg chosen/vbn in/in the/at south/nr ,/, instead/rb of/in the/at Eastern/jj-tl Neisse/np-tl ,/, both/abx of/in which/wdt flow/vb into/in the/at Oder/np ./.


	The/at issue/nn was/bedz left/vbn in/in abeyance/nn ,/, presumably/rb for/in the/at peace/nn conference/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, there/ex was/bedz no/at real/jj question/nn of/in the/at justice/nn of/in creating/vbg a/at strong/jj Poland/np ,/, both/abx industrially/rb and/cc agriculturally/rb ,/, and/cc one/cd unplagued/jj by/in large/jj minorities/nns of/in Germans/nps or/cc Russians/nps ./.
The/at moving/vbg of/in millions/nns of/in the/at German/jj master-race/nn ,/, from/in the/at very/ap heart/nn of/in Junkerdom/np ,/, to/to make/vb room/nn for/in the/at Polish/jj Slavs/nps whom/wpo they/ppss had/hvd enslaved/vbn and/cc openly/rb planned/vbn to/to exterminate/vb was/bedz a/at drastic/jj operation/nn ,/, but/cc there/ex was/bedz little/ap doubt/nn that/cs it/pps was/bedz historically/rb justified/vbn ./.
Government/nn-hl ./.-hl

Of/in more/ap importance/nn to/in the/at West/nr-tl than/cs Poland's/np$ boundaries/nns was/bedz the/at character/nn of/in her/pp$ government/nn ./.
At/in Yalta/np the/at West/nr-tl still/rb believed/vbd that/cs Eastern/jj-tl Europe/np-tl could/md be/be kept/vbn in/in its/pp$ orbit/nn ,/, in/in spite/nn of/in the/at onrushing/jj Soviet/np armies/nns ./.
Though/cs little/ap democracy/nn had/hvd ever/rb been/ben practised/vbn in/in this/dt region/nn ,/, and/cc much/ap of/in it/ppo was/bedz still/rb ruled/vbn by/in feudalistic/jj means/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz taken/vbn for/in granted/vbn that/cs at/in least/ap the/at forms/nns of/in Western/jj-tl democracy/nn would/md be/be established/vbn in/in this/dt area/nn and/cc Western/jj-tl capitalism/nn preserved/vbn within/in it/ppo ./.
Believing/vbg devoutly/rb as/cs they/ppss did/dod in/in Anglo-Saxon/jj institutions/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz important/jj to/in both/abx Roosevelt/np and/cc Churchill/np that/cs the/at Poles/nps should/md have/hv them/ppo ./.


	The/at issue/nn was/bedz acute/jj because/cs the/at exiled/vbn Polish/jj-tl Government/nn-tl in/in London/np ,/, supported/vbn in/in the/at main/jjs by/in Britain/np ,/, was/bedz still/rb competing/vbg with/in the/at new/jj Lublin/np-tl Government/nn-tl formed/vbn behind/in the/at Red/jj-tl Army/nn-tl ./.
More/ap time/nn was/bedz spent/vbn in/in trying/vbg to/to marry/vb these/dts incompatibles/nns than/cs over/in any/dti subject/nn discussed/vbn at/in Yalta/np ./.
The/at result/nn was/bedz an/at agreement/nn that/cs the/at Lublin/np-tl Government/nn-tl should/md be/be ``/`` reorganized/vbn on/in a/at broader/jjr democratic/jj basis/nn with/in the/at inclusion/nn of/in democratic/jj leaders/nns from/in Poland/np itself/ppl and/cc from/in the/at Poles/nps abroad/rb ''/'' ,/, and/cc pledged/vbn to/to hold/vb ``/`` free/jj and/cc unfettered/jj elections/nns as/ql soon/rb as/cs possible/jj on/in the/at basis/nn of/in universal/jj suffrage/nn and/cc secret/jj ballot/nn ''/'' ./.
All/abn ``/`` democratic/jj and/cc anti-Nazi/jj parties/nns ''/'' were/bed to/to have/hv the/at right/nn to/to campaign/vb ./.


	Roosevelt/np acted/vbd as/cs moderator/nn of/in the/at long/jj debate/nn on/in this/dt issue/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz a/at matter/nn of/in principle/nn with/in Churchill/np ,/, since/cs Britain/np had/hvd declared/vbn war/nn in/in behalf/nn of/in Poland/np ./.
To/in Stalin/np it/pps was/bedz a/at matter/nn of/in life/nn and/cc death/nn ./.
He/pps made/vbd this/dt completely/ql clear/jj ./.
Speaking/vbg with/in ``/`` great/jj earnestness/nn ''/'' ,/, he/pps said/vbd :/: ``/`` For/in the/at Russian/jj people/nns ,/, the/at question/nn of/in Poland/np is/bez not/* only/rb a/at question/nn of/in honor/nn but/cc also/rb a/at question/nn of/in security/nn ./.
Throughout/in history/nn ,/, Poland/np has/hvz been/ben the/at corridor/nn through/in which/wdt the/at enemy/nn has/hvz passed/vbn into/in Russia/np ./.
Twice/rb in/in the/at last/ap thirty/cd years/nns our/pp$ enemies/nns ,/, the/at Germans/nps ,/, have/hv passed/vbn through/in this/dt corridor/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez in/in Russia's/np$ interest/nn that/cs Poland/np should/md be/be strong/jj and/cc powerful/jj ,/, in/in a/at position/nn to/to shut/vb the/at door/nn of/in this/dt corridor/nn by/in her/pp$ own/jj force/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez necessary/jj that/cs Poland/np should/md be/be free/jj ,/, independent/jj in/in power/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* only/rb a/at question/nn of/in honor/nn but/cc of/in life/nn and/cc death/nn for/in the/at Soviet/np state/nn ''/'' ./.


	In/in other/ap words/nns ,/, the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl was/bedz determined/vbn to/to create/vb a/at Poland/np so/ql strong/jj as/cs to/to be/be a/at powerful/jj bulwark/nn against/in Germany/np and/cc so/ql closely/rb tied/vbn to/in Russia/np that/cs there/ex would/md never/rb be/be any/dti question/nn of/in her/pp$ serving/vbg as/cs a/at cordon/fw-nn sanitaire/fw-jj against/in the/at Soviets/nps or/cc posing/vbg as/cs an/at independent/jj ,/, balancing/vbg power/nn in/in between/in Russia/np and/cc Germany/np ./.
Byrnes/np says/vbz that/cs invariably/rb thereafter/rb the/at Soviets/nps used/vbd the/at same/ap security/nn argument/nn to/to justify/vb their/pp$ course/nn in/in Poland/np ./.
This/dt reasoning/nn was/bedz also/rb as/ql inevitable/jj as/cs anything/pn could/md be/be ./.
Any/dti free/jj elections/nns that/wps were/bed to/to be/be held/vbn in/in Poland/np would/md have/hv to/to produce/vb a/at government/nn in/in which/wdt Moscow/np had/hvd complete/jj confidence/nn ,/, and/cc all/abn pressure/nn from/in the/at West/nr-tl for/in free/jj voting/nn by/in anti-Soviet/jj elements/nns in/in Poland/np would/md be/be met/vbn by/in restrictions/nns on/in voting/vbg by/in these/dts elements/nns ./.



6/cd-hl ./.-hl
Liberated/vbn-hl Europe/np-hl 
In/in even/ql greater/jjr degree/nn the/at same/ap rule/nn applied/vbd to/in the/at remainder/nn of/in Eastern/jj-tl Europe/np-tl ,/, where/wrb the/at upper/jjr classes/nns had/hvd generally/rb collaborated/vbn with/in the/at Nazis/nps ,/, even/rb to/in the/at extent/nn of/in sending/vbg millions/nns of/in their/pp$ peasants/nns into/in Russia/np as/cs a/at part/nn of/in Hitler's/np$ armies/nns ./.
But/cc at/in Yalta/np the/at conflicting/vbg expectations/nns of/in East/nr-tl and/cc West/nr-tl were/bed merged/vbn into/in an/at agreement/nn by/in the/at Big/jj-tl Three/cd-tl to/to assist/vb all/abn liberated/vbn countries/nns in/in Europe/np ``/`` to/to create/vb democratic/jj institutions/nns of/in their/pp$ own/jj choice/nn ''/'' ./.
In/in any/dti case/nn ``/`` here/rb in/in their/pp$ judgment/nn conditions/nns require/vb ''/'' (/( italics/nns added/vbn )/) they/ppss would/md ``/`` form/vb interim/jj governmental/jj authorities/nns broadly/rb representative/jj of/in all/abn democratic/jj elements/nns in/in the/at population/nn and/cc pledged/vbn to/in the/at earliest/jjt possible/jj establishment/nn through/in free/jj elections/nns of/in governments/nns responsive/jj to/in the/at will/nn of/in the/at people/nns ''/'' ./.
Other/ap similar/jj affirmations/nns in/in the/at Declaration/nn-tl on/in-tl Liberated/vbn-hl Europe/np-tl seemed/vbd to/to assure/vb democratic/jj institutions/nns on/in the/at Western/jj-tl model/nn ./.
Later/rbr it/pps developed/vbd that/cs the/at Soviets/nps had/hvd a/at very/ql different/jj interpretation/nn of/in democracy/nn ,/, which/wdt will/md be/be discussed/vbn later/rbr ,/, and/cc their/pp$ judgment/nn never/rb told/vbd them/ppo that/cs the/at Big/jj-tl Three/cd-tl should/md unite/vb in/in establishing/vbg democratic/jj conditions/nns ,/, as/cs we/ppss understand/vb them/ppo ,/, within/in their/pp$ zone/nn of/in influence/nn ./.


	Professor/nn-tl McNeill/np thinks/vbz that/cs at/in Yalta/np ,/, Stalin/np did/dod not/* fully/rb realize/vb the/at dilemma/nn which/wdt faced/vbd him/ppo ,/, that/cs he/pps thought/vbd the/at exclusion/nn of/in the/at anti-Soviet/jj voters/nns from/in East/jj-tl European/jj-tl elections/nns would/md not/* be/be greatly/rb resented/vbn by/in his/pp$ allies/nns ,/, while/cs neither/cc Roosevelt/np nor/cc Churchill/np frankly/rb faced/vbd ``/`` the/at fact/nn that/cs ,/, in/in Poland/np at/in least/ap ,/, genuinely/ql free/jj democratic/jj elections/nns would/md return/vb governments/nns unfriendly/jj to/in Russia/np ''/'' ,/, by/in any/dti definition/nn of/in international/jj friendliness/nn ./.
Also/rb war-time/nn propaganda/nn and/cc cooperation/nn had/hvd ``/`` obscured/vbn the/at differences/nns between/in Russian/np and/cc Western/jj-tl ideas/nns of/in democracy/nn ''/'' ,/, and/cc it/pps seemed/vbd better/jjr to/to have/hv them/ppo covered/vbn by/in verbal/jj formulae/nns than/cs to/to imperil/vb the/at military/jj victories/nns over/in Germany/np and/cc Japan/np ./.


	The/at application/nn of/in these/dts formulae/nns could/md not/* please/vb both/abx sides/nns ,/, for/cs they/ppss really/rb attempted/vbd to/to marry/vb the/at impossible/jj to/in the/at inevitable/jj ./.
While/cs obliged/vbn to/to concede/vb governments/nns in/in East/jj-tl Europe/np-tl allied/vbn with/in the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl instead/rb of/in opposed/vbn to/in it/ppo ,/, we/ppss thought/vbd we/ppss had/hvd preserved/vbn our/pp$ social/jj and/cc economic/jj system/nn in/in East/jj-tl Europe/np-tl ./.


	This/dt illusion/nn was/bedz described/vbn in/in a/at far-sighted/jj editorial/nn in/in The/at-tl New/jj-tl York/np-tl Herald/nn-tl Tribune/nn-tl ,/, on/in March/np 5/cd ,/, 1947/cd ,/, in/in connection/nn with/in the/at submission/nn of/in the/at satellite/nn peace/nn treaties/nns to/in the/at Senate/nn-tl ./.
In/in doing/vbg so/rb Marshall/np and/cc Byrnes/np were/bed ``/`` asking/vbg for/in the/at ratification/nn of/in a/at grim/jj lesson/nn in/in the/at facts/nns of/in international/jj life/nn ''/'' ./.
We/ppss had/hvd entertained/vbn exaggerated/vbn ideas/nns about/in our/pp$ victory/nn automatically/rb establishing/vbg our/pp$ system/nn throughout/in the/at world/nn ./.
``/`` We/ppss were/bed troubled/vbn about/in the/at fate/nn of/in the/at Baltic/np-tl States/nns-tl ./.
Yalta/np left/vbd us/ppo with/in comforting/vbg illusions/nns of/in a/at Western/jj-tl capitalist-democratic/jj political/jj economy/nn reigning/vbg supreme/jj up/rp to/in the/at Curzon/np line/nn and/cc the/at borders/nns of/in Bessarabia/np ''/'' (/( Italics/nns added/vbn )/) 

	./.
This/dt is/bez a/at penetrating/jj description/nn of/in our/pp$ post-war/jj illusion/nn ,/, which/wdt applied/vbd to/in other/ap areas/nns than/cs East/jj-tl Europe/np-tl ./.
The/at same/ap editorial/nn continued/vbd that/cs ``/`` We/ppss expected/vbd to/to democratize/vb Japan/np and/cc Korea/np and/cc to/to see/vb a/at new/jj China/np pattern/vb itself/ppl easily/rb on/in our/pp$ institutions/nns ./.
We/ppss expected/vbd ,/, in/in short/jj ,/, that/cs most/ap of/in the/at world/nn would/md make/vb itself/ppl over/rp in/in our/pp$ image/nn and/cc that/cs it/pps would/md be/be relatively/ql simple/jj ,/, from/in such/abl a/at position/nn ,/, to/to deal/vb with/in the/at localized/vbn aberrations/nns of/in the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
Yet/cc actually/rb ``/`` the/at image/nn corresponded/vbd in/in no/at way/nn to/in the/at actualities/nns of/in the/at post-war/jj world/nn ./.
Neither/cc our/pp$ military/jj ,/, our/pp$ economic/jj nor/cc our/pp$ ideological/jj power/nn reached/vbd far/rb enough/qlp ''/'' to/to determine/vb the/at fate/nn of/in East/jj-tl Europe/np-tl ./.
Then/rb the/at editorial/nn added/vbd prophetically/rb :/: ``/`` how/wql far/rb they/ppss may/md reach/vb in/in Asia/np is/bez yet/rb undetermined/jj ,/, but/cc they/ppss fall/vb far/ql short/rb of/in our/pp$ dreams/nns of/in the/at war/nn conferences/nns ''/'' ./.


	Here/rb is/bez the/at best/jjt short/jj explanation/nn of/in the/at origins/nns of/in the/at Cold/jj-tl War/nn-tl that/wpo has/hvz been/ben written/vbn ./.
Failing/vbg to/to heed/vb the/at lesson/nn so/ql clearly/rb contained/vbn in/in the/at satellite/nn treaties/nns ,/, President/nn-tl Truman/np re-declared/vbd the/at Cold/jj-tl War/nn-tl on/in March/np 12/cd ,/, 1947/cd ,/, in/in the/at Truman/np-tl Doctrine/nn-tl ,/, exactly/rb one/cd week/nn after/cs the/at Herald/nn-tl Tribune/nn-tl editorial/nn was/bedz written/vbn ,/, and/cc a/at year/nn after/cs the/at Cold/jj-tl War/nn-tl had/hvd been/ben announced/vbn by/in Churchill/np at/in Fulton/np ,/, Missouri/np ,/, in/in Truman's/np$ presence/nn ./.
Then/rb China/np promptly/rb went/vbd Communist/jj ,/, and/cc Mr./np Truman/np had/hvd to/to fight/vb the/at interminable/jj Korean/jj war/nn for/in the/at democratization/nn of/in Korea/np before/cs we/ppss learned/vbd how/wql far/rb our/pp$ writ/nn did/dod ``/`` reach/vb in/in Asia/np ''/'' ./.


	Years/nns of/in war/nn ,/, strain/nn ,/, and/cc hatred/nn ;/. ;/.
of/in heavy/jj arms/nns expenditures/nns and/cc constant/jj danger/nn of/in another/dt world/nn war/nn had/hvd to/to ensue/vb before/cs the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl could/md bring/vb itself/ppl to/to accept/vb the/at two/cd chief/jjs results/nns of/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, --/-- Communist/jj control/nn of/in East/jj-tl Europe/np-tl and/cc China/np --/-- a/at-hl new/jj-hl balance/nn-hl of/in-hl power/nn-hl ./.-hl

While/cs the/at Cold/jj-tl War/nn-tl raged/vbd it/pps was/bedz easy/jj to/to blame/vb it/ppo all/abn on/in Yalta/np ./.
Yet/rb ,/, in/in summarizing/vbg a/at series/nn of/in careful/jj essays/nns on/in the/at Yalta/np-tl Conference/nn-tl ,/, Forrest/np Pogue/np could/md find/vb no/at basis/nn for/in Yalta/np becoming/vbg ``/`` a/at symbol/nn for/in betrayal/nn and/cc a/at shibboleth/nn for/in the/at opponents/nns of/in Roosevelt/np and/cc international/jj cooperation/nn ''/'' ./.
When/wrb the/at Yalta/np-tl Papers/nns-tl were/bed finally/rb published/vbn with/in great/jj fanfare/nn they/ppss had/hvd revealed/vbn no/at betrayal/nn by/in anyone/pn ./.



	An/at analysis/nn of/in the/at election/nn falls/vbz naturally/rb in/in four/cd parts/nns ./.
First/od is/bez the/at long/jj and/cc still/rb somewhat/ql obscure/jj process/nn of/in preparation/nn ,/, planning/vbg and/cc discussion/nn ./.
Preparation/nn began/vbd slightly/ql more/ap than/in a/at year/nn after/in independence/nn with/in the/at first/od steps/nns to/to organize/vb rural/jj communes/nns ./.
All/abn political/jj interests/nns supported/vbd electoral/jj planning/nn ,/, although/cs there/ex are/ber some/dti signs/nns that/cs the/at inherent/jj uncertainties/nns of/in a/at popular/jj judgment/nn led/vbd to/in some/dti procrastination/nn ./.
The/at second/od major/jj aspect/nn of/in the/at election/nn is/bez the/at actual/jj procedure/nn of/in registration/nn ,/, nomination/nn and/cc voting/vbg ./.
Considerable/jj technical/jj skill/nn was/bedz used/vbn and/cc the/at administration/nn of/in the/at elections/nns was/bedz generally/rb above/in reproach/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at regionally/rb differentiated/vbn results/nns ,/, which/wdt appear/vb below/rb in/in tables/nns ,/, are/ber interesting/jj evidence/nn of/in the/at problems/nns of/in developing/vbg self-government/nn under/in even/rb the/at most/ql favorable/jj circumstances/nns ./.
A/at third/od aspect/nn ,/, and/cc probably/rb the/at one/cd open/jj to/in most/ap controversy/nn ,/, is/bez the/at results/nns of/in the/at election/nn ./.
The/at electoral/jj procedure/nn prevented/vbd the/at ready/jj identification/nn of/in party/nn affiliation/nn ,/, but/cc all/abn vitally/rb interested/vbn parties/nns ,/, including/in the/at government/nn itself/ppl ,/, were/bed busily/rb engaged/vbn in/in determining/vbg the/at party/nn identifications/nns of/in all/abn successful/jj candidates/nns the/at month/nn following/in the/at elections/nns ./.
The/at fourth/od and/cc concluding/vbg point/nn will/md be/be to/to estimate/vb the/at long-run/nn significance/nn of/in the/at elections/nns and/cc how/wrb they/ppss figure/vb in/in the/at current/jj pattern/nn of/in internal/jj politics/nn ./.


	Elections/nns have/hv figured/vbn prominently/rb in/in nearly/rb every/at government/nn program/nn and/cc official/jj address/nn since/in independence/nn ./.
They/ppss were/bed stressed/vbn in/in the/at speeches/nns of/in Si/np Mubarak/np Bekkai/np when/wrb the/at first/od Council/nn-tl of/in-tl Ministers/nns-tl was/bedz formed/vbn and/cc again/rb when/wrb the/at Istiqlal/np took/vbd a/at leading/vbg role/nn in/in the/at second/od Council/nn-tl ./.
King/nn-tl Muhammad/np 5/cd-tl ,/, was/bedz known/vbn to/to be/be most/ql sympathetic/jj to/in the/at formation/nn of/in local/jj self-government/nn and/cc made/vbd the/at first/od firm/jj promise/nn of/in elections/nns on/in May/np-tl Day/nn-tl ,/, 1957/cd ./.
There/ex followed/vbd a/at long/jj and/cc sometimes/rb bitter/jj discussion/nn of/in the/at feasibility/nn of/in elections/nns for/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1957/cd ,/, in/in which/wdt it/pps appears/vbz that/cs the/at Minister/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl took/vbd the/at most/ql pessimistic/jj view/nn and/cc that/cs the/at Istiqlal/np was/bedz something/pn less/ap than/cs enthusiastic/jj ./.
Since/cs the/at complicated/vbn process/nn of/in establishing/vbg new/jj communes/nns and/cc reviewing/vbg the/at rudimentary/jj plan/nn left/vbn by/in the/at French/nps did/dod not/* even/rb begin/vb until/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1957/cd ,/, this/dt goal/nn appears/vbz somewhat/ql ambitious/jj ./.


	From/in the/at very/ap beginning/nn the/at electoral/jj discussions/nns raised/vbd fundamental/jj issues/nns in/in Moroccan/np politics/nn ,/, precisely/rb the/at type/nn of/in questions/nns that/wps were/bed most/ql difficult/jj to/to resolve/vb in/in the/at new/jj government/nn ./.
Until/cs the/at Charter/nn-tl of/in-tl Liberties/nns-tl was/bedz issued/vbn in/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1958/cd ,/, there/ex were/bed no/at guarantees/nns of/in the/at right/nn to/to assemble/vb or/cc to/to organize/vb for/in political/jj purposes/nns ./.
The/at Istiqlal/np was/bedz still/rb firmly/rb united/vbn in/in 1957/cd ,/, but/cc the/at P.D.I./np (/( Parti/fw-nn-tl Democratique/fw-jj-tl de/fw-in-tl l'Independance/fw-at+nn-tl )/) ,/, the/at most/ql important/jj minor/jj party/nn at/in the/at time/nn ,/, objected/vbd to/in the/at Istiqlal's/np$ predominance/nn in/in the/at civil/jj service/nn and/cc influence/nn in/in Radio/nn-tl Maroc/np ./.
There/ex were/bed rumors/nns that/cs the/at Ministry/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl favored/vbd an/at arbitrary/jj ,/, ``/`` non-political/jj ''/'' process/nn ,/, which/wdt were/bed indirectly/rb affirmed/vbn when/wrb the/at King/nn-tl personally/rb intervened/vbd in/in the/at planned/vbn meetings/nns ./.
The/at day/nn following/in his/pp$ intervention/nn the/at palace/nn issued/vbd a/at statement/nn reassuring/vbg the/at citizens/nns that/cs ``/`` the/at possibility/nn of/in introducing/vbg appeals/nns concerning/in the/at establishment/nn of/in electoral/jj lists/nns ,/, lists/nns of/in candidates/nns and/cc finally/rb the/at holding/nn of/in the/at consultation/nn itself/ppl ''/'' would/md be/be supported/vbn by/in the/at King/nn-tl himself/ppl ./.


	The/at Ifni/np crisis/nn in/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1957/cd postponed/vbd further/jjr consideration/nn of/in elections/nns ,/, but/cc French/jj consultants/nns were/bed called/vbn in/rp and/cc notices/nns of/in further/jjr investigation/nn appeared/vbd from/in time/nn to/in time/nn ./.
In/in January/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, the/at Minister/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl announced/vbd that/cs an/at election/nn law/nn was/bedz ready/jj to/to be/be submitted/vbn to/in the/at King/nn-tl ,/, the/at rumors/nns of/in election/nn dates/nns appeared/vbd once/rb again/rb ,/, first/rb for/in spring/nn of/in 1958/cd and/cc later/rbr for/in the/at summer/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at government/nn was/bedz probably/rb prepared/vbn for/in elections/nns by/in mid-1958/cd ,/, the/at first/od decision/nn was/bedz no/at doubt/nn made/vbn more/ql difficult/jj as/cs party/nn strife/nn multiplied/vbd ./.
In/in late/jj 1957/cd the/at M.P./np (/( Mouvement/fw-nn-tl Populaire/fw-jj-tl )/) appeared/vbd and/cc in/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1958/cd the/at internal/jj strains/nns of/in the/at Istiqlal/np was/bedz revealed/vbn when/wrb the/at third/od Council/nn-tl of/in-tl Government/nn-tl under/in Balafrej/np was/bedz formed/vbn without/in support/nn from/in progressive/jj elements/nns in/in the/at party/nn ./.
The/at parties/nns were/bed on/in the/at whole/jj unprepared/jj for/in elections/nns ,/, while/cs the/at people/nns were/bed still/rb experiencing/vbg post-independence/jj let-down/nn and/cc suffering/vbg the/at after-effects/nns of/in poor/jj harvests/nns in/in 1957/cd ./.


	Despite/in the/at internal/jj and/cc international/jj crises/nns that/wps harassed/vbd Morocco/np the/at elections/nns remained/vbd a/at central/jj issue/nn ./.
They/ppss figured/vbd prominently/rb in/in the/at Balafrej/np government/nn of/in May/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, which/wdt the/at King/nn-tl was/bedz reportedly/rb determined/vbn to/to keep/vb in/in office/nn until/cs elections/nns could/md be/be held/vbn ./.
But/cc the/at eagerly/rb sought/vbn ``/`` homogeneity/nn ''/'' of/in the/at Balafrej/np-tl Council/nn-tl of/in-tl Government/nn-tl was/bedz never/rb achieved/vbn as/cs the/at Istiqlal/np quarreled/vbd over/in foreign/jj policy/nn ,/, labor/nn politics/nn and/cc economic/jj development/nn ./.
By/in December/np ,/, 1958/cd ,/, when/wrb '/' Abdallah/np Ibrahim/np became/vbd President/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Council/nn-tl ,/, elections/nns had/hvd even/ql greater/jjr importance/nn ./.
They/ppss were/bed increasingly/rb looked/vbn upon/rb as/cs a/at means/nn of/in establishing/vbg the/at new/jj rural/jj communes/nns as/cs the/at focus/nn of/in a/at new/jj ,/, constructive/jj national/jj effort/nn ./.
To/to minimize/vb the/at chances/nns of/in repeating/vbg the/at Balafrej/np debacle/nn the/at Ibrahim/np government/nn was/bedz formed/vbn ./.
A/at titre/fw-nn personnel/fw-jj and/cc a/at special/jj office/nn was/bedz created/vbn in/in the/at Ministry/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl to/to plan/vb and/cc to/to conduct/vb the/at elections/nns ./.
By/in this/dt time/nn there/ex is/bez little/ap doubt/nn but/in what/wdt election/nn plans/nns were/bed complete/jj ./.
There/ex remained/vbd only/rb the/at delicate/jj task/nn of/in maneuvering/vbg the/at laws/nns through/in the/at labyrinth/nn of/in Palace/nn-tl politics/nn and/cc making/vbg a/at small/jj number/nn of/in policy/nn decisions/nns ./.


	From/in the/at rather/ql tortuous/jj history/nn of/in electoral/jj planning/nn in/in Morocco/np an/at important/jj point/nn emerges/vbz concerning/in the/at first/od elections/nns in/in a/at developing/vbg country/nn and/cc evaluating/vbg their/pp$ results/nns ./.
In/in the/at new/jj country/nn the/at electoral/jj process/nn is/bez considered/vbn as/cs a/at means/nn of/in resolving/vbg fundamental/jj ,/, and/cc sometimes/rb bitter/jj ,/, differences/nns among/in leaders/nns and/cc also/rb as/cs a/at source/nn of/in policy/nn guidance/nn ./.
In/in the/at absence/nn of/in a/at reservoir/nn of/in political/jj consensus/nn each/dt organized/vbn political/jj group/nn hopes/vbz that/cs the/at elections/nns will/md give/vb them/ppo new/jj prominence/nn ,/, but/cc in/in a/at system/nn where/wrb there/ex is/bez as/ql yet/rb no/at place/nn for/in the/at less/ql prominent/jj ./.
Lacking/vbg the/at respected/vbn and/cc effective/jj institutions/nns that/wpo consensus/nn helps/nns provide/vb ,/, minority/nn parties/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs the/at P.D.I./np in/in 1957/cd and/cc the/at progressive/jj Istiqlal/np faction/nn in/in 1958/cd ,/, clamor/vb for/in elections/nns when/wrb out/rp of/in power/nn ,/, but/cc are/ber not/* at/in all/abn certain/jj they/ppss wish/vb to/to be/be controlled/vbn by/in popular/jj choice/nn when/wrb in/in power/nn ./.
Those/dts in/in power/nn tend/vb to/to procrastinate/vb and/cc even/vb to/to repudiate/vb the/at electoral/jj process/nn ./.
The/at tendency/nn to/to treat/vb elections/nns as/cs an/at instrument/nn of/in self-interest/nn rather/rb than/in an/at instrument/nn of/in national/jj interest/nn had/hvd two/cd important/jj effects/nns on/in electoral/jj planning/nn in/in Morocco/np ./.


	At/in the/at central/jj level/nn the/at scrutin/fw-nn uninominal/jj voting/vbg system/nn was/bedz selected/vbn over/in some/dti form/nn of/in the/at scrutin/fw-nn de/fw-in liste/fw-nn system/nn ,/, even/rb though/cs the/at latter/ap had/hvd been/ben recommended/vbn by/in Duverger/np and/cc favored/vbn by/in all/abn political/jj parties/nns ./.
The/at choice/nn of/in the/at single/ap member/nn district/nn was/bedz dictated/vbn to/in a/at certain/ap extent/nn by/in problems/nns of/in communication/nn and/cc understanding/vbg in/in the/at more/ql remote/jj areas/nns of/in the/at country/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps also/rb served/vbd to/to minimize/vb the/at national/jj political/jj value/nn of/in the/at elections/nns ./.
Although/cs the/at elections/nns were/bed for/in local/jj officials/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz not/* necessary/jj to/to conduct/vb the/at elections/nns so/cs as/cs to/to prevent/vb parties/nns from/in publicly/rb identifying/vbg their/pp$ candidates/nns ./.
With/in multiple/jj member/nn districts/nns the/at still/rb fragmentary/jj local/jj party/nn organizations/nns could/md have/hv operated/vbn more/ql effectively/rb and/cc parties/nns might/md have/hv been/ben encouraged/vbn to/to state/vb their/pp$ positions/nns more/ql clearly/rb ./.
Both/abx parties/nns and/cc the/at Ministry/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl were/bed busily/rb at/in work/nn after/in the/at elections/nns trying/vbg to/to unearth/vb the/at political/jj affiliations/nns of/in the/at successful/jj candidates/nns and/cc ,/, thereby/rb ,/, give/vb the/at elections/nns a/at confidential/jj but/cc known/vbn degree/nn of/in national/jj political/jj significance/nn ./.
Since/cs a/at national/jj interpretation/nn cannot/md* be/be avoided/vbn it/pps is/bez unfortunate/jj that/cs the/at elections/nns were/bed not/* held/vbn in/in a/at way/nn to/to maximize/vb party/nn responsibility/nn and/cc the/at educational/jj effect/nn of/in mass/jj political/jj participation/nn ./.


	The/at general/jj setting/nn of/in the/at Moroccan/jj election/nn may/md also/rb encourage/vb the/at deterioration/nn of/in local/jj party/nn organization/nn ./.
The/at concentration/nn of/in effective/jj power/nn in/in Rabat/np leads/vbz not/* only/rb to/in party/nn bickering/nn ,/, but/cc to/in distraction/nn from/in local/jj activity/nn that/wps might/md have/hv had/hvn many/ap auxiliary/jj benefits/nns in/in addition/nn to/in contributing/vbg to/in more/ql meaningful/jj elections/nns ./.
Interesting/jj evidence/nn can/md be/be found/vbn in/in the/at results/nns of/in the/at Chamber/nn-tl of/in-tl Commerce/nn-tl elections/nns ,/, which/wdt took/vbd place/nn three/cd weeks/nns before/in national/jj elections/nns ./.
The/at Istiqlal-sponsored/jj U.M.C.I.A./np (/( L'Union/fw-at+nn-tl Marocaine/fw-jj-tl Des/fw-in+at-tl Commercants/fw-nns-tl ,/, Industrialistes/fw-nns-tl et/fw-cc-tl Artisans/fw-nns-tl )/) was/bedz opposed/vbn by/in candidates/nns of/in the/at new/jj U.N.F.P./np (/( L'Union/fw-at+nn-tl National/fw-jj-tl Des/fw-in+at-t Forces/fw-nns-tl Populaires/fw-jj-tl )/) in/in nearly/ql all/abn urban/jj centers/nns ./.
As/cs the/at more/ql conservative/jj group/nn with/in strong/jj backing/nn from/in wealthy/jj businessmen/nns ,/, the/at U.M.C.I.A./np was/bedz generally/rb favored/vbn against/in the/at more/ql progressive/jj ,/, labor-based/jj U.N.F.P./np ./.
The/at newer/jjr party/nn campaigned/vbd heavily/rb ,/, while/cs the/at older/jjr ,/, more/ql confident/jj party/nn expected/vbd the/at Moroccan/jj merchants/nns and/cc small/jj businessmen/nns to/to support/vb them/ppo as/cs they/ppss had/hvd done/vbn for/in many/ap years/nns ./.
The/at local/jj Istiqlal/np and/cc U.M.C.I.A./np offices/nns did/dod not/* campaign/vb and/cc lost/vbd heavily/rb ./.
The/at value/nn of/in the/at elections/nns was/bedz lost/vbn ,/, both/abx as/cs an/at experiment/nn in/in increased/vbn political/jj participation/nn and/cc as/cs a/at reliable/jj indicator/nn of/in commercial/jj interest/nn ,/, as/cs shown/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.


	The/at Chamber/nn-tl of/in-tl Commerce/nn-tl elections/nns were/bed ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, an/at important/jj event/nn in/in the/at preparation/nn for/in rural/jj commune/nn elections/nns ./.
The/at U.N.F.P./np learned/vbd that/cs its/pp$ urban/jj organization/nn ,/, which/wdt depends/vbz heavily/rb on/in U.M.T./np support/nn ,/, was/bedz most/ql effective/jj ./.
The/at Istiqlal/np found/vbd that/cs the/at spontaneous/jj solidarity/nn of/in the/at independence/nn struggle/nn was/bedz not/* easily/rb transposed/vbn to/in the/at more/ql concrete/jj ,/, precise/jj problems/nns of/in internal/jj politics/nn ./.
The/at overall/jj effect/nn was/bedz probably/rb to/to stimulate/vb more/ap party/nn activity/nn in/in the/at communal/jj elections/nns than/cs might/md have/hv otherwise/rb taken/vbn place/nn ./.


	A/at second/od major/jj point/nn of/in this/dt essay/nn is/bez to/to examine/vb the/at formal/jj arrangements/nns for/in the/at elections/nns ./.
Although/cs a/at somewhat/ql technical/jj subject/nn ,/, it/pps has/hvz important/jj political/jj implications/nns as/cs the/at above/jj discussion/nn of/in the/at voting/vbg system/nn indicated/vbd ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at problems/nns and/cc solutions/nns devised/vbn in/in the/at electoral/jj experiences/nns of/in the/at rapidly/rb changing/vbg countries/nns are/ber often/rb of/in comparative/jj value/nn and/cc essential/jj to/in evaluating/vbg election/nn results/nns ./.
The/at sine/fw-in qua/fw-wdt non/fw-* of/in the/at elections/nns was/bedz naturally/rb an/at impartial/jj and/cc standardized/vbn procedure/nn ./.
As/cs the/at background/nn discussion/nn indicated/vbd there/ex were/bed frequently/rb expressed/vbn doubts/nns that/cs a/at government/nn dominated/vbn by/in either/dtx party/nn could/md fairly/rb administer/vb elections/nns ./.
The/at P.D.I./np and/cc later/rbr the/at Popular/jj-tl Movement/nn-tl protected/vbd the/at Istiqlal's/np$ ``/`` privileged/jj position/nn ''/'' until/in the/at fall/nn of/in Balafrej/np ,/, and/cc then/rb the/at Istiqlal/np used/vbd the/at same/ap argument/nn ,/, which/wdt it/pps had/hvd previously/rb ignored/vbn ,/, against/in the/at pro-U.N.F.P./jj tendencies/nns of/in the/at Ibrahim/np government/nn ./.


	The/at bulk/nn of/in the/at preparation/nn had/hvd ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, proceeded/vbn under/in the/at supervision/nn of/in the/at Ministry/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Interior/nn-tl ,/, whose/wp$ officials/nns are/ber barred/vbn from/in party/nn activity/nn and/cc probably/rb generally/rb disinterested/jj in/in party/nn politics/nn ./.
Apart/rb from/in some/dti areas/nns of/in recurring/vbg trouble/nn ,/, like/cs Bani/np Mellal/np ,/, where/wrb inexperienced/jj officials/nns had/hvd been/ben appointed/vbn ,/, there/ex is/bez little/ap evidence/nn that/cs local/jj officials/nns intervened/vbd in/in the/at electoral/jj process/nn ./.
Centrally/rb ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at administrative/jj problem/nn was/bedz more/ql complex/jj and/cc the/at sheer/jj prestige/nn of/in office/nn was/bedz very/ql likely/jj an/at unfair/jj advantage/nn ./.
The/at King/nn-tl decided/vbd to/to remove/vb Ibrahim/np a/at week/nn before/in elections/nns and/cc to/in institute/nn a/at non-party/nn Council/nn-tl of/in-tl Government/nn-tl under/in his/pp$ personal/jj direction/nn ./.
Although/cs the/at monarch/nn had/hvd frequently/rb asserted/vbn that/cs the/at elections/nns were/bed to/to be/be without/in party/nn significance/nn ,/, his/pp$ action/nn was/bedz an/at implicit/jj admission/nn that/cs party/nn identifications/nns were/bed a/at factor/nn ./.
The/at new/jj Council/nn-tl was/bedz itself/ppl inescapably/rb of/in political/jj meaning/nn ,/, which/wdt was/bedz most/ql clearly/rb revealed/vbn in/in the/at absence/nn of/in any/dti U.N.F.P./np members/nns and/cc the/at presence/nn of/in several/ap Istiqlal/np leaders/nns ./.
Since/cs the/at details/nns of/in the/at elections/nns were/bed settled/vbn the/at change/nn of/in government/nn had/hvd no/at direct/jj effect/nn on/in the/at technical/jj aspects/nns of/in the/at elections/nns ,/, and/cc may/md have/hv been/ben more/ql important/jj as/cs an/at indication/nn of/in royal/jj displeasure/nn with/in the/at U.N.F.P./np 

	./.
Voting/vbg preparations/nns began/vbd in/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1959/cd ,/, although/cs the/at actual/jj demarcation/nn and/cc planning/vbg for/in the/at rural/jj communes/nns was/bedz completed/vbn in/in 1958/cd ./.
There/ex were/bed three/cd major/jj administrative/jj tasks/nns :/: the/at fixing/nn of/in electoral/jj districts/nns ,/, the/at registration/nn of/in voters/nns and/cc the/at registration/nn of/in candidates/nns ./.
Voter/nn registration/nn began/vbd in/in late/jj November/np 1959/cd and/cc continued/vbd until/in early/jj January/np ,/, 1960/cd ./.
The/at government/nn was/bedz most/ql anxious/jj that/cs there/ex be/be a/at respectable/jj response/nn ./.
Periodic/jj bulletins/nns of/in the/at accomplishment/nn in/in each/dt province/nn made/vbd the/at registration/nn process/nn into/in a/at kind/nn of/in competition/nn among/in provincial/jj officials/nns ./.
A/at goal/nn was/bedz fixed/vbn ,/, as/cs given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, and/cc attention/nn focused/vbd on/in its/pp$ fulfillment/nn ./.
The/at qualifications/nns to/to vote/vb were/bed kept/vbn very/ql simple/jj ./.
Both/abx men/nns and/cc women/nns of/in twenty-one/cd years/nns of/in age/nn could/md register/vb and/cc vote/vb upon/in presenting/vbg proof/nn of/in residence/nn and/cc identification/nn ./.
There/ex were/bed liberal/jj provisions/nns for/in dispensation/nn where/wrb documents/nns or/cc records/nns were/bed lacking/vbg ./.
The/at police/nns were/bed disqualified/vbn along/rb with/in certain/ap categories/nns of/in naturalized/vbn citizens/nns ,/, criminals/nns and/cc those/dts punished/vbn for/in Protectorate/np activities/nns ./.


	The/at registration/nn figures/nns given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl must/md be/be interpreted/vbn with/in caution/nn since/cs the/at estimate/nn for/in eligible/jj electors/nns were/bed made/vbn without/in the/at benefit/nn of/in a/at reliable/jj census/nn ./.



	Unemployed/jj older/jjr workers/nns who/wps have/hv no/at expectation/nn of/in securing/vbg employment/nn in/in the/at occupation/nn in/in which/wdt they/ppss are/ber skilled/jj should/md be/be able/jj to/to secure/vb counseling/vbg and/cc retraining/vbg in/in an/at occupation/nn with/in a/at future/nn ./.
Some/dti vocational/jj training/nn schools/nns provide/vb such/jj training/nn ,/, but/cc the/at current/jj-hl need/nn-hl exceeds/vbz the/at facilities/nns ./.
Current/jj programs/nns 
The/at present/jj Federal/jj-tl program/nn of/in vocational/jj education/nn began/vbd in/in 1917/cd with/in the/at passage/nn of/in the/at Smith-Hughes/np-tl Act/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt provided/vbd a/at continuing/vbg annual/jj appropriation/nn of/in $7/nns million/cd to/to support/vb ,/, on/in a/at matching/vbg basis/nn ,/, state-administered/jj programs/nns of/in vocational/jj education/nn in/in agriculture/nn ,/, trades/nns ,/, industrial/jj skills/nns and/cc home/nn economics/nn ./.
Since/in 1917/cd some/rb thirteen/cd supplementary/jj and/cc related/vbn acts/nns have/hv extended/vbn this/dt Federal/jj-tl program/nn ./.
The/at George-Barden/np-tl Act/nn-tl of/in 1946/cd raised/vbd the/at previous/jj increases/nns in/in annual/jj authorizations/nns to/in $29/nns million/cd in/in addition/nn to/in the/at $7/nns million/cd under/in the/at Smith/np-tl Act/nn-tl ./.
The/at Health/nn-tl Amendment/nn-tl Act/nn-tl of/in 1956/cd added/vbd $5/nns million/cd for/in practical/jj nurse/nn training/nn ./.


	The/at latest/jjt major/jj change/nn in/in this/dt program/nn was/bedz introduced/vbn by/in the/at National/jj-tl Defense/nn-tl Education/nn-tl Act/nn-tl of/in 1958/cd ,/, Title/nn-tl 8/cd-tl ,/, of/in which/wdt amended/vbd the/at George-Barden/np-tl Act/nn-tl ./.
Annual/jj authorizations/nns of/in $15/nns million/cd were/bed added/vbn for/in area/nn vocational/jj education/nn programs/nns that/wps meet/vb national/jj defense/nn needs/nns for/in highly/ql skilled/jj technicians/nns ./.


	The/at Federal/jj-tl program/nn of/in vocational/jj education/nn merely/rb provides/vbz financial/jj aid/nn to/to encourage/vb the/at establishment/nn of/in vocational/jj education/nn programs/nns in/in public/jj schools/nns ./.
The/at initiative/nn ,/, administration/nn and/cc control/nn remain/vb primarily/rb with/in the/at local/jj school/nn districts/nns ./.
Even/rb the/at states/nns remain/vb primarily/rb in/in an/at assisting/vbg role/nn ,/, providing/vbg leadership/nn and/cc teacher/nn training/nn ./.


	Federal/jj-tl assistance/nn is/bez limited/vbn to/in half/abn of/in the/at total/jj expenditure/nn ,/, and/cc the/at state/nn or/cc local/jj districts/nns must/md pay/vb at/in least/ap half/abn ./.
The/at state/nn may/md decide/vb to/to encourage/vb local/jj programs/nns by/in paying/vbg half/abn of/in the/at cost/nn ,/, or/cc the/at state/nn may/md require/vb the/at local/jj district/nn to/to bear/vb this/dt half/nn or/cc some/dti part/nn of/in it/ppo ./.
Throughout/in the/at history/nn of/in the/at program/nn ,/, state/nn government/nn expenditures/nns in/in the/at aggregate/nn have/hv usually/rb matched/vbn or/cc exceeded/vbn the/at Federal/jj-tl expenditures/nns ,/, while/cs local/jj districts/nns all/ql together/rb have/hv spent/vbn more/ap than/cs either/cc Federal/jj-tl or/cc state/nn governments/nns ./.
Today/nr ,/, Federal/jj-tl funds/nns account/vb for/in only/rb one-fifth/nn of/in the/at nation's/nn$ expenditures/nns for/in vocational/jj education/nn ./.
The/at greatest/jjt impact/nn of/in the/at matching-fund/nn principle/nn has/hvz been/ben in/in initially/rb encouraging/vbg the/at poorest/jjt states/nns and/cc school/nn districts/nns to/to spend/vb enough/ap to/to obtain/vb their/pp$ full/jj allocation/nn of/in outside/jj funds/nns ./.


	National/jj defense/nn considerations/nns have/hv been/ben the/at major/jj reason/nn behind/in most/ap Federal/jj-tl training/vbg expenditures/nns in/in recent/jj decades/nns ./.
During/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, about/rb 7.5/cd million/cd persons/nns were/bed enrolled/vbn in/in courses/nns organized/vbn under/in two/cd special/jj programs/nns administered/vbn by/in state/nn and/cc local/jj school/nn authorities/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) Vocational/jj-tl Education/nn-tl for/in-tl National/jj-tl Defense/nn-tl ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) War/nn-tl Production/nn-tl Training/nn-tl ./.
The/at total/jj cost/nn of/in the/at five-year/jj program/nn was/bedz $297/nns million/cd ./.
For/in the/at Smith-Hughes/np ,/, George-Barden/np ,/, and/cc National/jj-tl Defense/nn-tl Act/nn-tl of/in 1958/cd ,/, the/at cumulative/jj total/nn of/in Federal/jj-tl expenditures/nns in/in 42/cd years/nns was/bedz only/rb about/rb $740/nns million/cd ./.


	No/at comparable/jj measures/nns are/ber available/jj of/in enrollments/nns and/cc expenditures/nns for/in private/jj vocational/jj education/nn training/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber a/at great/jj number/nn and/cc variety/nn of/in private/jj commercial/jj schools/nns ,/, trade/nn schools/nns and/cc technical/jj schools/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, many/ap large/jj corporations/nns operate/vb their/pp$ own/jj formal/jj training/vbg programs/nns ./.
A/at recent/jj study/nn indicated/vbd that/cs 85/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at nation's/nn$ largest/jjt corporations/nns conducted/vbd educational/jj programs/nns involving/vbg some/dti class/nn meetings/nns and/cc examinations/nns ./.


	Most/ap skilled/jj industrial/jj workers/nns ,/, nevertheless/rb ,/, still/rb acquire/vb their/pp$ skills/nns outside/rb of/in formal/jj training/nn institutions/nns ./.
The/at National/jj-tl Manpower/nn-tl Council/nn-tl of/in Columbia/np-tl University/nn-tl has/hvz estimated/vbn that/cs three/cd out/rp of/in five/cd skilled/jj workers/nns and/cc one/cd out/rp of/in five/cd technicians/nns have/hv not/* been/ben formally/rb trained/vbn ./.


	There/ex is/bez little/ap doubt/nn that/cs the/at students/nns benefit/vb from/in vocational/jj education/nn ./.
Employers/nns prefer/vb to/to hire/vb youth/nn with/in such/jj training/nn rather/rb than/cs those/dts without/in ,/, and/cc most/ap graduates/nns of/in vocational/jj training/nn go/vb to/to work/vb in/in jobs/nns related/vbn to/in their/pp$ training/nn ./.
Vocational/jj educators/nns do/do not/* claim/vb that/cs school/nn training/nn alone/rb makes/vbz skilled/jj workers/nns ,/, but/cc it/pps provides/vbz the/at essential/jj groundwork/nn for/in developing/vbg skills/nns ./.


	In/in most/ap states/nns ,/, trade/nn and/cc industrial/jj training/nn is/bez provided/vbn in/in a/at minority/nn of/in the/at high/jj schools/nns ,/, usually/rb located/vbn in/in the/at larger/jjr cities/nns ./.
In/in Arkansas/np fewer/ap than/cs 6/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at high/jj schools/nns offer/vb trade/nn and/cc industrial/jj courses/nns ./.
In/in Illinois/np about/rb 13/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at schools/nns have/hv programs/nns ,/, and/cc in/in Pennsylvania/np 11/cd per/in cent/nn ./.


	An/at important/jj recent/jj trend/nn is/bez the/at development/nn of/in area/nn vocational/jj schools/nns ./.
For/in a/at number/nn of/in years/nns Kentucky/np ,/, Louisiana/np and/cc several/ap other/ap states/nns have/hv been/ben building/vbg state-sponsored/jj vocational/jj education/nn schools/nns that/wps serve/vb nearby/jj school/nn districts/nns in/in several/ap counties/nns ./.
These/dts schools/nns are/ber intended/vbn to/to provide/vb the/at facilities/nns and/cc specialized/vbn curriculum/nn that/wps would/md not/* be/be possible/jj for/in very/ql small/jj school/nn districts/nns ./.
Transportation/nn may/md be/be provided/vbn from/in nearby/jj school/nn districts/nns ./.
Courses/nns are/ber provided/vbn mainly/rb for/in post/in high/jj school/nn day/nn programs/nns ;/. ;/.
but/cc sometimes/rb arrangements/nns also/rb are/ber made/vbn for/in high/jj school/nn students/nns to/to attend/vb ,/, and/cc evening/nn extension/nn courses/nns also/rb may/md be/be conducted/vbn ./.


	The/at Title/nn-tl 8/cd-tl ,/, program/nn of/in the/at National/jj-tl Defense/nn-tl Education/nn-tl Act/nn-tl of/in 1958/cd was/bedz a/at great/jj spur/nn to/in this/dt trend/nn toward/in area/nn schools/nns ./.
By/in 1960/cd there/ex were/bed such/jj schools/nns in/in all/abn but/in 4/cd states/nns ./.
They/ppss were/bed operating/vbg in/in 10/cd of/in the/at 17/cd major/jj areas/nns of/in chronic/jj labor/nn surplus/nn and/cc in/in 10/cd of/in the/at minor/jj areas/nns ./.
An/at extension/nn of/in this/dt program/nn into/in the/at other/ap distressed/vbn areas/nns should/md be/be undertaken/vbn ./.
Relation/nn-hl to/in-hl new/jj-hl industry/nn-hl 
Some/dti of/in this/dt trend/nn toward/in area/nn vocational/jj schools/nns has/hvz been/ben related/vbn to/in the/at problems/nns of/in persistent/jj labor/nn surplus/nn areas/nns and/cc their/pp$ desire/nn to/to attract/vb new/jj industry/nn ./.


	The/at major/jj training/vbg need/nn of/in a/at new/jj industrial/jj plant/nn is/bez a/at short/jj period/nn of/in pre-employment/jj training/nn for/in a/at large/jj number/nn of/in semi-skilled/jj machine/nn operators/nns ./.
A/at few/ap key/jjs skilled/jj workers/nns experienced/vbn in/in the/at company's/nn$ type/nn of/in work/nn usually/rb must/md be/be brought/vbn in/rp with/in the/at plant/nn manager/nn ,/, or/cc hired/vbn away/rb from/in a/at similar/jj plant/nn elsewhere/rb ./.
A/at prospective/jj industry/nn also/rb may/md be/be interested/vbn in/in the/at long-run/nn advantages/nns of/in training/vbg programs/nns in/in the/at area/nn to/to supply/vb future/jj skilled/jj workers/nns and/cc provide/vb supplementary/jj extension/nn courses/nns for/in its/pp$ employees/nns ./.


	The/at existence/nn of/in a/at public/jj school/nn vocational/jj training/vbg program/nn in/in trade/nn and/cc industry/nn provides/vbz a/at base/nn from/in which/wdt such/jj needs/nns can/md be/be filled/vbn ./.
Additional/jj courses/nns can/md readily/rb be/be added/vbn and/cc special/jj cooperative/jj programs/nns worked/vbn out/rp with/in any/dti new/jj industry/nn if/cs the/at basic/jj facilities/nns ,/, staff/nn and/cc program/nn are/ber in/in being/beg ./.
Thus/rb ,/, besides/in the/at training/nn provided/vbn to/in youth/nn in/in school/nn ,/, the/at existence/nn of/in the/at school/nn program/nn can/md have/hv supplementary/jj benefits/nns to/in industry/nn which/wdt make/vb it/ppo an/at asset/nn to/in industrial/jj development/nn efforts/nns ./.


	Few/ap states/nns make/vb effective/jj use/nn of/in their/pp$ existing/vbg vocational/jj education/nn programs/nns or/cc funds/nns for/in the/at purpose/nn of/in attracting/vbg new/jj industry/nn ./.
The/at opportunity/nn exists/vbz for/cs states/nns to/to reserve/vb some/dti of/in their/pp$ vocational/jj education/nn funds/nns to/to apply/vb on/in an/at ad/fw-in hoc/fw-dt flexible/jj basis/nn to/to subsidize/vb any/dti local/jj preemployment/jj training/vbg programs/nns that/wps may/md be/be quickly/rb set/vbn up/rp in/in a/at community/nn to/to aid/vb a/at new/jj industrial/jj plant/nn ./.
Local/jj-hl focus/nn-hl of/in-hl programs/nns-hl 
The/at major/jj weakness/nn of/in vocational/jj training/vbg programs/nns in/in labor/nn surplus/nn areas/nns is/bez their/pp$ focus/nn on/in serving/vbg solely/ql local/jj job/nn demands/nns ./.
This/dt weakness/nn is/bez not/* unique/jj to/in labor/nn surplus/nn areas/nns ,/, for/cs it/pps is/bez inherent/jj in/in the/at system/nn of/in local/jj school/nn districts/nns in/in this/dt country/nn ./.


	Planning/nn of/in vocational/jj education/nn programs/nns and/cc courses/nns is/bez oriented/vbn to/in local/jj employer/nn needs/nns for/in trained/vbn workers/nns ./.
All/abn the/at manuals/nns for/in setting/vbg up/rp vocational/jj courses/nns stress/vb the/at importance/nn of/in first/rb making/vbg a/at local/jj survey/nn of/in skill/nn needs/nns ,/, of/in estimating/vbg the/at growth/nn of/in local/jj jobs/nns ,/, and/cc of/in consulting/vbg with/in local/jj employers/nns on/in the/at types/nns of/in courses/nns and/cc their/pp$ content/nn ./.


	Furthermore/rb ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at cautious/jj conservatism/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in those/dts making/vbg local/jj skill/nn surveys/nns ./.
Local/jj jobs/nns can/md be/be seen/vbn and/cc counted/vbn ,/, while/cs opportunities/nns elsewhere/rb are/ber regarded/vbn as/cs more/ql hypothetical/jj ./.


	While/cs the/at U./np-tl S./np-tl Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Labor/nn-tl has/hvz a/at program/nn of/in projecting/vbg industry/nn and/cc occupational/jj employment/nn trends/nns and/cc publishing/vbg current/jj outlook/nn statements/nns ,/, there/ex is/bez little/ap tangible/jj evidence/nn that/cs these/dts projections/nns have/hv been/ben used/vbn extensively/rb in/in local/jj curriculum/nn planning/nn ./.
The/at U./np-tl S./np-tl Office/nn-tl of/in-tl Education/nn-tl continues/vbz to/to stress/vb local/jj surveys/nns rather/rb than/cs national/jj surveys/nns ./.


	This/dt procedure/nn is/bez extremely/ql shortsighted/jj in/in chronic/jj labor/nn surplus/nn areas/nns with/in a/at long/jj history/nn of/in declining/vbg employment/nn ./.
Elaborate/jj studies/nns have/hv been/ben made/vbn in/in labor/nn surplus/nn areas/nns in/in order/nn to/to identify/vb sufficient/jj numbers/nns of/in local/jj job/nn vacancies/nns and/cc future/jj replacement/nn needs/nns for/in certain/ap skills/nns to/to justify/vb training/vbg programs/nns for/in those/dts skills/nns ./.
No/at effort/nn is/bez made/vbn in/in the/at same/ap studies/nns to/to present/vb information/nn on/in regional/jj or/cc national/jj demand/nn trends/nns in/in these/dts skills/nns or/cc to/to consider/vb whether/cs regional/jj or/cc national/jj demands/nns for/in other/ap skills/nns might/md provide/vb much/ql better/jjr opportunities/nns for/in the/at youth/nn to/to be/be trained/vbn ./.


	Moreover/rb ,/, the/at current/jj information/nn on/in what/wdt types/nns of/in training/vbg are/ber needed/vbn and/cc possible/jj is/bez too/ql limited/vbn and/cc fragmentary/jj ./.
There/ex simply/rb is/bez not/* enough/ap material/nn available/jj on/in the/at types/nns of/in job/nn skills/nns that/wps are/ber in/in demand/nn and/cc the/at types/nns of/in training/vbg programs/nns that/wps are/ber required/vbn or/cc most/ql suitable/jj ./.
Much/ap of/in the/at available/jj information/nn comes/vbz not/* from/in the/at Federal/jj-tl government/nn but/cc from/in an/at exchange/nn of/in experiences/nns among/in states/nns ./.
Proposals/nns-hl 
State/nn and/cc local/jj agencies/nns in/in the/at vocational/jj education/nn field/nn must/md be/be encouraged/vbn to/to adopt/vb a/at wider/jjr outlook/nn on/in future/jj job/nn opportunities/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at need/nn for/in an/at expanded/vbn Federal/jj-tl effort/nn to/to provide/vb research/nn and/cc information/nn to/to help/vb guide/vb state/nn education/nn departments/nns and/cc local/jj school/nn boards/nns in/in existing/vbg programs/nns ./.


	A/at related/vbn question/nn is/bez whether/cs unemployed/jj workers/nns can/md be/be motivated/vbn to/to take/vb the/at training/nn provided/vbn ./.
There/ex is/bez little/ap evidence/nn that/cs existing/vbg public/jj or/cc private/jj training/vbg programs/nns have/hv any/dti great/jj difficulty/nn getting/vbg students/nns to/to enroll/vb in/in their/pp$ programs/nns ,/, even/rb though/cs they/ppss must/md pay/vb tuition/nn ,/, receive/vb no/at subsistence/nn payments/nns ,/, and/cc are/ber not/* guaranteed/vbn a/at job/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, there/ex always/rb is/bez some/dti limit/nn to/in the/at numbers/nns who/wps will/md spend/vb the/at time/nn and/cc effort/nn to/to acquire/vb training/vbg ./.
Again/rb ,/, one/cd major/jj difficulty/nn is/bez the/at local/jj focus/nn ./.


	A/at training/vbg program/nn in/in a/at depressed/vbn area/nn may/md have/hv few/ap enrollees/nns unless/cs there/ex is/bez some/dti apparent/jj prospect/nn for/in better/jjr employment/nn opportunities/nns afterwards/rb ,/, and/cc the/at prospect/nn may/md be/be poor/jj if/cs the/at training/nn is/bez aimed/vbn solely/rb at/in jobs/nns in/in the/at local/jj community/nn ./.
If/cs there/ex is/bez adequate/jj information/nn on/in job/nn opportunities/nns for/in skilled/jj jobs/nns elsewhere/rb ,/, many/ql more/ap workers/nns can/md be/be expected/vbn to/to respond/vb ./.


	Another/dt problem/nn is/bez who/wps will/md pay/vb for/in the/at training/nn ./.
Local/jj school/nn districts/nns are/ber hard/rb pressed/vbn financially/rb and/cc unenthusiastic/jj about/in vocational/jj training/nn ./.
Programs/nns usually/rb are/ber expanded/vbn only/rb when/wrb outside/jj funds/nns are/ber available/jj or/cc local/jj business/nn leaders/nns demand/vb it/ppo ./.
Even/rb industrial/jj development/nn leaders/nns find/vb it/ppo hard/jj to/to win/vb local/jj support/nn for/in training/vbg unless/cs a/at new/jj industry/nn is/bez in/in sight/nn and/cc requests/vbz it/ppo ./.
State/nn governments/nns have/hv been/ben taking/vbg the/at lead/nn in/in establishing/vbg area/nn vocational/jj schools/nns ,/, but/cc their/pp$ focus/nn is/bez still/rb on/in area/nn job/nn opportunities/nns ./.
Only/rb the/at Federal/jj-tl government/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be able/jj to/to take/vb a/at long-run/nn and/cc nation-wide/jj view/nn and/cc to/to pay/vb for/in training/vbg to/to meet/vb national/jj skilled/jj manpower/nn needs/nns ./.


	If/cs only/ap state/nn funds/nns were/bed used/vbn to/to pay/vb for/in the/at vocational/jj education/nn ,/, it/pps could/md be/be argued/vbn that/cs the/at state/nn should/md not/* have/hv to/to bear/vb the/at cost/nn of/in vocational/jj training/nn which/wdt would/md benefit/vb employers/nns in/in other/ap states/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, if/cs Federal/jj-tl funds/nns are/ber used/vbn ,/, it/pps would/md be/be entirely/ql appropriate/jj to/to train/vb workers/nns for/in jobs/nns which/wdt could/md be/be obtained/vbn elsewhere/rb as/ql well/rb as/cs for/in jobs/nns in/in the/at area/nn of/in chronic/jj unemployment/nn ./.
Such/jj training/nn would/md increase/vb the/at tendency/nn of/in workers/nns to/to leave/vb the/at area/nn and/cc find/vb jobs/nns in/in other/ap localities/nns ./.


	A/at further/jjr possibility/nn is/bez suggested/vbn by/in the/at example/nn of/in the/at G./np I./np bills/nns and/cc also/rb by/in some/dti recent/jj trends/nns in/in attitudes/nns toward/in improving/vbg college/nn education/nn :/: that/dt is/bez to/to provide/vb financial/jj assistance/nn to/in individuals/nns for/in vocational/jj training/nn when/wrb local/jj facilities/nns are/ber inadequate/jj ./.
This/dt probably/rb would/md require/vb some/dti support/nn for/in subsistence/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs for/in tuition/nn ,/, but/cc the/at total/nn would/md be/be no/ql greater/jjr than/cs for/in the/at proposals/nns of/in unemployment/nn compensation/nn or/cc a/at Youth/nn-tl Conservation/nn-tl Corps/nn-tl ./.
A/at maximum/jj of/in $600/nns per/in year/nn per/in student/nn would/md enable/vb many/ap to/to take/vb training/vbg away/rb from/in home/nn ./.


	A/at program/nn of/in financial/jj assistance/nn would/md permit/vb placing/vbg emphasis/nn on/in the/at national/jj interest/nn in/in training/vbg highly/ql skilled/jj labor/nn ./.
Instead/rb of/in being/beg limited/vbn to/in the/at poor/jj training/vbg facilities/nns in/in remote/jj areas/nns ,/, the/at student/nn would/md be/be able/jj to/to move/vb to/in large/jj institutions/nns of/in concentrated/vbn specialized/vbn training/nn ./.
Such/jj specialized/vbn training/nn institutions/nns could/md be/be located/vbn near/in the/at most/ql rapidly/rb growing/vbg industries/nns ,/, where/wrb the/at equipment/nn and/cc job/nn experience/nn exist/vb and/cc where/wrb the/at future/jj employment/nn opportunities/nns are/ber located/vbn ./.
This/dt would/md heighten/vb possibilities/nns for/in part-time/jj cooperative/jj ,/, on-the-job/jj and/cc extension/nn training/nn ./.


	Personal/jj financial/jj assistance/nn would/md enable/vb more/ap emphasis/nn to/to be/be placed/vbn on/in the/at interests/nns of/in the/at individual/nn ./.
His/pp$ aptitudes/nns and/cc preferences/nns could/md be/be given/vbn more/ap weight/nn in/in selecting/vbg the/at proper/jj training/nn ./.



	But/cc briefly/rb ,/, the/at topping/vbg configuration/nn must/md be/be examined/vbn for/in its/pp$ inferences/nns ./.
Then/rb the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at lower/jjr channel/nn line/nn was/bedz pierced/vbn had/hvd further/jjr forecasting/vbg significance/nn ./.
And/cc then/rb the/at application/nn of/in the/at count/nn rules/nns to/in the/at width/nn (/( horizontally/rb )/) of/in the/at configuration/nn gives/vbz us/ppo an/at intial/jj estimate/nn of/in the/at probable/jj depth/nn of/in the/at decline/nn ./.
The/at very/ap idea/nn of/in there/ex being/beg ``/`` count/nn rules/nns ''/'' implies/vbz that/cs there/ex is/bez some/dti sort/nn of/in proportion/nn to/to be/be expected/vbn between/in the/at amount/nn of/in congestive/jj activity/nn and/cc the/at extent/nn of/in the/at breakaway/nn (/( run/vb up/rp or/cc run/vb down/rp )/) movement/nn ./.
This/dt expectation/nn is/bez what/wdt really/rb ``/`` sold/vbd ''/'' point/nn and/cc figure/nn ./.
But/cc there/ex is/bez no/at positive/jj and/cc consistently/rb demonstrable/jj relationship/nn in/in the/at strictest/jjt sense/nn ./.
Experience/nn will/md show/vb that/cs only/rb the/at vaguest/jjt generalities/nns apply/vb ,/, and/cc in/in fine/jj ,/, these/dts merely/rb dwell/vb upon/in a/at relationship/nn between/in the/at durations/nns and/cc intensities/nns of/in events/nns ./.
After/in all/abn ,/, too/ql much/ap does/doz not/* happen/vb too/ql suddenly/rb ,/, nor/cc does/doz very/ql little/ap take/vb long/rb ./.


	The/at advantages/nns and/cc disadvantages/nns of/in these/dts two/cd types/nns of/in charting/vbg ,/, bar/nn charting/nn and/cc point/nn and/cc figure/nn charting/nn ,/, remain/vb the/at subject/nn of/in fairly/ql good-natured/jj litigation/nn among/in their/pp$ respective/jj professional/jj advocates/nns ,/, with/in both/abx methods/nns enjoying/vbg in/in common/jj ,/, one/cd irrevocable/jj merit/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber both/abx trend-following/jj methods/nns ./.
Even/rb if/cs we/ppss strip/vb their/pp$ respective/jj claims/nns to/in the/at barest/jjt minimum/nn ,/, the/at ``/`` odds/nns ''/'' still/rb favor/vb them/ppo both/abx ,/, for/cs the/at trend/nn in/in effect/nn is/bez always/rb more/ql likely/jj to/to continue/vb than/cs to/to reverse/vb ./.


	Of/in course/nn ,/, many/ql more/ap things/nns are/ber charted/vbn besides/in prices/nns ./.
The/at foregoing/nn have/hv been/ben methods/nns of/in charting/vbg prices/nns ,/, but/cc now/rb let/vb us/ppo look/vb at/in some/dti of/in the/at other/ap indices/nns that/wps are/ber customarily/rb charted/vbn ,/, and/cc which/wdt are/ber looked/vbn to/in for/in their/pp$ forecasting/vbg abilities/nns ./.
The/at-hl quest/nn-hl for/in-hl methods/nns-hl 
The/at search/nn for/in forecasting/vbg formulae/nns is/bez ceaseless/jj ./.
Correlations/nns have/hv been/ben worked/vbn up/rp between/in the/at loading/nn of/in freight/nn cars/nns and/cc the/at course/nn of/in stock/nn price/nn ./.
The/at theory/nn behind/in this/dt is/bez ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, fundamentalist/jj in/in character/nn ./.
As/cs the/at number/nn of/in reported/vbn freight/nn car/nn loadings/nns increased/vbd ,/, this/dt was/bedz taken/vbn to/to indicate/vb increased/vbn industrial/jj activity/nn ,/, and/cc consequently/rb increased/vbn stock/nn earnings/nns ,/, implying/vbg fatter/jjr dividends/nns ,/, and/cc implying/vbg therefore/rb increased/vbn stock/nn market/nn prices/nns ./.
We/ppss now/rb know/vb that/cs things/nns rarely/rb ever/rb work/vb out/rp in/in such/jj cut-and-dried/jj fashion/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs car/nn loadings/nns ,/, while/cs perhaps/rb interesting/jj enough/qlp ,/, are/ber nevertheless/rb not/* the/at magic/jj formula/nn that/wps will/md always/rb turn/vb before/cs stock/nn prices/nns turn/vb ./.


	But/cc the/at quest/nn for/in such/abl an/at index/nn goes/vbz on/rp ceaselessly/rb ,/, with/in all/abn manner/nn of/in investors/nns and/cc speculators/nns participating/vbg ,/, ranging/vbg from/in the/at sedate/jj institutional/jj type/nn virtually/rb to/in the/at proverbial/jj shoe-string/nn operator/nn ,/, all/abn seeking/vbg doggedly/rb ,/, studiously/rb ,/, daily/rb --/-- and/cc often/rb nightly/rb --/-- for/in the/at enchanting/jj index/nn that/wps will/md foretell/vb the/at eternal/jj secret/nn :/: Which/wdt way/nn will/md the/at market/nn move/nn --/-- up/rp or/cc down/rp ?/. ?/.
It/pps recalls/vbz to/in mind/nn the/at quest/nn of/in olden/jj times/nns for/in the/at fountain/nn of/in youth/nn ,/, a/at quest/nn heavily/rb invested/vbn in/in ,/, during/in the/at days/nns of/in wooden/jj ships/nns ./.
Just/rb as/ql heavily/rb invested/vbn are/ber the/at endeavors/nns of/in multitudes/nns of/in modern/jj men/nns who/wps carry/vb on/rp the/at quest/nn for/in the/at enchanting/jj index/nn ./.
The/at quest/nn offers/vbz careers/nns ./.
Much/ap of/in this/dt goes/vbz on/rp in/in offices/nns high/rb up/rp in/in Wall/nn-tl Street's/nn$-tl lofty/jj wind-swept/jj towers/nns ./.


	There/rb sit/vb men/nns who/wps make/vb moving/vbg averages/nns of/in weekly/rb volume/nn ,/, monthly/rb averages/nns of/in price-earnings/nns ratios/nns ,/, ratios/nns of/in the/at number/nn of/in advances/nns to/in the/at number/nn of/in declines/nns ,/, ratios/nns of/in an/at individual/jj stock's/nn$ performance/nn to/in overall/jj market/nn performance/nn ,/, ratios/nns of/in rising/vbg price/nn volume/nn to/in falling/vbg price/nn volume/nn ,/, odd-lot/nn indices/nns ,/, and/cc what/wdt not/* ./.
They/ppss are/ber concerned/vbn with/in all/abn things/nns traded/vbn in/in ,/, securities/nns ,/, bonds/nns ,/, cocao/nn ,/, coffee/nn ,/, soybeans/nns ,/, cotton/nn ,/, tin/nn ,/, oats/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.


	And/cc along/in Chicago's/np$ West/jj-tl Jackson/np-tl Boulevard/nn-tl ,/, La/np-tl Salle/np-tl Street/nn-tl ,/, and/cc around/in the/at Merchandise/nn-tl Mart/nn-tl Plaza/nn-tl there/rb sit/vb men/nns who/wps chart/vb crop/nn reports/nns ,/, who/wps divide/vb the/at number/nn of/in reported/vbn lady-bugs/nns by/in the/at number/nn of/in reported/vbn green-bugs/nns ,/, and/cc the/at number/nn of/in hogs/nns by/in the/at amount/nn of/in corn/nn ./.
They/ppss plot/vb the/at open/jj interest/nn curves/nns ,/, rainfall/nn curves/nns ,/, and/cc they/ppss even/rb divide/vb Democratic/jj congressmen/nns by/in Republican/jj congressmen/nns ./.
All/abn these/dts things/nns and/cc countless/jj more/ap enter/vb into/in their/pp$ calculations/nns ,/, and/cc yet/rb ,/, the/at enchanting/jj index/nn remains/vbz non-forthcoming/jj ./.
Not/* ,/, at/in any/dti rate/nn ,/, in/in the/at fuller/jjr sense/nn of/in the/at word/nn ./.


	The/at markets/nns are/ber far/ql too/ql subtle/jj ,/, and/cc the/at last/ap word/nn in/in these/dts endeavors/nns will/md doubtless/rb never/rb be/be written/vbn ,/, for/cs the/at enchanting/jj index/nn is/bez about/rb as/ql nebulous/jj as/cs the/at fountain/nn of/in youth/nn ./.


	But/cc whereas/cs civilized/vbn men/nns no/ql longer/rbr pursue/vb the/at fountain/nn ,/, they/ppss never/rb abandoned/vbd their/pp$ pursuit/nn of/in the/at enchanting/jj index/nn ./.


	We/ppss mentioned/vbd odd-lot/nn indices/nns a/at few/ap paragraphs/nns ago/rb ./.
In/in the/at stock/nn market/nn ,/, the/at normal/jj trading/vbg package/nn is/bez a/at hundred/cd shares/nns ,/, just/rb as/cs 5,000/cd bushels/nns is/bez the/at standard/jj grain/nn contract/nn package/nn ./.
A/at stock/nn transaction/nn for/in less/ap than/in a/at hundred/cd shares/nns is/bez executed/vbn via/in a/at special/jj odd-lot/nn broker/nn on/in the/at floor/nn of/in the/at exchange/nn ./.
This/dt results/vbz in/in a/at separate/jj record/nn being/beg made/vbn ,/, distinguishing/vbg these/dts trades/nns from/in the/at overall/jj volume/nn of/in trading/vbg ./.


	According/in to/in the/at theory/nn underlying/vbg odd-lot/nn indices/nns ,/, the/at trader/nn who/wps trades/vbz odd/jj lots/nns is/bez most/ql likely/jj a/at small/jj trader/nn ,/, one/cd who/wps can't/md* afford/vb to/to trade/vb round/jj lots/nns ./.
Or/cc ,/, to/to use/vb the/at cynical/jj phraseology/nn of/in one/cd odd-lot/nn index/nn enthusiast/nn ,/, they/ppss represent/vb a/at sampling/nn of/in the/at least/ql sophisticated/jj echelon/nn of/in traders/nns ./.
Falling/vbg most/ql easily/rb prey/nn to/in an/at adverse/jj market/nn movement/nn ,/, for/cs this/dt rank/nn of/in traders/nns can/md least/ap afford/vb to/to lose/vb ,/, virtually/rb anything/pn the/at odd-lot/nn traders/nns do/do ,/, marketwise/rb ,/, is/bez taken/vbn to/to exemplify/vb the/at ``/`` wrong/jj ''/'' thing/nn to/to do/do ./.


	Figures/nns reporting/vbg the/at volume/nn of/in odd-lot/nn purchases/nns and/cc odd-lot/nn sales/nns are/ber released/vbn by/in the/at stock/nn exchange/nn and/cc carried/vbn in/in the/at newspapers/nns ./.
Odd-lot/nn index/nn observers/nns then/rb make/vb graphs/nns of/in the/at data/nns according/in to/in their/pp$ particular/jj statistical/jj recipe/nn ./.
They/ppss might/md ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, plot/vb it/ppo exactly/rb as/cs is/bez ,/, or/cc they/ppss might/md make/vb ten/cd day/nn moving/vbg averages/nns of/in it/ppo ,/, or/cc longer/jjr moving/vbg averages/nns ,/, or/cc they/ppss might/md simply/rb plot/vb the/at ratio/nn of/in odd-lot/nn purchases/nns to/in odd-lot/nn sales/nns ./.
The/at particular/jj recipe/nn is/bez a/at matter/nn of/in individual/jj taste/nn ./.
The/at data/nn is/bez now/rb interpreted/vbn in/in conjunction/nn with/in a/at price/nn chart/nn ,/, usually/rb of/in a/at popular/jj stock/nn average/nn ./.


	Towards/in the/at end/nn of/in an/at intermediate/jj or/cc major/jj rise/nn ,/, while/cs the/at top/nn is/bez forming/vbg on/in the/at price/nn chart/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez frequently/rb observed/vbn that/cs the/at odd-lot/nn buying/nn increases/vbz sharply/rb ./.
This/dt warns/vbz the/at chartist/nn that/cs the/at formation/nn in/in progress/nn is/bez quite/ql likely/jj to/to be/be a/at top/nn ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, at/in the/at opposite/jj end/nn of/in the/at market/nn cycle/nn ,/, towards/in the/at end/nn of/in an/at intermediate/jj or/cc major/jj decline/nn ,/, usually/rb while/cs the/at bottom/nn is/bez being/beg formed/vbn on/in the/at price/nn chart/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez characteristic/jj that/cs an/at increase/nn is/bez noticed/vbn in/in odd-lot/nn selling/nn again/rb alerting/vbg the/at chartist/nn that/cs a/at bottom/nn is/bez becoming/vbg a/at greater/jjr likelihood/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, in/in the/at aggregate/jj ,/, the/at odd-lot/nn trader/nn is/bez one/cd who/wps buys/vbz at/in the/at tops/nns and/cc sells/vbz at/in the/at bottoms/nns ,/, notwithstanding/in occasional/jj individual/jj exceptions/nns ./.


	While/cs it/pps had/hvd long/rb been/ben known/vbn in/in general/jj ,/, that/cs ``/`` the/at public/nn is/bez always/rb wrong/jj ''/'' ,/, the/at use/nn of/in odd-lot/nn indices/nns now/rb puts/vbz the/at adage/nn on/in a/at statistical/jj basis/nn ./.


	One/pn might/md well/rb wonder/vb why/wrb the/at ``/`` public/nn is/bez always/rb wrong/jj ''/'' and/cc the/at question/nn raised/vbn is/bez about/rb as/ql awkward/jj as/cs the/at one/cd concerned/vbn with/in the/at chicken/nn and/cc the/at egg/nn ./.
Which/wdt came/vbd first/rb ?/. ?/.
Is/bez it/pps really/rb that/cs the/at ``/`` public/nn ''/'' buys/vbz at/in the/at tops/nns ,/, and/cc not/* that/cs the/at market/nn tops/vbz out/rp when/wrb the/at ``/`` public/nn ''/'' buys/vbz ?/. ?/.
And/cc the/at converse/nn at/in bottoms/nns ./.
Does/doz the/at ``/`` public/nn ''/'' usually/rb sell/vb at/in bottoms/nns ,/, or/cc does/doz the/at market/nn usually/rb bottom/nn out/rp when/wrb the/at ``/`` public/nn ''/'' sells/vbz ?/. ?/.


	We/ppss have/hv been/ben using/jj-nc the/at word/nn ``/`` public/nn ''/'' in/in quotation/nn marks/nns ,/, that/dt is/bez ,/, in/in its/pp$ vernacular/jj connotation/nn with/in reference/nn to/in the/at odd-lot/nn index/nn theory/nn ./.
Obviously/rb someone/pn has/hvz to/to sell/vb in/in order/nn for/cs someone/pn to/to buy/vb ,/, and/cc vice/rb versa/rb ./.
And/cc while/cs all/abn concerned/vbn are/ber members/nns of/in the/at literal/jj public/nn ,/, somewhat/ql less/ap than/cs all/abn concerned/vbn ,/, although/cs still/rb a/at majority/nn ,/, form/vb the/at quotation/nn marked/vbn ``/`` public/nn ''/'' ./.
And/cc the/at public/nn minus/in the/at ``/`` public/nn ''/'' leaves/vbz the/at so-called/jj ``/`` sophisticated/jj ''/'' element/nn --/-- the/at element/nn on/in the/at other/ap end/nn of/in the/at ``/`` public's/nn$ ''/'' transactions/nns ./.


	This/dt element/nn is/bez often/rb called/vbn ``/`` strong/jj hands/nns ''/'' ./.
Strong/jj hands/nns differ/vb from/in ``/`` weak/jj hands/nns ''/'' in/in that/cs their/pp$ operations/nns are/ber the/at primary/jj movers/nns ./.
They/ppss initiate/vb campaigns/nns ,/, so/rb to/to speak/vb ,/, even/rb if/cs this/dt initiation/nn is/bez diffused/vbn among/in them/ppo ,/, and/cc their/pp$ concerted/jj action/nn only/rb psychologically/rb organized/vbn ./.
Strong/jj hands/nns act/vb ;/. ;/.
weak/jj hands/nns react/vb ./.
Strong/jj hands/nns move/vb first/rb ;/. ;/.
weak/jj hands/nns ask/vb ,/, What/wdt is/bez going/vbg on/rp ?/. ?/.
When/wrb strong/jj hands/nns buy/vb ,/, they/ppss are/ber able/jj to/to buy/vb more/ap ,/, and/cc they/ppss do/do it/ppo even/rb in/in the/at face/nn of/in bearish/jj news/nn reports/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber able/jj to/to sit/vb more/ql patiently/rb with/in what/wdt they/ppss have/hv bought/vbn ./.
Needless/jj to/to say/vb ,/, strong/jj hands/nns are/ber not/* eager/jj to/to be/be joined/vbn by/in weak/jj hands/nns ,/, for/cs this/dt increases/vbz the/at risk/nn that/cs they/ppss will/md have/hv to/to absorb/vb what/wdt these/dts weak/jj hands/nns unload/vb on/in the/at way/nn up/rp ,/, at/in higher/jjr prices/nns ,/, during/in the/at run-up/jj phase/nn of/in the/at campaign/nn ./.


	Certain/ap badly/rb disillusioned/vbn market/nn critics/nns are/ber often/rb apt/jj to/to feel/vb that/cs there/ex is/bez something/pn somehow/rb unfair/jj ,/, dirty/jj ,/, or/cc even/rb thoroughly/rb criminal/jj about/in this/dt interplay/nn of/in competitive/jj forces/nns ./.
But/cc after/in all/abn ,/, can/md anyone/pn imagine/vb a/at market/nn wherein/wrb the/at reverse/nn of/in these/dts things/nns were/bed true/jj ?/. ?/.
Try/vb to/to imagine/vb a/at market/nn in/in which/wdt only/rb a/at minority/nn of/in traders/nns would/md lose/vb ,/, and/cc the/at majority/nn would/md make/vb consistent/jj profits/nns ./.
How/wql much/ap and/cc how/wql many/ap profits/nns could/md a/at majority/nn take/vb out/rp of/in the/at losses/nns of/in a/at few/ap ?/. ?/.


	Moreover/rb ,/, the/at taunt/nn concerning/in the/at ``/`` sophisticated/jj ''/'' echelon/nn and/cc its/pp$ alleged/vbn erudition/nn is/bez put/vbn to/in test/nn during/in every/at campaign/nn ,/, and/cc accrues/vbz only/rb upon/in results/nns ;/. ;/.
not/* before/in ./.
It/pps quite/ql often/rb happens/vbz that/cs campaigns/nns go/vb askew/rb ,/, resulting/vbg in/in a/at most/ql unflattering/jj deterioration/nn of/in strong/jj hands/nns into/in played-out/jj hands/nns ,/, just/rb as/cs a/at member/nn of/in a/at former/ap campaign's/nn$ ``/`` public/nn ''/'' may/md emerge/vb flatteringly/ql ``/`` right/jj ''/'' the/at next/ap time/nn ./.
Membership/nn in/in the/at echelons/nns fluctuates/vbz too/rb ./.


	The/at study/nn of/in odd-lot/nn indices/nns is/bez somehow/rb akin/jj to/in the/at spectacle/nn of/in a/at man/nn trying/vbg to/to outfox/vb his/pp$ own/jj shadow/nn ,/, what/wdt with/in all/abn observers/nns trying/vbg to/to get/vb on/in the/at side/nn of/in the/at ``/`` few/ap ''/'' at/in the/at same/ap time/nn ./.
The/at usefulness/nn of/in this/dt study/nn and/cc of/in configuration/nn analysis/nn as/ql well/rb ,/, declines/vbz in/in direct/jj proportion/nn to/in the/at dissemination/nn of/in its/pp$ use/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz to/to ,/, by/in virtue/nn of/in the/at very/ap dictionary/nn definition/nn of/in the/at word/nn ``/`` few/ap-nc ''/'' ./.


	Diametric/jj opposition/nn must/md persist/vb as/in to/in the/at future/jj course/nn of/in prices/nns ,/, if/cs there/ex is/bez to/to persist/vb a/at market/nn at/in all/abn ./.
And/cc the/at few/ap must/md win/vb what/wdt the/at many/ap lose/vb ,/, for/cs the/at opposite/jj arrangement/nn would/md not/* support/vb markets/nns as/cs we/ppss know/vb them/ppo at/in all/abn ,/, and/cc is/bez ,/, in/in fact/nn ,/, unimaginable/jj ./.
There/ex need/md be/be no/at squeamishness/nn about/in admitting/vbg this/dt ./.
Anyone/pn still/rb doubting/vbg that/cs this/dt is/bez the/at only/ap way/nn markets/nns can/md be/be is/bez invited/vbn to/to try/vb to/to imagine/vb a/at market/nn wherein/wrb the/at majority/nn consistently/rb wins/vbz what/wdt the/at minority/nn loses/vbz ./.


	Mr./np John/np Magee/np ,/, whose/wp$ work/nn has/hvz been/ben discussed/vbn in/in this/dt chapter/nn ,/, was/bedz quoted/vbn in/in a/at New/jj-tl Yorker/np-tl Magazine/nn-tl profile/nn as/cs saying/vbg :/: ``/`` Of/in course/nn ,/, you/ppss have/hv to/to remember/vb it's/pps+bez a/at good/jj thing/nn for/in us/ppo chartists/nns that/cs there/ex aren't/ber* more/ap of/in us/ppo ./.
If/cs you/ppss got/vbd too/ql many/ap people/nns investing/vbg by/in this/dt method/nn ,/, their/pp$ operations/nns would/md begin/vb to/to affect/vb stock/nn prices/nns ,/, and/cc thus/rb throw/vb the/at charts/nns off/rp ./.
The/at method/nn would/md become/vb self-defeating/jj ''/'' ./.


	Mr./np Alexander/np H./np Wheelan's/np$ Study/vb-tl Helps/nns-tl In/in-tl Point/nn-tl And/cc-tl Figure/nn-tl Technique/nn-tl tells/vbz the/at readers/nns :/: ``/`` We/ppss assure/vb you/ppo that/cs the/at total/jj number/nn of/in people/nns using/vbg this/dt method/nn of/in market/nn analysis/nn is/bez a/at very/ql small/jj portion/nn of/in the/at sum/nn total/nn of/in those/dts operating/vbg in/in the/at securities/nns and/cc commodities/nns markets/nns ''/'' ./.


	What/wdt with/in traders/nns trading/vbg for/in so/ql many/ap different/jj objectives/nns ,/, and/cc what/wdt with/in there/ex being/beg so/ql many/ap unique/jj and/cc individualized/vbn market/nn theories/nns and/cc trading/vbg techniques/nns in/in use/nn ,/, and/cc more/ap coming/vbg into/in use/nn all/abn the/at time/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez hard/jj to/to imagine/vb how/wrb any/dti particular/ap theory/nn or/cc technique/nn could/md acquire/vb enough/ap ``/`` fans/nns ''/'' to/to invalidate/vb itself/ppl ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, all/abn theories/nns and/cc techniques/nns lead/vb but/rb to/in one/cd of/in two/cd possible/jj modes/nns of/in expression/nn ,/, if/cs they/ppss lead/vb to/in a/at market/nn committment/nn at/in all/abn ./.
In/in the/at final/jj analysis/nn ,/, then/rb ,/, the/at user/nn becomes/vbz either/cc a/at bull/nn or/cc a/at bear/nn in/in a/at given/vbn instance/nn ,/, notwithstanding/in any/dti amount/nn of/in forethought/nn and/cc calculation/nn ,/, however/wql elaborate/jj ./.
Thus/rb while/cs his/pp$ theory/nn or/cc technique/nn may/md not/* be/be oversubscribed/vbn ,/, it/pps is/bez commonplace/jj for/cs bullish/jj and/cc bearish/jj positions/nns to/to become/vb temporarily/rb over-subscribed/vbn ./.
Though/cs the/at methods/nns of/in deciding/vbg may/md be/be profound/jj and/cc diverse/jj ,/, the/at possible/jj conclusions/nns remain/vb but/rb two/cd ./.



Chapter/nn-tl 6/cd-tl ,/, more/ap methods/nns 
the/at-hl hoaxes/nns-hl 
The/at purpose/nn set/vbn forth/rb at/in the/at beginning/nn of/in this/dt book/nn was/bedz first/rb to/to introduce/vb the/at reader/nn to/in a/at general/jj background/nn knowledge/nn of/in the/at various/ap types/nns and/cc capabilities/nns of/in the/at forecasting/vbg methods/nns already/rb in/in use/nn ,/, so/cs that/cs he/pps might/md then/rb be/be in/in a/at position/nn to/to evaluate/vb for/in himself/ppl the/at validity/nn of/in the/at rather/ql astonishing/jj empirical/jj correlation/nn that/wps is/bez to/to follow/vb ,/, and/cc to/to appraise/vb the/at forecast/nn that/wpo its/pp$ interpretation/nn suggests/vbz for/in the/at future/nn of/in farm/nn prices/nns over/in the/at years/nns immediately/rb ahead/rb ./.



	In/in assessing/vbg the/at outlook/nn for/in interest/nn rates/nns in/in 1961/cd ,/, the/at question/nn ,/, as/cs always/rb ,/, is/bez the/at prospect/nn for/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn ./.
By/rb and/cc large/rb ,/, what/wdt happens/vbz to/in business/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn will/md govern/vb the/at relationship/nn between/in demand/nn and/cc supply/nn conditions/nns in/in the/at capital/nn markets/nns and/cc will/md thus/rb determine/vb interest/nn rates/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at trend/nn of/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn in/in 1961/cd will/md exert/vb a/at decisive/jj influence/nn on/in fiscal/jj ,/, monetary/jj ,/, and/cc other/ap Federal/jj-tl policies/nns which/wdt affect/vb interest/nn rates/nns ./.


	Nineteen-sixty/cd has/hvz been/ben a/at baffling/jj year/nn for/in analysts/nns of/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn ./.
During/in much/ap of/in the/at year/nn the/at general/jj level/nn of/in business/nn activity/nn has/hvz moved/vbn along/rb on/in a/at record-high/jj plateau/nn ,/, but/cc there/ex have/hv been/ben persistent/nn signs/nns of/in slack/nn in/in the/at economy/nn ./.
The/at tendency/nn for/cs general/jj business/nn activity/nn to/to soften/vb somewhat/rb is/bez becoming/vbg more/ql evident/jj ./.


	Although/cs the/at pause/nn in/in the/at advance/nn of/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn this/dt year/nn has/hvz thus/ql far/rb been/ben quite/ql modest/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez hard/jj to/to escape/vb the/at conclusion/nn that/cs the/at softening/vbg process/nn will/md continue/vb into/in the/at first/od quarter/nn of/in 1961/cd and/cc possibly/rb somewhat/ql longer/rbr ./.
It/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to see/vb any/dti powerful/jj sources/nns of/in strength/nn on/in the/at horizon/nn at/in this/dt time/nn which/wdt would/md give/vb the/at economy/nn a/at new/jj upward/jj thrust/nn ./.
The/at rate/nn of/in plant/nn and/cc equipment/nn spending/nn by/in business/nn and/cc industry/nn now/rb seems/vbz to/to be/be topping/vbg out/rp and/cc facing/vbg some/dti decline/nn ./.
In/in earlier/jjr business/nn cycles/nns ,/, when/wrb this/dt occurred/vbd the/at country/nn usually/rb experienced/vbd a/at sharp/jj upturn/nn in/in residential/jj construction/nn as/cs mortgage/nn financing/nn became/vbd easier/jjr to/to obtain/vb ./.
At/in this/dt time/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber signs/nns that/cs increased/vbn availability/nn of/in mortgage/nn credit/nn will/md not/* act/vb with/in the/at usual/jj speed/nn to/to stimulate/vb a/at sharp/jj rise/nn in/in residential/jj construction/nn ./.
These/dts signs/nns are/ber the/at inventories/nns of/in unsold/jj houses/nns in/in some/dti areas/nns of/in the/at country/nn and/cc the/at moderate/jj rise/nn in/in vacancy/nn rates/nns for/in apartments/nns (/( 7.6%/nn in/in September/np )/) ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, in/in a/at more/ql favorable/jj vein/nn ,/, general/jj business/nn activity/nn should/md receive/vb some/dti stimulus/nn from/in rising/vbg Federal/jj-tl spending/nn ,/, and/cc the/at reduction/nn in/in business/nn inventories/nns has/hvz probably/rb run/vbn a/at good/jj part/nn of/in its/pp$ course/nn ./.
The/at 2%/nn increase/nn in/in retail/jj sales/nns in/in October/np to/in a/at 4-month/jj high/nn is/bez encouraging/vbg in/in this/dt connection/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at most/ql recent/jj consumer/nn survey/nn by/in the/at National/jj-tl Industrial/jj-tl Conference/nn-tl Board/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt shows/vbz a/at decided/vbn pickup/nn in/in consumer/nn spending/nn plans/nns ./.


	The/at pattern/nn of/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn which/wdt probably/rb lies/vbz ahead/rb of/in us/ppo is/bez a/at further/jjr moderate/jj softening/nn through/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1961/cd before/cs a/at new/jj rise/nn in/in economic/jj activity/nn gets/vbz under/in way/nn ./.
The/at recovery/nn will/md probably/rb be/be sparked/vbn by/in a/at rising/vbg rate/nn of/in housing/vbg starts/nns next/ap spring/nn in/in response/nn to/in more/ql readily/rb available/jj mortgage/nn credit/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs by/in an/at expansion/nn of/in Government/nn-tl spending/nn ,/, well/rb sustained/vbn consumer/nn spending/nn ,/, and/cc some/dti rebuilding/nn of/in business/nn inventories/nns ./.



Slight/jj-hl downward/jj-hl pressure/nn-hl 
What/wdt does/doz the/at general/jj business/nn outlook/nn suggest/vb about/in the/at trend/nn of/in long-term/nn rates/nns in/in 1961/cd ?/. ?/.
It/pps suggests/vbz that/cs during/in the/at next/ap several/ap months/nns ,/, through/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1961/cd ,/, the/at demand/nn for/in long-term/nn capital/nn funds/nns may/md be/be moderately/ql lower/jjr and/cc that/cs interest/nn rates/nns may/md tend/vb to/to move/vb a/at little/ql lower/rbr ,/, especially/rb the/at rates/nns on/in Federal/jj-tl ,/, state/nn ,/, and/cc local/jj bonds/nns ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs those/dts on/in publicly/rb offered/vbn corporate/jj bonds/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, as/cs witnessed/vbn by/in the/at large/jj corporate/jj bond/nn calendar/nn at/in present/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at record/nn amount/nn of/in municipal/jj bond/nn issues/nns approved/vbn by/in voters/nns ,/, the/at over-all/jj demands/nns for/in capital/nn funds/nns seem/vb likely/jj to/to remain/vb high/jj ,/, so/cs that/cs any/dti downward/jj pressure/nn on/in rates/nns from/in reduced/vbn demand/nn should/md not/* be/be great/jj ./.
It/pps seems/vbz likely/jj ,/, moreover/rb ,/, that/cs with/in an/at increase/nn in/in the/at rate/nn of/in saving/vbg in/in mortgage/nn lending/vbg institutions/nns ,/, interest/nn rates/nns on/in residential/jj mortgages/nns may/md move/vb somewhat/ql lower/rbr through/in the/at spring/nn of/in next/ap year/nn ,/, although/cs the/at increased/vbn ease/nn in/in residential/jj mortgage/nn lending/nn may/md occur/vb primarily/rb in/in other/ap terms/nns than/cs interest/nn rate/nn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, easier/jjr downpayment/nn and/cc amortization/nn terms/nns ./.


	If/cs the/at trend/nn of/in general/jj business/nn activity/nn follows/vbz the/at pattern/nn suggested/vbn here/rb ,/, we/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to see/vb additional/jj steps/nns by/in the/at Federal/jj-tl Reserve/nn-tl authorities/nns to/to ease/vb the/at availability/nn of/in credit/nn ./.
Certainly/rb a/at further/jjr reduction/nn in/in the/at discount/nn rate/nn would/md be/be a/at strong/jj possibility/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs an/at easier/jjr reserve/nn position/nn for/in the/at banking/vbg system/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at monetary/jj authorities/nns will/md continue/vb to/to be/be required/vbn to/to pay/vb attention/nn to/in the/at consequences/nns of/in their/pp$ actions/nns with/in respect/nn to/in our/pp$ international/jj balance/nn of/in payments/nns position/nn and/cc the/at outflow/nn of/in gold/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs with/in regard/nn to/in avoiding/vbg the/at creation/nn of/in excessive/jj liquidity/nn in/in the/at economy/nn ,/, which/wdt would/md delay/vb the/at effectiveness/nn of/in monetary/jj policy/nn measures/nns in/in the/at next/ap expansion/nn phase/nn of/in the/at business/nn cycle/nn ./.



Open/jj-hl market/nn-hl policy/nn-hl 
One/cd of/in the/at most/ql intriguing/jj questions/nns is/bez whether/cs the/at recent/jj departures/nns of/in the/at Federal/jj-tl Reserve/nn-tl authorities/nns from/in confining/vbg their/pp$ open/jj market/nn operations/nns to/in Treasury/nn-tl bills/nns will/md spread/vb into/in longer-term/nn Government/nn-tl securities/nns in/in the/at next/ap few/ap months/nns ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs the/at new/jj Administration/nn-tl has/hvz its/pp$ wishes/nns ,/, the/at Federal/jj-tl Reserve/nn-tl would/md conduct/vb its/pp$ open/jj market/nn operations/nns throughout/in the/at entire/jj maturity/nn range/nn of/in Government/nn-tl securities/nns and/cc aggressively/rb seek/vb to/to force/vb down/rp long-term/nn interest/nn rates/nns ./.
The/at principle/nn of/in ``/`` bills/nns only/rb ''/'' ,/, or/cc ``/`` bills/nns preferably/rb ''/'' ,/, seems/vbz so/ql strongly/rb accepted/vbn by/in the/at Federal/jj-tl Reserve/nn-tl that/cs it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to envision/vb conditions/nns which/wdt would/md persuade/vb the/at authorities/nns to/to depart/vb radically/rb from/in it/ppo by/in extending/vbg their/pp$ open/jj market/nn purchases/nns regularly/rb into/in long-term/nn Government/nn-tl securities/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, to/in the/at extent/nn that/cs the/at monetary/jj authorities/nns ,/, in/in their/pp$ effort/nn to/to ease/vb credit/nn in/in the/at next/ap several/ap months/nns ,/, conduct/vb their/pp$ open/jj market/nn operations/nns in/in longer-term/nn Government/nn-tl bonds/nns ,/, they/ppss will/md certainly/rb act/vb to/to accentuate/vb any/dti tendency/nn for/in long-term/nn interest/nn rates/nns to/to ease/vb as/cs a/at result/nn of/in market/nn forces/nns ./.


	By/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1961/cd ,/, assuming/vbg that/cs a/at general/jj business/nn recovery/nn gets/vbz under/in way/nn ,/, interest/nn rates/nns should/md begin/vb to/to edge/vb upward/rb again/rb ,/, depending/in upon/in the/at vigor/nn of/in the/at recovery/nn and/cc the/at determination/nn with/in which/wdt the/at monetary/jj authorities/nns move/vb to/to restrain/vb credit/nn availability/nn ./.
My/pp$ guess/nn would/md be/be that/cs interest/nn rates/nns will/md decline/vb moderately/rb into/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1961/cd and/cc during/in the/at second/od half/nn of/in the/at year/nn will/md turn/vb up/rp gradually/rb to/to recover/vb the/at ground/nn lost/vbn during/in the/at downturn/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez pertinent/jj to/to ask/vb the/at question/nn :/: Has/hvz the/at long/jj upswing/nn of/in interest/nn rates/nns during/in the/at past/ap 15/cd years/nns just/ql about/rb run/vbn its/pp$ course/nn ,/, and/cc are/ber we/ppss now/rb entering/vbg a/at period/nn in/in which/wdt both/abx capital/nn market/nn forces/nns and/cc Federal/jj-tl policies/nns will/md produce/vb a/at prolonged/vbn decline/nn of/in interest/nn rates/nns ?/. ?/.
My/pp$ answer/nn is/bez in/in the/at negative/jj because/cs I/ppss believe/vb that/cs total/nn capital/nn demands/nns during/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl will/md continue/vb to/to press/vb against/in available/jj supplies/nns ,/, and/cc interest/nn rates/nns will/md generally/rb tend/vb to/to be/be firm/jj at/in high/jj levels/nns ./.



Five/cd-hl basic/jj-hl forces/nns-hl 
This/dt view/nn is/bez based/vbn upon/in several/ap basic/jj economic/jj forces/nns which/wdt I/ppss believe/vb will/md be/be operating/vbg in/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl ,/, as/ql follows/vbz :/: (/(-hl 1/cd-hl )/)-hl 
Recent/jj events/nns in/in the/at General/jj-tl Assembly/nn-tl of/in the/at United/vbn-tl Nations/nns-tl confirm/vb that/cs the/at cold/jj war/nn will/md remain/vb with/in us/ppo ,/, and/cc probably/rb intensify/vb ,/, for/in the/at foreseeable/jj future/nn ./.
This/dt makes/vbz it/ppo certain/jj that/cs Federal/jj-tl expenditures/nns for/in military/jj preparedness/nn and/cc foreign/jj economic/jj aid/nn are/ber likely/jj to/to rise/vb further/rbr in/in the/at next/ap several/ap years/nns ./.
We/ppss are/ber just/rb beginning/vbg the/at task/nn of/in trying/vbg to/to win/vb or/cc maintain/vb the/at friendship/nn of/in the/at new/jj African/jj nations/nns against/in the/at ruthless/jj competition/nn of/in the/at Communist/jj bloc/nn ./.
Our/pp$ efforts/nns to/to overcome/vb the/at lead/nn of/in the/at Russians/nps in/in space/nn are/ber bound/vbn to/to mean/vb accelerated/vbn Federal/jj-tl spending/vbg ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez likely/jj that/cs Federal/jj-tl policies/nns aimed/vbn at/in stimulating/vbg a/at faster/jjr rate/nn of/in economic/jj growth/nn of/in the/at country/nn ,/, to/to keep/vb ahead/rb of/in the/at Communist/jj countries/nns and/cc to/to demonstrate/vb that/cs our/pp$ free/jj economic/jj system/nn is/bez better/jjr than/cs theirs/pp$$ ,/, will/md lead/vb to/in rising/vbg Federal/jj-tl spending/nn in/in certain/ap areas/nns such/jj as/cs education/nn ,/, housing/vbg ,/, medical/jj aid/nn ,/, and/cc the/at like/jj ./.
There/ex are/ber serious/jj dangers/nns involved/vbn in/in this/dt trend/nn toward/in rising/vbg Federal/jj-tl expenditures/nns ,/, of/in which/wdt I/ppss take/vb a/at dim/jj view/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps seems/vbz very/ql likely/jj to/to occur/vb ./.
(/(-hl 2/cd-hl )/)-hl 
During/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl we/ppss have/hv the/at prospect/nn of/in a/at significant/jj stepping/vbg up/rp in/in the/at rate/nn of/in household/nn formations/nns ,/, which/wdt should/md contribute/vb to/in a/at rising/vbg volume/nn of/in consumer/nn expenditures/nns and/cc home/nn building/vbg ./.
According/in to/in the/at latest/jjt projections/nns of/in the/at Bureau/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Census/nn-tl ,/, the/at annual/jj rate/nn of/in household/nn formations/nns will/md increase/vb for/in the/at next/ap 20/cd years/nns ./.
Under/in the/at most/ql favorable/jj assumptions/nns for/in increase/nn ,/, the/at Bureau/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Census/nn-tl projects/vbz that/cs the/at annual/jj rate/nn of/in household/nn formations/nns will/md rise/vb from/in about/in 883,000/cd in/in the/at last/ap two/cd years/nns of/in the/at Fifties/nns-tl to/in an/at annual/jj rate/nn of/in about/rb 1,018,000/cd in/in the/at first/od five/cd years/nns of/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl ,/, and/cc to/in a/at slightly/ql higher/jjr annual/jj rate/nn of/in 1,083,000/cd in/in the/at second/od half/nn of/in the/at decade/nn ./.
During/in the/at Seventies/nns-tl the/at projections/nns show/vb a/at more/ql pronounced/vbn rise/nn to/in an/at annual/jj rate/nn of/in 1,338,000/cd in/in the/at second/od half/nn of/in that/dt decade/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, the/at expanding/vbg markets/nns for/in consumer/nn goods/nns and/cc housing/nn occasioned/vbn by/in the/at higher/jjr rate/nn of/in household/nn formation/nn should/md enhance/vb the/at general/jj economic/jj prospects/nns of/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at impact/nn of/in a/at rising/vbg rate/nn of/in household/nn formation/nn this/dt decade/nn should/md not/* be/be exaggerated/vbn ./.
The/at average/jj annual/jj rate/nn of/in 1,083,000/cd in/in the/at second/od half/nn of/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl is/bez still/rb considerably/rb below/in the/at annual/jj rate/nn of/in 1,525,000/cd in/in the/at three-year/jj period/nn from/in April/np 1947/cd to/in March/np 1950/cd ./.
(/(-hl 3/cd-hl )/)-hl 
With/in the/at expansion/nn of/in family/nn formation/nn in/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl ,/, a/at continued/vbn substantial/jj rise/nn in/in expenditures/nns by/in state/nn and/cc local/jj government/nn units/nns seems/vbz to/to be/be indicated/vbn ./.
This/dt is/bez an/at area/nn in/in which/wdt there/ex is/bez still/rb a/at large/jj backlog/nn of/in demand/nn ./.
State/nn and/cc local/jj expenditures/nns (/( in/in real/jj terms/nns )/) increased/vbd persistently/rb from/in $26.5-billion/nns in/in 1949/cd to/in $44.3-billion/nns in/in 1959/cd ,/, and/cc it/pps would/md not/* be/be surprising/vbg if/cs they/ppss showed/vbd a/at comparable/jj increase/nn in/in this/dt decade/nn ,/, which/wdt would/md carry/vb them/ppo to/in the/at neighborhood/nn of/in $75-billion/nns by/in 1970/cd ./.
Here/rb would/md be/be a/at powerful/jj force/nn for/in raising/vbg business/nn activity/nn ./.
(/(-hl 4/cd-hl )/)-hl 
It/pps seems/vbz likely/jj that/cs with/in the/at three/cd preceding/vbg forces/nns at/in play/nn ,/, the/at rate/nn of/in business/nn and/cc industrial/jj plant/nn and/cc equipment/nn expenditures/nns should/md continue/vb to/to move/vb upward/rb from/in the/at levels/nns of/in the/at Fifties/nns-tl ./.
Spurred/vbn by/in keen/jj competition/nn in/in our/pp$ industrial/jj system/nn ,/, and/cc still/rb further/jjr increases/nns in/in the/at funds/nns devoted/vbn to/in industrial/jj research/nn ,/, plant/nn and/cc equipment/nn expenditures/nns by/in business/nn and/cc industry/nn should/md rise/vb during/in the/at decade/nn ./.
(/(-hl 5/cd-hl )/)-hl 
In/in a/at more/ql pessimistic/jj vein/nn about/in the/at economic/jj outlook/nn ,/, I/ppss suspect/vb that/cs the/at reservoir/nn of/in demand/nn for/in consumer/nn goods/nns and/cc housing/vbg which/wdt was/bedz dammed-up/vbn during/in the/at Thirties/nns-tl and/cc World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, is/bez finally/rb in/in the/at process/nn of/in running/vbg dry/jj ./.
There/ex is/bez some/dti clear-cut/jj evidence/nn of/in this/dt ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at huge/jj postwar/jj demand/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in veterans/nns for/in housing/vbg under/in the/at VA/nn home/nn loan/nn guaranty/nn program/nn seems/vbz to/to have/hv largely/rb exhausted/vbn itself/ppl ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, the/at failure/nn of/in home-building/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn to/to respond/vb this/dt year/nn to/in somewhat/ql greater/jjr availability/nn of/in mortgage/nn financing/nn ,/, and/cc the/at increasing/vbg reports/nns of/in pockets/nns of/in unsold/jj homes/nns and/cc rising/vbg vacancy/nn rates/nns in/in apartment/nn buildings/nns ,/, may/md also/rb signal/vb in/in part/nn that/cs the/at lush/jj days/nns of/in big/jj backlog/nn demand/nn for/in housing/vbg are/ber reaching/vbg an/at end/nn ./.
In/in a/at way/nn ,/, we/ppss may/md be/be witnessing/vbg the/at same/ap thing/nn in/in the/at sales/nns of/in automobiles/nns today/nr as/cs the/at public/nn no/ql longer/rbr is/bez willing/jj to/to purchase/vb any/dti car/nn coming/vbg on/in the/at market/nn but/cc is/bez more/ql insistent/jj on/in compact/jj cars/nns free/jj of/in the/at frills/nns which/wdt were/bed accepted/vbn in/in the/at Fifties/nns-tl ./.
The/at huge/jj backlog/nn of/in demand/nn which/wdt was/bedz evident/jj in/in the/at first/od decade/nn and/cc a/at half/nn after/in the/at War/nn-tl was/bedz fed/vbn by/in liquid/jj assets/nns accumulated/vbn by/in the/at public/nn during/in the/at War/nn-tl ,/, and/cc even/ql more/ql so/rb by/in the/at easier/jjr and/cc easier/jjr credit/nn in/in the/at consumer/nn loan/nn and/cc home/nn loan/nn fields/nns ./.
The/at consuming/vbg public/nn has/hvz used/vbn up/rp a/at good/jj part/nn of/in these/dts liquid/jj assets/nns ,/, or/cc they/ppss have/hv been/ben drained/vbn by/in the/at rising/vbg price/nn level/nn ,/, and/cc we/ppss have/hv apparently/rb gotten/vbn to/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at line/nn in/in making/vbg consumer/nn or/cc home/nn mortgage/nn terms/nns easier/jjr ./.
This/dt is/bez not/* to/to say/vb that/cs the/at level/nn of/in consumer/nn expenditures/nns will/md not/* continue/vb to/to rise/vb in/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl ./.
I/ppss am/bem confident/jj that/cs it/pps will/md ,/, but/cc consumer/nn spending/nn in/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl will/md not/* be/be fortified/vbn by/in the/at great/jj backlog/nn of/in wants/nns and/cc desires/nns which/wdt characterized/vbd most/ap of/in the/at Fifties/nns-tl ./.
Markets/nns should/md become/vb more/ql competitive/jj as/cs consumers/nns become/vb more/ql selective/jj ./.



Sixties'/nns$-hl capital/nn-hl requirements/nns-hl 
Accordingly/rb ,/, during/in the/at Sixties/nns-tl our/pp$ national/jj economy/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to grow/vb at/in as/ql fast/jj a/at rate/nn as/cs in/in the/at Fifties/nns-tl and/cc ,/, in/in the/at process/nn ,/, to/to require/vb enormous/jj amounts/nns of/in capital/nn funds/nns ./.



	Wage-price/nn policies/nns of/in industry/nn are/ber the/at result/nn of/in a/at complex/nn of/in forces/nns --/-- no/at single/ap explanation/nn has/hvz been/ben found/vbn which/wdt applies/vbz to/in all/abn cases/nns ./.
The/at purpose/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn is/bez to/to analyze/vb one/cd possible/jj force/nn which/wdt has/hvz not/* been/ben treated/vbn in/in the/at literature/nn ,/, but/cc which/wdt we/ppss believe/vb makes/nns a/at significant/jj contribution/nn to/in explaining/vbg the/at wage-price/nn behavior/nn of/in a/at few/ap very/ql important/jj industries/nns ./.
While/cs there/ex may/md be/be several/ap such/jj industries/nns to/in which/wdt the/at model/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn is/bez applicable/jj ,/, the/at authors/nns make/vb particular/jj claim/nn of/in relevance/nn to/in the/at explanation/nn of/in the/at course/nn of/in wages/nns and/cc prices/nns in/in the/at steel/nn industry/nn of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, the/at apparent/jj stiffening/nn of/in the/at industry's/nn$ attitude/nn in/in the/at recent/jj steel/nn strike/nn has/hvz a/at direct/jj explanation/nn in/in terms/nns of/in the/at model/nn here/rb presented/vbn ./.


	The/at model/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn considers/vbz an/at industry/nn which/wdt is/bez not/* characterized/vbn by/in vigorous/jj price/nn competition/nn ,/, but/cc which/wdt is/bez so/ql basic/jj that/cs its/pp$ wage-price/nn policies/nns are/ber held/vbn in/in check/nn by/in continuous/jj critical/jj public/jj scrutiny/nn ./.
Where/wrb the/at industry's/nn$ product/nn price/nn has/hvz been/ben kept/vbn below/in the/at ``/`` profit-maximizing/jj ''/'' and/cc ``/`` entry-limiting/jj ''/'' prices/nns due/jj to/in fears/nns of/in public/jj reaction/nn ,/, the/at profit/nn seeking/vbg producers/nns have/hv an/at interest/nn in/in offering/vbg little/ap real/jj resistance/nn to/in wage/nn demands/nns ./.
The/at contribution/nn of/in this/dt paper/nn is/bez a/at demonstration/nn of/in this/dt proposition/nn ,/, and/cc an/at exploration/nn of/in some/dti of/in its/pp$ implications/nns ./.


	In/in order/nn to/to focus/vb clearly/rb upon/in the/at operation/nn of/in this/dt one/cd force/nn ,/, which/wdt we/ppss may/md call/vb the/at effect/nn of/in ``/`` public-limit/nn pricing/nn ''/'' on/in ``/`` key/jjs ''/'' wage/nn bargains/nns ,/, we/ppss deliberately/rb simplify/vb the/at model/nn by/in abstracting/vbg from/in other/ap forces/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs union/nn power/nn ,/, which/wdt may/md be/be relevant/jj in/in an/at actual/jj situation/nn ./.
For/in expository/jj purposes/nns ,/, this/dt is/bez best/rbt treated/vbn as/cs a/at model/nn which/wdt spells/vbz out/rp the/at conditions/nns under/in which/wdt an/at important/jj industry/nn affected/vbn with/in the/at public/jj interest/nn would/md find/vb it/ppo profitable/jj to/to raise/vb wages/nns even/rb in/in the/at absence/nn of/in union/nn pressures/nns for/in higher/jjr wages/nns ./.


	Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, below/rb describes/vbz this/dt abstract/jj model/nn by/in spelling/vbg out/rp its/pp$ assumptions/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, discusses/vbz the/at operation/nn of/in the/at model/nn and/cc derives/vbz some/dti significant/jj conclusions/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, discusses/vbz the/at empirical/jj relevance/nn and/cc policy/nn implications/nns of/in the/at conclusions/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 4/cd-tl ,/, is/bez a/at brief/jj summary/nn ./.
The/at Mathematical/jj-tl Appendix/nn-tl presents/vbz the/at rigorous/jj argument/nn ,/, but/cc is/bez best/rbt read/vbn after/in Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, in/in order/nn that/cs the/at assumptions/nns underlying/vbg the/at equations/nns may/md be/be explicit/jj ./.



1/cd-hl ,/, the/at-hl assumptions/nns-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl model/nn-hl 
A/np-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl industry/nn-hl 
The/at industry/nn with/in which/wdt this/dt model/nn is/bez concerned/vbn is/bez a/at basic/jj industry/nn ,/, producing/vbg a/at substantial/jj share/nn of/in gross/jj national/jj product/nn ./.
Price/nn competition/nn is/bez lacking/vbg ./.
For/in the/at purposes/nns of/in setting/vbg the/at product/nn price/nn ,/, the/at industry/nn behaves/vbz as/cs a/at single/ap entity/nn ./.
In/in wage/nn negotiations/nns ,/, the/at industry/nn bargains/vbz as/cs a/at unit/nn with/in a/at single/ap union/nn ./.
B/np-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl demand/nn-hl for/in-hl the/at-hl industry's/nn$-hl product/nn-hl 
We/ppss are/ber concerned/vbn with/in aggregate/jj demand/nn for/in the/at industry's/nn$ product/nn ./.
The/at manner/nn in/in which/wdt this/dt is/bez shared/vbn among/in firms/nns is/bez taken/vbn as/cs given/vbn ./.
In/in any/dti given/vbn time/nn period/nn ,/, the/at aggregate/jj demand/nn for/in the/at industry's/nn$ product/nn is/bez determined/vbn by/in two/cd things/nns :/: the/at price/nn charged/vbn by/in the/at industry/nn ,/, and/cc the/at level/nn of/in Aj/nn ./.
For/in the/at purposes/nns of/in this/dt discussion/nn ,/, the/at problem/nn of/in relative/jj prices/nns is/bez encompassed/vbn in/in these/dts two/cd variables/nns ,/, since/cs GNP/nn includes/vbz other/ap prices/nns ./.
(/( We/ppss abstract/vb here/rb from/in technological/jj progress/nn and/cc assume/vb that/cs prices/nns of/in all/abn other/ap products/nns change/vb proportionately/rb ./.
)/) 

	The/at form/nn of/in the/at industry/nn demand/nn function/nn is/bez one/cd which/wdt makes/vbz quantity/nn demanded/vbn vary/vb inversely/rb with/in the/at product/nn price/nn ,/, and/cc vary/vb directly/rb with/in the/at level/nn of/in Aj/nn ./.
C/np-hl ./.-hl
Industry/nn-hl product/nn-hl price/nn-hl policy/nn-hl 
The/at industry/nn of/in this/dt model/nn is/bez so/ql important/jj that/cs its/pp$ wage/nn and/cc price/nn policies/nns are/ber affected/vbn with/in a/at public/jj interest/nn ./.
Because/rb of/in its/pp$ importance/nn ,/, and/cc because/cs the/at lack/nn of/in price/nn competition/nn is/bez well/rb recognized/vbn ,/, the/at industry/nn is/bez under/in considerable/jj public/jj pressure/nn not/* to/to raise/vb its/pp$ price/nn any/ql more/rbr than/cs could/md be/be justified/vbn by/in cost/nn increases/nns ./.
The/at threat/nn of/in effective/jj anti-trust/jj action/nn ,/, provoked/vbn by/in ``/`` gouging/vbg the/at public/nn ''/'' through/in price/nn increases/nns not/* justified/vbn by/in cost/nn increases/nns ,/, and/cc fears/nns of/in endangering/vbg relations/nns with/in customers/nns ,/, Congress/np ,/, the/at general/jj public/nn and/cc the/at press/nn ,/, all/abn operate/vb to/to keep/vb price/nn increases/nns in/in some/dti relation/nn to/in cost/nn increases/nns ./.
For/in the/at industry/nn of/in this/dt model/nn ,/, the/at effect/nn of/in such/jj public/jj pressures/nns in/in the/at past/nn has/hvz been/ben to/to hold/vb the/at price/nn well/ql below/in the/at short-run/nn profit-maximizing/jj price/nn (/( given/vbn the/at wage/nn rate/nn and/cc the/at level/nn of/in GNP/nn )/) ,/, and/cc even/rb below/in the/at entry-limited/jj price/nn (/( but/cc not/* below/in average/jj cost/nn )/) ./.


	For/in such/abl an/at industry/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez only/rb ``/`` safe/jj ''/'' to/to raise/vb its/pp$ price/nn if/cs such/abl an/at increase/nn is/bez manifestly/rb ``/`` justified/vbn ''/'' by/in rising/vbg costs/nns (/( due/jj to/in rising/vbg wages/nns ,/, etc./rb )/) ./.
Thus/rb ,/, if/cs public/jj pressure/nn sets/vbz the/at effective/jj limit/nn to/in the/at price/nn that/wpo the/at industry/nn may/md charge/vb ,/, this/dt pressure/nn is/bez itself/ppl a/at function/nn of/in the/at wage/nn rate/nn ./.
In/in this/dt model/nn ,/, we/ppss abstract/vb from/in all/abn non-wage/nn sources/nns of/in cost/nn changes/nns ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at ``/`` public-limit/nn price/nn ''/'' only/rb rises/vbz as/cs the/at wage/nn rate/nn rises/vbz ./.
In/in such/jj circumstances/nns ,/, it/pps may/md well/rb be/be to/in the/at advantage/nn of/in the/at industry/nn to/to allow/vb an/at increase/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ./.


	Since/cs marginal/jj costs/nns rise/vb when/wrb the/at wage/nn rate/nn rises/vbz ,/, the/at profit-maximizing/jj price/nn also/rb rises/vbz when/wrb the/at public-limit/nn price/nn is/bez elevated/vbn ,/, and/cc is/bez likely/jj to/to remain/vb well/ql above/in the/at latter/ap ./.
The/at entry-limiting/jj price/nn will/md also/rb be/be raised/vbn for/in potential/jj domestic/jj competition/nn ,/, but/cc unless/cs general/jj inflation/nn permits/vbz profit/nn margins/nns to/to increase/vb proportionately/rb throughout/in the/at economy/nn ,/, we/ppss might/md expect/vb the/at public-limit/nn price/nn to/to approach/vb the/at entry-limit/nn price/nn ./.
The/at foreign-entry-limit/nn price/nn would/md be/be approached/vbn more/ql rapidly/rb ,/, since/cs domestic/jj wage-rates/nns do/do not/* enter/vb foreign/jj costs/nns directly/rb ./.
Where/wrb this/dt approach/nn becomes/vbz critical/jj ,/, the/at industry/nn can/md be/be expected/vbn to/to put/vb much/ap emphasis/nn on/in this/dt as/cs evidence/nn of/in its/pp$ sincerity/nn in/in ``/`` resisting/vbg ''/'' the/at wage/nn pressures/nns of/in a/at powerful/jj union/nn ,/, requesting/vbg tariff/nn relief/nn after/cs it/pps has/hvz ``/`` reluctantly/rb ''/'' acceded/vbn to/in the/at union/nn pressure/nn ./.


	Whether/cs or/cc not/* it/pps is/bez in/in the/at industry's/nn$ interest/nn to/to allow/vb the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn to/to rise/vb obviously/rb depends/vbz upon/in the/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt the/at public-limit/nn price/nn rises/vbz in/in response/nn to/in a/at basic/jj wage/nn increase/nn ,/, and/cc the/at relation/nn of/in this/dt response/nn to/in the/at increase/nn in/in costs/nns accompanying/vbg the/at wage/nn increase/nn ./.
The/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt the/at public-limit/nn price/nn is/bez raised/vbn by/in a/at given/vbn increase/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn is/bez itself/ppl a/at function/nn of/in three/cd things/nns :/: the/at passage/nn of/in time/nn ,/, the/at level/nn of/in GNP/nn ,/, and/cc the/at size/nn of/in the/at wage/nn increase/nn ./.


	We/ppss are/ber abstracting/vbg from/in the/at fact/nn of/in strikes/nns here/rb ,/, but/cc it/pps should/md be/be obvious/jj that/cs the/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt the/at public-limit/nn price/nn is/bez raised/vbn by/in a/at given/vbn increase/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn is/bez also/rb a/at function/nn of/in the/at show/nn of/in resistance/nn put/vbn up/rp by/in the/at industry/nn ./.
The/at industry/nn may/md deliberately/rb take/vb a/at strike/nn ,/, not/* to/to put/vb pressure/nn on/in the/at union/nn ,/, but/cc in/in order/nn to/to ``/`` educate/vb ''/'' the/at government/nn and/cc the/at customers/nns of/in the/at industry/nn ./.
As/cs a/at strike/nn continues/vbz ,/, these/dts parties/nns increase/vb their/pp$ pressure/nn on/in the/at industry/nn to/to reach/vb an/at agreement/nn ./.
They/ppss become/vb increasingly/ql willing/jj to/to accept/vb the/at price/nn increase/nn that/wpo the/at industry/nn claims/vbz the/at wage/nn bargain/nn would/md entail/vb ./.


	Public/jj indignation/nn and/cc resistance/nn to/in wage-price/nn increases/nns is/bez obviously/rb much/ql less/ap when/wrb the/at increases/nns are/ber on/in the/at order/nn of/in 3%/nn per/in annum/nn than/cs when/wrb the/at increases/nns are/ber on/in the/at order/nn of/in 3%/nn per/in month/nn ./.
The/at simple/jj passage/nn of/in an/at additional/jj eleven/cd months'/nns$ time/nn makes/vbz the/at second/od 3%/nn boost/nn more/ql acceptable/jj ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at public-limit/nn price/nn is/bez raised/vbn further/rbr by/in a/at given/vbn wage/nn increase/nn the/at longer/jjr it/pps has/hvz been/ben since/cs the/at previous/jj price/nn increase/nn ./.
Notice/vb ,/, however/rb ,/, that/cs the/at passage/nn of/in time/nn does/doz not/* permit/vb the/at raising/nn of/in prices/nns per/in se/fw-ppl ,/, without/in an/at accompanying/vbg wage/nn increase/nn ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, higher/jjr levels/nns of/in GNP/nn do/do not/* ,/, in/in themselves/ppls ,/, provide/vb grounds/nns for/in raising/vbg prices/nns ,/, but/cc they/ppss do/do relax/vb some/dti of/in the/at pressure/nn on/in the/at industry/nn so/cs that/cs it/pps can/md raise/vb prices/nns higher/rbr for/in a/at given/vbn wage/nn increase/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez not/* extended/vbn to/in anticipated/vbn levels/nns of/in GNP/nn ,/, however/rb --/-- only/rb the/at current/jj level/nn of/in GNP/nn affects/vbz the/at public/jj pressure/nn against/in wage-price/nn increases/nns ./.
Finally/rb ,/, since/cs the/at public/nn requires/vbz some/dti restraint/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in the/at companies/nns ,/, larger/jjr wage/nn increases/nns call/vb for/in less/ap than/cs proportionately/rb larger/jjr price/nn increases/nns (/( e.g./rb ,/, if/cs a/at wage/nn increase/nn of/in 5%/nn allows/vbz a/at price/nn increase/nn of/in 7%/nn ,/, a/at wage/nn increase/nn of/in 10%/nn allows/vbz a/at price/nn increase/nn of/in something/pn less/ap than/in 14%/nn )/) ./.
D/np-hl ./.-hl
Industry/nn-hl costs/nns-hl 
We/ppss assume/vb that/cs average/jj total/jj unit/nn cost/nn in/in the/at relevant/jj region/nn of/in operation/nn is/bez constant/jj with/in respect/nn to/in quantity/nn produced/vbn (/( the/at average/jj cost/nn curve/nn is/bez horizontal/jj ,/, and/cc therefore/rb is/bez identical/jj with/in the/at marginal/jj cost/nn curve/nn )/) ,/, and/cc is/bez the/at same/ap for/in every/at firm/nn (/( and/cc therefore/rb for/in the/at industry/nn )/) ./.
The/at level/nn of/in this/dt average/jj cost/nn is/bez determined/vbn by/in factor/nn prices/nns ,/, technology/nn ,/, and/cc so/rb forth/rb ./.
As/cs we/ppss have/hv noted/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, we/ppss are/ber abstracting/vbg from/in changes/nns in/in all/abn determinants/nns of/in this/dt level/nn except/in for/in changes/nns in/in the/at wage/nn rate/nn ./.
The/at level/nn of/in average/jj cost/nn (/( equal/jj to/in marginal/jj cost/nn )/) is/bez thus/rb strictly/rb a/at function/nn of/in the/at wage/nn rate/nn ./.
E/np-hl ./.-hl
Union/nn-hl policies/nns-hl and/cc-hl collective/jj-hl bargaining/vbg-hl issues/nns-hl 
The/at single/ap union/nn which/wdt faces/vbz the/at industry/nn does/doz not/* restrict/vb its/pp$ membership/nn ,/, and/cc there/ex is/bez an/at adequate/jj supply/nn of/in labor/nn available/jj to/in the/at firms/nns of/in the/at industry/nn at/in the/at going/vbg wage/nn rate/nn ./.
The/at union/nn does/doz not/* regard/vb unemployment/nn of/in its/pp$ own/jj members/nns as/cs a/at matter/nn of/in concern/nn when/wrb setting/vbg its/pp$ own/jj wage/nn policy/nn --/-- its/pp$ concern/nn with/in employment/nn makes/vbz itself/ppl felt/vbn in/in pressure/nn upon/in the/at government/nn to/to maintain/vb full/jj employment/nn ./.


	The/at union/nn vigorously/rb demands/vbz wage/nn increases/nns from/in productivity/nn increases/nns ,/, and/cc wage/nn increases/nns to/to offset/vb cost-of-living/nn increases/nns ,/, but/cc we/ppss abstract/vb from/in these/dts forces/nns here/rb ./.
For/in our/pp$ present/jj purposes/nns we/ppss assume/vb that/cs the/at sole/jj subject/nn of/in bargaining/nn is/bez the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn (/( not/* including/in productivity/nn improvement/nn factors/nns or/cc cost-of-living/nn adjustments/nns )/) ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez this/dt basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn which/wdt determines/vbz the/at level/nn of/in costs/nns ./.
Productivity/nn is/bez something/pn of/in an/at amorphous/jj concept/nn and/cc the/at amount/nn of/in productivity/nn increase/nn in/in a/at given/vbn time/nn period/nn is/bez not/* even/rb well/rb known/vbn to/in the/at industry/nn ,/, much/ql less/ap to/in the/at union/nn or/cc to/in the/at public/nn ./.
Disagreement/nn on/in the/at amount/nn of/in productivity/nn increase/nn exacerbates/vbz the/at problem/nn of/in agreeing/vbg how/wrb an/at increase/nn in/in profit/nn margins/nns related/vbn to/in a/at productivity/nn increase/nn should/md be/be shared/vbn ./.
The/at existence/nn of/in conflict/nn and/cc of/in vigorous/jj union/nn demand/nn for/in an/at increase/nn in/in money/nn wages/nns does/doz not/* contradict/vb the/at assumption/nn that/cs the/at union/nn is/bez willing/jj to/to settle/vb for/in cost-of-living/nn and/cc productivity-share/nn increases/nns as/cs distinct/jj from/in a/at cost-raising/jj increase/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ./.


	We/ppss assume/vb further/rbr that/cs the/at union/nn recognizes/vbz the/at possibility/nn that/cs price-level/nn increases/nns may/md offset/vb wage-rate/nn increases/nns ,/, and/cc it/pps does/doz not/* entirely/rb disregard/vb the/at effect/nn of/in price/nn increases/nns arising/vbg from/in its/pp$ own/jj wage/nn increases/nns upon/in the/at ``/`` real/jj ''/'' wage/nn rate/nn ./.
For/in internal/jj political/jj reasons/nns ,/, the/at union/nn asks/vbz for/in (/( and/cc accepts/vbz )/) increases/nns in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ,/, and/cc would/md vigorously/rb oppose/vb a/at reduction/nn in/in this/dt rate/nn ,/, but/cc the/at adjustment/nn of/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn upwards/rb is/bez essentially/rb up/rp to/in the/at discretion/nn of/in the/at companies/nns of/in the/at industry/nn ./.


	Changes/nns in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn are/ber cost-raising/jj ,/, and/cc they/ppss constitute/vb an/at argument/nn for/in raising/vbg prices/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* known/vbn to/in either/cc the/at union/nn or/cc the/at public/nn precisely/rb how/wql much/ap of/in a/at cost/nn increase/nn is/bez caused/vbn by/in a/at given/vbn change/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ,/, although/cs the/at companies/nns are/ber presumed/vbn to/to have/hv reliable/jj estimates/nns of/in this/dt magnitude/nn ./.
In/in this/dt model/nn ,/, then/rb ,/, the/at industry/nn is/bez presumed/vbn to/to realize/vb that/cs they/ppss could/md successfully/rb resist/vb a/at change/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ,/, but/cc since/cs such/abl a/at change/nn is/bez the/at only/ap effective/jj means/nn to/in raising/vbg prices/nns they/ppss may/md ,/, in/in circumstances/nns to/to be/be spelled/vbn out/rp in/in Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, below/rb ,/, find/vb it/ppo to/in their/pp$ advantage/nn to/to allow/vb the/at wage/nn rise/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, for/in non-negative/jj changes/nns in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn ,/, the/at industry/nn becomes/vbz the/at active/jj wage-setter/nn ,/, since/cs any/dti increase/nn in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn can/md occur/vb only/ap by/in reason/nn of/in industry/nn acquiescence/nn ./.
The/at presumption/nn in/in the/at literature/nn would/md appear/vb to/to be/be that/cs the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn would/md be/be unchanged/jj in/in this/dt case/nn ,/, on/in the/at grounds/nns that/cs it/pps is/bez ``/`` clearly/rb ''/'' not/* in/in the/at interest/nn of/in the/at industry/nn to/to raise/vb wages/nns gratuitously/rb ./.
From/in this/dt presumption/nn it/pps is/bez an/at easy/jj step/nn to/in the/at conclusion/nn that/cs any/dti observed/vbn increases/nns in/in the/at basic/jj wage/nn rate/nn must/md be/be due/jj to/in union/nn behavior/nn different/jj and/cc more/ql aggressive/jj than/cs assumed/vbn in/in our/pp$ model/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez this/dt conclusion/nn that/wpo we/ppss challenge/vb ;/. ;/.
we/ppss do/do so/rb by/in disproving/vbg the/at presumption/nn on/in which/wdt it/pps is/bez based/vbn ./.



2/cd-hl ,/, the/at-hl operation/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl model/nn-hl 
It/pps is/bez convenient/jj to/to assume/vb that/cs the/at union-industry/nn contract/nn is/bez of/in one/cd year's/nn$ duration/nn ./.



	In/in the/at century/nn from/in 1815/cd to/in 1914/cd the/at law/nn of/in nations/nns became/vbd international/jj law/nn ./.
Several/ap factors/nns contributed/vbd to/in this/dt change/nn ./.


	The/at Congress/np-tl of/in-tl Vienna/np-tl is/bez a/at convenient/jj starting/vbg point/nn because/cs it/pps both/abx epitomized/vbd and/cc symbolized/vbd what/wdt was/bedz to/to follow/vb ./.
Here/rb in/in 1815/cd the/at great/jj nations/nns assembled/vbd to/to legislate/vb not/* merely/rb for/in Europe/np ,/, but/cc for/in the/at world/nn ./.
Thus/rb the/at Congress/np marks/vbz a/at formal/jj recognition/nn of/in the/at political/jj system/nn that/wps was/bedz central/jj to/in world/nn politics/nn for/in a/at century/nn ./.
International/jj law/nn had/hvd to/to fit/vb the/at conditions/nns of/in Europe/np ,/, and/cc nothing/pn that/wps could/md not/* fit/vb this/dt system/nn ,/, or/cc the/at interests/nns of/in the/at great/jj European/jj nations/nns collectively/rb ,/, could/md possibly/rb emerge/vb as/cs law/nn in/in any/dti meaningful/jj sense/nn ./.
Essentially/rb this/dt imposed/vbd two/cd conditions/nns :/: First/rb ,/, international/jj law/nn had/hvd to/to recognize/vb and/cc be/be compatible/jj with/in an/at international/jj political/jj system/nn in/in which/wdt a/at number/nn of/in states/nns were/bed competitive/jj ,/, suspicious/jj ,/, and/cc opportunistic/jj in/in their/pp$ political/jj alignments/nns with/in one/cd another/dt ;/. ;/.
second/rb ,/, it/pps had/hvd to/to be/be compatible/jj with/in the/at value/nn system/nn that/wpo they/ppss shared/vbd ./.
In/in both/abx respects/nns ,/, international/jj law/nn was/bedz Europeanized/vbn ./.


	It/pps was/bedz not/* always/rb easy/jj to/to develop/vb theory/nn and/cc doctrine/nn which/wdt would/md square/vb the/at two/cd conditions/nns ./.
On/in the/at one/cd hand/nn ,/, the/at major/jj European/jj nations/nns had/hvd to/to maintain/vb vis-a-vis/in each/dt other/ap an/at emphasis/nn upon/in sovereignty/nn ,/, independence/nn ,/, formal/jj equality/nn --/-- thus/rb insuring/vbg for/in themselves/ppls individually/rb an/at optimal/jj freedom/nn of/in action/nn to/to maintain/vb the/at ``/`` flexibility/nn of/in alignment/nn ''/'' that/wpo the/at system/nn required/vbd and/cc to/to avoid/vb anything/pn approaching/vbg a/at repetition/nn of/in the/at disastrous/jj Napoleonic/jj experience/nn ./.
But/cc there/ex was/bedz no/at pressing/vbg need/nn to/to maintain/vb these/dts same/ap standards/nns with/in regard/nn to/in most/ap of/in the/at rest/nn of/in the/at world/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, theory/nn and/cc doctrine/nn applicable/jj among/in the/at great/jj nations/nns and/cc the/at smaller/jjr European/jj states/nns did/dod not/* really/rb comfortably/rb fit/vb less/ql developed/vbn and/cc less/ql powerful/jj societies/nns elsewhere/rb ./.
Political/jj interference/nn in/in Africa/np and/cc Asia/np and/cc even/rb in/in Latin/jj-tl America/np-tl (/( though/cs limited/vbn in/in Latin/jj-tl America/np-tl by/in the/at special/jj interest/nn of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl as/cs expressed/vbn in/in the/at Monroe/np-tl Doctrine/nn-tl ,/, itself/ppl from/in the/at outset/nn related/vbn to/in European/jj politics/nn and/cc long/rb dependent/jj upon/in the/at ``/`` balance/nn of/in power/nn ''/'' system/nn in/in Europe/np )/) was/bedz necessary/jj in/in order/nn to/to preserve/vb both/abx common/jj economic/jj values/nns and/cc the/at European/jj ``/`` balance/nn ''/'' itself/ppl ./.
A/at nation/nn such/jj as/cs Switzerland/np could/md be/be neutralized/vbn by/in agreement/nn and/cc could/md be/be relied/vbn upon/rb to/to protect/vb its/pp$ neutrality/nn ;/. ;/.
more/ql doubtful/jj ,/, but/cc possible/jj ,/, (/( with/in an/at assist/nn from/in the/at North/nr-tl )/) was/bedz the/at neutralization/nn of/in the/at Latin/jj American/jj countries/nns ;/. ;/.
out/rp of/in the/at question/nn was/bedz the/at neutralization/nn of/in Asia/np and/cc Africa/np ./.


	This/dt Europeanization/nn of/in the/at law/nn was/bedz made/vbn explicit/jj by/in a/at number/nn of/in 19th/od century/nn scholars/nns ./.
More/ap emphasis/nn was/bedz put/vbn upon/in the/at fact/nn that/cs international/jj law/nn was/bedz the/at law/nn of/in ``/`` civilized/vbn nations/nns ''/'' ;/. ;/.
Kent/np and/cc Story/np ,/, the/at great/jj early/jj American/jj scholars/nns ,/, repeatedly/rb made/vbd use/nn of/in this/dt phrase/nn ,/, or/cc of/in ``/`` Christian/jj nations/nns ''/'' ,/, which/wdt is/bez a/at substantial/jj equivalent/nn ./.
Wheaton/np stated/vbd that/cs the/at public/jj law/nn was/bedz essentially/rb ``/`` limited/vbn to/in the/at civilized/vbn and/cc Christian/jj peoples/nns of/in Europe/np or/cc to/in those/dts of/in European/jj origin/nn ''/'' ./.
Of/in course/nn it/pps had/hvd always/rb been/ben of/in European/jj origin/nn in/in fact/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps had/hvd maintained/vbn a/at universal/jj outlook/nn under/in the/at natural/jj law/nn theory/nn ./.
Now/rb ,/, with/in virtually/rb every/at writer/nn ,/, not/* only/rb was/bedz the/at European/jj origin/nn of/in public/jj law/nn acknowledged/vbn as/cs a/at historical/jj phenomenon/nn ,/, but/cc the/at rules/nns thus/rb established/vbn by/in the/at advanced/vbn civilizations/nns of/in Europe/np were/bed to/to be/be imposed/vbn on/in others/nns ./.
The/at European/jj customs/nns on/in which/wdt international/jj law/nn was/bedz based/vbn were/bed to/to become/vb ,/, by/in force/nn and/cc fiat/nn ,/, the/at customs/nns that/wpo others/nns were/bed to/to accept/vb as/cs law/nn if/cs they/ppss were/bed to/to join/vb this/dt community/nn as/cs sovereign/jj states/nns ./.
Hall/np ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, was/bedz quite/ql explicit/jj on/in this/dt point/nn when/wrb he/pps said/vbd states/nns outside/in European/jj civilization/nn must/md formally/rb enter/vb into/in the/at circle/nn of/in law-governed/jj countries/nns ./.
They/ppss must/md do/do something/pn with/in the/at acquiescence/nn of/in the/at latter/ap ,/, or/cc some/dti of/in them/ppo ,/, which/wdt amounts/vbz to/in an/at acceptance/nn of/in the/at law/nn in/in its/pp$ entirety/nn beyond/in all/abn possibility/nn of/in misconstruction/nn ''/'' ./.
During/in the/at nineteenth/od century/nn these/dts views/nns were/bed protested/vbn by/in virtually/rb all/abn the/at Latin/jj American/jj writers/nns ,/, though/cs ineffectively/rb ,/, just/rb as/cs the/at new/jj nations/nns of/in Africa/np and/cc Asia/np protest/vb them/ppo ,/, with/in more/ap effect/nn ,/, today/nr ./.


	A/at number/nn of/in other/ap nineteenth-century/nn developments/nns contributed/vbd to/in the/at transmutation/nn of/in the/at law/nn of/in nations/nns into/in international/jj law/nn ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, from/in aspects/nns of/in a/at universal/jj system/nn of/in Justice/nn into/in particular/jj rules/nns governing/vbg the/at relations/nns of/in sovereign/jj states/nns ./.
The/at difference/nn is/bez important/jj ,/, for/cs although/cs the/at older/jjr law/nn of/in nations/nns did/dod cover/vb relationships/nns among/in sovereigns/nns ,/, this/dt was/bedz by/in no/at means/nns its/pp$ exclusive/jj domain/nn ./.
The/at law/nn of/in nature/nn governed/vbd sovereigns/nns in/in their/pp$ relationship/nn to/in their/pp$ own/jj citizens/nns ,/, to/in foreigners/nns ,/, and/cc to/in each/dt other/ap in/in a/at conceptually/rb unified/vbn system/nn ./.
The/at theory/nn of/in international/jj law/nn ,/, which/wdt in/in the/at nineteenth/od century/nn became/vbd common/jj to/in virtually/rb all/abn writers/nns in/in Europe/np and/cc America/np ,/, broke/vbd this/dt unity/nn and/cc this/dt universality/nn ./.
It/pps lost/vbd sight/nn of/in the/at individual/nn almost/ql entirely/rb and/cc confined/vbd itself/ppl to/in rules/nns limiting/vbg the/at exercise/nn of/in state/nn power/nn for/in reasons/nns essentially/rb unconnected/jj with/in justice/nn or/cc morality/nn save/in as/cs these/dts values/nns might/md affect/vb international/jj relations/nns ./.
No/ql longer/rbr did/dod the/at sovereign/nn look/nn to/in the/at law/nn of/in nations/nns to/to determine/vb what/wdt he/pps ought/md to/to do/do ;/. ;/.
his/pp$ search/nn was/bedz merely/rb for/in rules/nns that/wps might/md limit/vb his/pp$ freedom/nn of/in action/nn ./.


	To/to appreciate/vb this/dt development/nn ,/, we/ppss must/md relate/vb it/ppo to/in other/ap aspects/nns of/in nineteenth-century/nn philosophy/nn ./.
First/rb ,/, and/cc most/ql obvious/jj ,/, was/bedz the/at growing/vbg nationalism/nn and/cc the/at tendency/nn to/to regard/vb the/at state/nn ,/, and/cc the/at individual's/nn$ identification/nn with/in the/at state/nn ,/, as/cs transcending/vbg other/ap ties/nns of/in social/jj solidarity/nn ./.
National/jj identification/nn was/bedz not/* new/jj ,/, but/cc it/pps was/bedz accelerating/vbg in/in intensity/nn and/cc scope/nn throughout/in Europe/np as/cs new/jj unifications/nns occurred/vbd ./.
It/pps reached/vbd its/pp$ ultimate/jj philosophical/jj statement/nn in/in notions/nns of/in ``/`` state/nn will/nn ''/'' put/vbn forward/rb by/in the/at Germans/nps ,/, especially/rb by/in Hegel/np ,/, although/cs political/jj philosophers/nns will/md recognize/vb its/pp$ origins/nns in/in the/at rejected/vbn doctrines/nns of/in Hobbes/np ./.
National/jj identification/nn was/bedz reflected/vbn jurisprudentially/rb in/in law/nn theories/nns which/wdt incorporated/vbd this/dt Hegelian/jj abstraction/nn and/cc saw/vbd law/nn ,/, domestic/jj and/cc international/jj ,/, simply/rb as/cs its/pp$ formal/jj reflection/nn ./.
In/in the/at international/jj community/nn this/dt reduced/vbd law/nn to/in Jellinek's/np$ auto-limitation/nn ./.
A/at state/nn ,/, the/at highest/jjt form/nn of/in human/jj organization/nn in/in fact/nn and/cc theory/nn ,/, could/md be/be subjected/vbn to/in Law/nn-tl only/rb by/in a/at manifestation/nn of/in self-will/nn ,/, or/cc consent/nn ./.
According/in to/in the/at new/jj theories/nns ,/, the/at nineteenth/od century/nn corporate/jj sovereign/nn was/bedz ``/`` sovereign/nn ''/'' in/in a/at quite/ql new/jj and/cc different/jj sense/nn from/in his/pp$ historical/jj predecessors/nns ./.
He/pps no/ql longer/rbr sought/vbd to/to find/vb the/at law/nn ;/. ;/.
he/pps made/vbd it/ppo ;/. ;/.
he/pps could/md be/be subjected/vbn to/in law/nn only/rb because/cs he/pps agreed/vbd to/to be/be ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at law/nn ,/, domestic/jj or/cc international/jj ,/, except/in that/dt willed/vbn by/in ,/, acknowledged/vbn by/in ,/, or/cc consented/vbn to/in by/in states/nns ./.


	Hidden/vbn behind/in Hegelian/jj abstractions/nns were/bed more/ql practical/jj reasons/nns for/in a/at changing/vbg jurisprudence/nn ./.
Related/vbn to/in ,/, but/cc distinguishable/jj from/in ,/, nationalism/nn was/bedz the/at growth/nn of/in democracy/nn in/in one/cd form/nn or/cc another/dt ./.
Increased/vbn participation/nn in/in politics/nn and/cc the/at demands/nns of/in various/ap groups/nns for/in status/nn and/cc recognition/nn had/hvd dramatic/jj effects/nns upon/in law/nn institutions/nns ./.
The/at efforts/nns of/in various/ap interest/nn groups/nns to/to control/vb or/cc influence/vb governmental/jj decisions/nns ,/, particularly/rb when/wrb taken/vbn in/in conjunction/nn with/in the/at impact/nn of/in industralization/nn ,/, led/vbd to/in a/at concentration/nn of/in attention/nn on/in the/at legislative/jj power/nn and/cc the/at means/nns whereby/wrb policy/nn could/md be/be formulated/vbn and/cc enforced/vbn as/cs law/nn through/in bureaucratic/jj institutions/nns ./.
Law/nn became/vbd a/at conscious/jj process/nn ,/, something/pn more/ap than/cs simply/rb doing/vbg justice/nn and/cc looking/vbg to/in local/jj customs/nns and/cc a/at common/jj morality/nn for/in applicable/jj norms/nns ./.
Particularly/rb was/bedz this/dt true/jj when/wrb the/at norms/nns previously/rb applied/vbn were/bed no/ql longer/rbr satisfactory/jj to/in many/ap ,/, when/wrb customs/nns were/bed rapidly/rb changing/vbg as/cs the/at forces/nns of/in the/at new/jj productivity/nn were/bed harnessed/vbn ./.
The/at old/jj way/nn of/in doing/vbg things/nns ,/, which/wdt depended/vbd on/in a/at relatively/ql stable/jj community/nn with/in stable/jj ideas/nns dealing/vbg with/in familiar/jj situations/nns ,/, was/bedz no/ql longer/rbr adequate/jj to/in the/at task/nn ./.
First/rb was/bedz the/at period/nn of/in codification/nn of/in existing/vbg law/nn :/: the/at Code/nn-tl Napoleon/np-tl in/in France/np and/cc the/at peculiar/jj codification/nn that/wps ,/, in/in fact/nn ,/, resulted/vbd from/in Austin's/np$ restatement/nn and/cc ordering/nn of/in the/at Common/jj-tl Law/nn-tl in/in England/np ./.
Codification/nn was/bedz followed/vbn in/in all/abn countries/nns by/in a/at growing/vbg amount/nn of/in legislation/nn ,/, some/dti changing/vbg and/cc adjusting/vbg the/at older/jjr law/nn ,/, much/ap dealing/vbg with/in entirely/ql new/jj situations/nns ./.
The/at legislative/jj mills/nns have/hv been/ben grinding/vbg ever/rb since/rb ,/, and/cc when/wrb its/pp$ cumbersome/jj processes/nns were/bed no/ql longer/rbr adequate/jj to/in the/at task/nn ,/, a/at limited/vbn legislative/jj authority/nn was/bedz delegated/vbn in/in one/cd form/nn or/cc another/dt ,/, to/in the/at executive/nn ./.
Whereas/cs the/at eighteenth/od century/nn had/hvd been/ben a/at time/nn in/in which/wdt man/nn sought/vbd justice/nn ,/, the/at nineteenth/od and/cc twentieth/od have/hv been/ben centuries/nns in/in which/wdt men/nns are/ber satisfied/vbn with/in law/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, with/in developed/vbn positivism/nn ,/, the/at separation/nn of/in law/nn from/in justice/nn ,/, or/cc from/in morality/nn generally/rb ,/, became/vbd quite/ql specific/jj ./.


	In/in municipal/jj systems/nns we/ppss tend/vb to/to view/vb what/wdt is/bez called/vbn positivism/nn-nc as/cs fundamentally/rb a/at movement/nn to/to democratize/vb policy/nn by/in increasing/vbg the/at power/nn of/in parliament/nn --/-- the/at elected/vbn representatives/nns --/-- at/in the/at expense/nn of/in the/at more/ql conservative/jj judiciary/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at power/nn of/in the/at latter/ap was/bedz made/vbn both/abx limited/vbn and/cc explicit/jj --/-- when/wrb norms/nns were/bed clarified/vbn and/cc made/vbn more/ql precise/jj and/cc the/at creation/nn of/in new/jj norms/nns was/bedz placed/vbn exclusively/rb in/in parliamentary/jj hands/nns --/-- two/cd purposes/nns were/bed served/vbn :/: Government/nn was/bedz made/vbn subservient/jj to/in an/at institutionalized/vbn popular/jj will/nn ,/, and/cc law/nn became/vbd a/at rational/jj system/nn for/in implementing/vbg that/dt will/nn ,/, for/in serving/vbg conscious/jj goals/nns ,/, for/in embodying/vbg the/at ``/`` public/jj policy/nn ''/'' ./.
It/pps is/bez true/jj that/cs ,/, initially/rb ,/, the/at task/nn was/bedz to/to remove/vb restrictions/nns that/wps ,/, it/pps was/bedz thought/vbn ,/, inhibited/vbd the/at free/jj flow/nn of/in money/nn ,/, goods/nns ,/, and/cc labor/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc even/rb laissez-faire/nn was/bedz a/at conscious/jj policy/nn ./.
Law/nn was/bedz seen/vbn as/cs an/at emanation/nn of/in the/at ``/`` sovereign/nn will/nn ''/'' ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at sovereign/nn was/bedz not/* Hobbes'/np$ absolute/jj monarch/nn but/cc rather/rb the/at parliamentary/jj sovereign/nn of/in Austin/np ./.
It/pps was/bedz ,/, too/rb ,/, an/at optimistic/jj philosophy/nn ,/, and/cc ,/, though/cs it/pps separated/vbd law/nn from/in morality/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz by/in no/at means/nns an/at immoral/jj or/cc amoral/jj one/cd ./.
Man/nn ,/, through/in democratic/jj institutions/nns of/in government/nn and/cc economic/jj freedom/nn ,/, was/bedz master/nn of/in his/pp$ destiny/nn ./.
The/at theory/nn did/dod not/* require/vb ,/, though/cs it/pps unfortunately/rb might/md acquire/vb ,/, a/at Hegelian/jj mystique/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz merely/rb a/at rationalization/nn and/cc ordering/nn of/in new/jj institutions/nns of/in popular/jj government/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz not/* opposed/vbn to/in either/cc justice/nn or/cc morality/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps merely/rb wished/vbd to/to minimize/vb subjective/jj views/nns of/in officials/nns who/wps wielded/vbd public/jj authority/nn ./.


	Particularly/rb was/bedz this/dt true/jj as/cs laissez-faire/jj capitalism/nn became/vbd the/at dominant/jj credo/nn of/in Western/jj-tl society/nn ./.
To/to free/vb the/at factors/nns of/in production/nn was/bedz a/at major/jj objective/nn of/in the/at rising/vbg bourgeoisie/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt objective/nn required/vbd that/cs governmental/jj authority/nn --/-- administrative/jj officials/nns and/cc judges/nns --/-- be/be limited/vbn as/ql precisely/rb and/cc explicitly/rb as/cs possible/jj ;/. ;/.
that/cs old/jj customs/nns which/wdt inhibited/vbd trade/nn be/be abrogated/vbn ;/. ;/.
that/cs business/nn be/be free/jj from/in governmental/jj supervision/nn and/cc notions/nns of/in morality/nn which/wdt might/md clog/vb the/at automatic/jj adjustments/nns of/in the/at free/jj market/nn ;/. ;/.
that/cs obligations/nns of/in status/nn that/wps were/bed inconsistent/jj with/in the/at new/jj politics/nn and/cc the/at new/jj economics/nn be/be done/vbn away/rb with/in ./.
Contract/nn --/-- conceived/vbn as/cs the/at free/jj bargain/nn of/in formal/jj equals/nns --/-- replaced/vbd the/at implied/vbn obligations/nns of/in a/at more/ql static/jj and/cc status-conscious/jj society/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, contract/nn was/bedz the/at dominant/jj legal/jj theme/nn of/in the/at century/nn ,/, the/at touchstone/nn of/in the/at free/jj society/nn ./.
Government/nn itself/ppl was/bedz based/vbn upon/in contract/nn ;/. ;/.
business/nn organization/nn --/-- the/at corporation/nn --/-- was/bedz analyzed/vbn in/in contractual/jj terms/nns ;/. ;/.
trade/nn was/bedz based/vbn on/in freedom/nn of/in contract/nn ,/, and/cc money/nn was/bedz lent/vbn and/cc borrowed/vbn on/in contractual/jj terms/nns ;/. ;/.
even/rb marriage/nn and/cc the/at family/nn was/bedz seen/vbn as/cs a/at contractual/jj arrangement/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* surprising/jj that/cs the/at international/jj obligations/nns of/in states/nns were/bed also/rb viewed/vbn in/in terms/nns of/in contract/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, some/dti --/-- Anzilotti/np is/bez the/at principle/jjs example/nn --/-- went/vbd so/ql far/rb as/cs to/to say/vb that/cs all/abn international/jj law/nn could/md be/be traced/vbn to/in the/at single/ap legal/jj norm/nn ,/, Pacta/fw-nns sunt/fw-ber Servanda/fw-vbg ./.


	The/at displacement/nn (/( at/in least/ap to/in a/at considerable/jj extent/nn )/) of/in the/at ethical/jj jurisprudence/nn of/in the/at seventeenth/od and/cc eighteenth/od centuries/nns by/in positivism/nn reshaped/vbd both/abx international/jj law/nn theory/nn and/cc doctrine/nn ./.
In/in the/at first/od place/nn the/at new/jj doctrine/nn brought/vbd a/at formal/jj separation/nn of/in international/jj from/in municipal/jj law/nn ,/, rejecting/vbg the/at earlier/jjr view/nn that/cs both/abx were/bed parts/nns of/in a/at universal/jj legal/jj system/nn ./.
One/cd result/nn was/bedz to/to nationalize/vb much/ap that/wps had/hvd been/ben regarded/vbn as/cs the/at law/nn of/in nations/nns ./.
Admiralty/nn law/nn ,/, the/at law/nn merchant/nn ,/, and/cc the/at host/nn of/in problems/nns which/wdt arise/vb in/in private/jj litigation/nn because/rb of/in some/dti contact/nn with/in a/at foreign/jj country/nn were/bed all/abn severed/vbn from/in the/at older/jjr Law/nn-tl of/in-tl Nations/nns-tl and/cc made/vbn dependent/jj on/in the/at several/ap national/jj laws/nns ./.
Private/jj international/jj law/nn (/( which/wdt Americans/nps call/vb the/at ``/`` conflict/nn of/in laws/nns ''/'' )/) was/bedz thus/rb segregated/vbn from/in international/jj law/nn proper/jj ,/, or/cc ,/, as/cs it/pps is/bez often/rb called/vbn ,/, public/jj international/jj law/nn ./.
States/nns were/bed free/jj to/to enact/vb ,/, within/in broad/jj ,/, though/cs (/( perhaps/rb )/) determinate/jj limits/nns ,/, their/pp$ own/jj rules/nns as/in to/in the/at application/nn of/in foreign/jj law/nn by/in their/pp$ courts/nns ,/, to/to vary/vb the/at law/nn merchant/nn ,/, and/cc to/to enact/vb legislation/nn with/in regard/nn to/in many/ap claims/nns arising/vbg on/in the/at high/jj seas/nns ./.
The/at change/nn was/bedz not/* quite/ql so/ql dramatic/jj as/cs it/pps sounds/vbz because/cs in/in fact/nn common/jj norms/nns continued/vbd to/to be/be invoked/vbn by/in municipal/jj courts/nns and/cc were/bed only/rb gradually/rb changed/vbn by/in legislation/nn ,/, and/cc then/rb largely/rb in/in marginal/jj situations/nns ./.

Mr./np Justice/np Black/np was/bedz one/cd of/in the/at minority/nn that/wps rested/vbd on/in the/at Article/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, power/nn ./.
In/in this/dt view/nn ,/, supported/vbn by/in only/rb three/cd members/nns of/in the/at Court/nn-tl ,/, a/at power/nn denied/vbn by/in the/at specific/jj provisions/nns of/in Article/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, was/bedz granted/vbn by/in the/at generality/nn of/in Article/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
If/cs this/dt seems/vbz arbitrary/jj ,/, its/pp$ effect/nn was/bedz to/to treat/vb citizens/nns of/in the/at District/nn-tl of/in-tl Columbia/np-tl equally/rb with/in citizens/nns of/in the/at states/nns --/-- at/in the/at expense/nn of/in expanding/vbg a/at troublesome/jj jurisdiction/nn ./.



Federal/jj-hl question/nn-hl jurisdiction/nn-hl 
For/in almost/rb a/at hundred/cd years/nns we/ppss relied/vbd upon/in state/nn courts/nns (/( subject/jj to/in review/nn by/in the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl )/) for/in the/at protection/nn of/in most/ap rights/nns arising/vbg under/in national/jj law/nn ./.
Then/rb in/in 1875/cd ,/, apparently/rb in/in response/nn to/in the/at nationalizing/vbg influence/nn of/in the/at Civil/jj-tl War/nn-tl ,/, Congress/np first/rb gave/vbd the/at lower/jjr federal/jj courts/nns general/jj authority/nn --/-- concurrently/rb with/in state/nn tribunals/nns --/-- to/to decide/vb cases/nns involving/vbg federal-right/nn questions/nns ./.
One/cd purpose/nn of/in the/at change/nn was/bedz to/to attain/vb sympathetic/jj enforcement/nn of/in rights/nns insured/vbn by/in the/at Civil/jj-tl War/nn-tl amendments/nns against/in state/nn interference/nn ./.
Serious/jj difficulty/nn arose/vbd with/in the/at advent/nn of/in Substantive/jj-tl Due/jj-tl Process/nn-tl ./.
An/at amendment/nn ,/, presumably/rb designed/vbn to/to deal/vb with/in the/at problems/nns of/in newly/rb freed/vbn slaves/nns ,/, became/vbd a/at ``/`` laissez-faire/jj ''/'' limitation/nn upon/in state/nn economic/jj policy/nn ./.
A/at flood/nn of/in federal/jj lower/jjr court/nn injunctions/nns seriously/rb impeded/vbd the/at processes/nns of/in local/jj government/nn ./.
Congress/np reacted/vbd with/in a/at series/nn of/in measures/nns modifying/vbg in/in various/ap ways/nns what/wdt it/pps had/hvd granted/vbn in/in 1875/cd ./.
In/in 1910/cd it/pps required/vbd the/at convening/nn of/in a/at special/jj three-judge/jj court/nn for/in the/at issuance/nn of/in certain/ap injunctions/nns and/cc allowed/vbd direct/jj appeals/nns to/in the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl ./.
Such/jj legislation/nn was/bedz clarified/vbn and/cc extended/vbn from/in time/nn to/in time/nn thereafter/rb ./.
In/in 1913/cd an/at abortive/jj provision/nn was/bedz made/vbn for/in the/at stay/nn of/in federal/jj injunction/nn proceedings/nns upon/in institution/nn of/in state/nn court/nn test/nn cases/nns ./.
The/at essential/jj ineffectiveness/nn of/in these/dts measures/nns resulted/vbd in/in 1934/cd in/in substantial/jj elimination/nn of/in federal/jj jurisdiction/nn to/to enjoin/vb state/nn public/jj utility/nn rate/nn orders/nns ./.
Three/cd years/nns later/rbr similar/jj restraints/nns were/bed imposed/vbn upon/in injunctions/nns against/in collection/nn of/in state/nn taxes/nns ./.
This/dt saved/vbd for/in state/nn adjudication/nn ,/, in/in the/at first/od instance/nn ,/, the/at two/cd major/jj areas/nns where/wrb federal/jj injunctions/nns had/hvd been/ben most/ql obnoxious/jj ,/, but/cc other/ap areas/nns remained/vbd vulnerable/jj ./.


	Meanwhile/rb ,/, the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl ,/, like/cs Congress/np ,/, showed/vbd misgivings/nns concerning/in this/dt aspect/nn of/in government/nn by/in injunction/nn ./.
Drawing/vbg upon/in the/at traditional/jj discretion/nn of/in the/at chancellor/nn ,/, Mr./np Justice/np Holmes/np introduced/vbd a/at series/nn of/in self-imposed/jj judicial/jj restraints/nns that/wps culminated/vbd in/in Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter's/np$ famous/jj doctrine/nn of/in abstention/nn ./.
Whereas/cs the/at earlier/jjr cases/nns turned/vbd rather/ql narrowly/rb upon/in the/at availability/nn of/in adequate/jj state/nn remedies/nns ,/, the/at new/jj emphasis/nn is/bez upon/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at state/nn policy/nn at/in issue/nn ./.
The/at classic/jj case/nn is/bez Railroad/nn-tl Commission/nn-tl v./in-tl Pullman/np-tl ./.
The/at commission/nn had/hvd issued/vbn an/at administrative/jj order/nn which/wdt was/bedz challenged/vbn as/cs discriminatory/jj against/in Negroes/nps ./.
Its/pp$ enforcement/nn was/bedz enjoined/vbn by/in a/at federal/jj trial/nn court/nn ./.
On/in review/nn the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl ,/, via/in Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np ,/, found/vbd southern/jj racial/jj problems/nns ``/`` a/at sensitive/jj area/nn of/in social/jj policy/nn on/in which/wdt the/at federal/jj courts/nns ought/md not/* to/to enter/vb unless/cs no/at alternative/nn to/in adjudication/nn is/bez open/jj ''/'' ./.
An/at alternative/nn was/bedz found/vbn in/in the/at vagueness/nn of/in state/nn law/nn as/in to/in whether/cs the/at offending/vbg order/nn had/hvd in/in fact/nn been/ben authorized/vbn ./.
Reluctant/jj ,/, as/cs usual/jj ,/, to/to interpret/vb state/nn legislation/nn --/-- such/jj interpretation/nn can/md only/rb be/be a/at ``/`` forecast/nn rather/rb than/cs a/at determination/nn ''/'' --/-- Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np led/vbd a/at unanimous/jj Court/nn-tl to/to vacate/vb the/at injunction/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez crucial/jj that/cs here/rb ,/, unlike/in Burford/np ,/, the/at trial/nn court/nn was/bedz ordered/vbn to/to retain/vb the/at case/nn until/cs the/at state/nn courts/nns had/hvd had/hvn a/at reasonable/jj opportunity/nn to/to settle/vb the/at state-law/nn question/nn ./.
``/`` The/at resources/nns of/in equity/nn are/ber equal/jj to/in an/at adjustment/nn that/wps will/md avoid/vb the/at waste/nn of/in a/at tentative/jj decision/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at friction/nn of/in a/at premature/jj constitutional/jj adjudication/nn ''/'' ./.


	Temporary/jj abstention/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, postponement/nn ,/, is/bez one/cd thing/nn ;/. ;/.
refusal/nn to/to adjudicate/vb is/bez another/dt ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs the/at jurisdictional/jj principle/nn of/in 1875/cd stands/vbz unmodified/jj by/in subsequent/jj legislation/nn ,/, federal/jj equitable/jj relief/nn against/in state/nn action/nn must/md be/be available/jj --/-- or/cc so/rb it/pps seems/vbz to/in Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np ./.
In/in Alabama/np-tl Public/jj-tl Service/nn-tl Commission/nn-tl v./in-tl Southern/jj-tl Ry./nn-tl Co./nn-tl ,/, the/at commission/nn had/hvd refused/vbn to/to permit/vb abandonment/nn of/in certain/ap ``/`` uneconomic/jj ''/'' train/nn facilities/nns ./.
The/at railroad/nn ,/, claiming/vbg deprivation/nn of/in property/nn without/in due/jj process/nn of/in law/nn ,/, sought/vbd injunctive/jj relief/nn ./.
The/at Court/nn-tl held/vbd that/cs federal/jj jurisdiction/nn should/md not/* be/be exercised/vbn lest/cs the/at domestic/jj policy/nn of/in the/at state/nn be/be obstructed/vbn ;/. ;/.
this/dt in/in the/at name/nn of/in equitable/jj discretion/nn ./.


	Justices/nns-tl Frankfurter/np and/cc Jackson/np concurred/vbd in/in the/at Court's/nn$-tl result/nn ,/, for/cs they/ppss found/vbd no/at merit/nn in/in the/at railroad's/nn$ claim/nn ./.
But/cc they/ppss objected/vbd vigorously/rb to/in the/at proposition/nn that/cs federal/jj courts/nns may/md refuse/vb to/to exercise/vb jurisdiction/nn conferred/vbn in/in a/at valid/jj act/nn of/in Congress/np :/: 

	``/`` By/in one/cd fell/jj swoop/nn the/at Court/nn-tl now/rb finds/vbz that/cs Congress/np indulged/vbd in/in needless/jj legislation/nn in/in the/at acts/nns of/in 1910/cd ,/, 1913/cd ,/, 1925/cd ,/, 1934/cd and/cc 1937/cd ./.
By/in these/dts measures/nns ,/, Congress/np ,/, so/cs the/at Court/nn-tl (/( in/in effect/nn )/) now/rb decides/vbz ,/, gave/vbd not/* only/rb needless/jj but/cc inadequate/jj relief/nn ,/, since/cs it/pps now/rb appears/vbz that/cs the/at federal/jj courts/nns have/hv inherent/jj power/nn to/to sterilize/vb the/at Act/nn-tl of/in 1875/cd against/in all/abn proceedings/nns challenging/vbg local/jj regulation/nn ''/'' ./.


	A/at most/ql revealing/jj recent/jj case/nn is/bez Textile/nn-tl Workers/nns-tl Union/nn-tl v./in-tl Lincoln/np-tl Mills/nns-tl ./.
The/at Taft-Hartley/np-tl Act/nn-tl gave/vbd the/at federal/jj courts/nns jurisdiction/nn over/in ``/`` suits/nns for/in violation/nn of/in contracts/nns between/in an/at employer/nn and/cc a/at labor/nn organization/nn representing/vbg employees/nns in/in an/at industry/nn affecting/vbg commerce/nn ''/'' ./.
On/in its/pp$ face/nn this/dt merely/rb provides/vbz a/at federal/jj forum/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps does/doz not/* establish/vb any/dti law/nn (/( rights/nns )/) for/in the/at federal/jj judges/nns to/to enforce/vb ./.
How/wrb can/md judges/nns exercise/vb jurisdiction/nn to/to enforce/vb national/jj rights/nns when/wrb Congress/np has/hvz created/vbn none/pn ?/. ?/.
The/at Court/nn-tl held/vbd that/cs Congress/np had/hvd intended/vbn the/at federal/jj judiciary/nn to/to ``/`` fashion/vb ''/'' an/at appropriate/jj law/nn of/in labor-management/nn contracts/nns ./.
In/in short/jj ,/, congressional/jj power/nn to/to grant/vb federal-question/nn authority/nn to/in federal/jj courts/nns is/bez now/rb apparently/rb so/ql broad/jj that/cs Congress/np need/md not/* create/vb ,/, or/cc specify/vb ,/, the/at right/nn to/to be/be enforced/vbn ./.


	The/at Lincoln/np-tl Mills/nns-tl decision/nn authorizes/vbz a/at whole/jj new/jj body/nn of/in federal/jj ``/`` common/jj law/nn ''/'' which/wdt ,/, as/cs Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np pointed/vbd out/rp in/in dissent/nn ,/, leads/vbz to/in one/cd of/in the/at following/vbg ``/`` incongruities/nns ''/'' :/: ``/`` (/( (/( 1/cd )/) conflict/nn in/in federal/jj and/cc state/nn court/nn interpretations/nns of/in collective/jj bargaining/nn agreements/nns ;/. ;/.
(/( 2/cd )/) displacement/nn of/in state/nn law/nn by/in federal/jj law/nn in/in state/nn courts/nns in/in all/abn actions/nns regarding/in collective/jj bargaining/nn agreements/nns ;/. ;/.
or/cc (/( 3/cd )/) exclusion/nn of/in state/nn court/nn jurisdiction/nn over/in these/dts matters/nns ''/'' ./.
The/at Justice's/nn$-tl elaborate/jj examination/nn of/in the/at legislative/jj history/nn of/in the/at provision/nn in/in question/nn suggests/vbz that/cs Congress'/np$ purpose/nn was/bedz merely/rb to/to make/vb unions/nns suable/jj ./.
With/in a/at few/ap exceptions/nns ,/, the/at lawmakers/nns seemed/vbd unaware/jj of/in the/at technical/jj problems/nns of/in federal/jj jurisdiction/nn involved/vbn --/-- to/to say/vb nothing/pn of/in the/at delegation/nn of/in lawmaking/jj power/nn to/in judges/nns ./.
To/to avoid/vb these/dts constitutional/jj difficulties/nns ,/, Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np was/bedz prepared/vbn to/to read/vb the/at Taft-Hartley/np provision/nn as/cs concerned/vbn with/in diversity/nn ,/, rather/rb than/cs federal/jj question/nn ,/, jurisdiction/nn ./.
This/dt would/md satisfy/vb what/wdt presumably/rb was/bedz Congress'/np$ major/jj purpose/nn --/-- the/at suability/nn of/in unions/nns ./.
It/pps would/md also/rb leave/vb intact/jj the/at states'/nns$ traditional/jj authority/nn in/in the/at realm/nn of/in contract/nn law/nn ./.
(/( As/cs we/ppss have/hv seen/vbn ,/, the/at Erie/np and/cc York/np decisions/nns require/vb federal/jj courts/nns in/in diversity/nn cases/nns to/to follow/vb state/nn decisional/jj rules/nns ./.
)/) Here/rb again/rb Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter/np could/md not/* lightly/rb accept/vb the/at principle/nn of/in wholesale/jj judicial/jj legislation/nn ./.
If/cs Congress/np wants/vbz to/to displace/vb the/at states/nns from/in areas/nns which/wdt they/ppss have/hv customarily/rb occupied/vbn ,/, let/vb it/pps do/do so/rb knowingly/rb and/cc explicitly/rb ./.
And/cc let/vb it/pps do/do its/pp$ own/jj lawmaking/nn and/cc not/* leave/vb that/dt to/in federal/jj judges/nns ./.
Does/doz Lincoln/np-tl Mills/nns-tl suggest/vb that/cs if/cs Congress/np granted/vbd jurisdiction/nn over/in interstate/jj divorce/nn cases/nns ,/, the/at federal/jj courts/nns would/md be/be authorized/vbn to/to fashion/vb a/at national/jj law/nn for/in the/at dissolution/nn of/in marriages/nns ?/. ?/.


	There/ex is/bez a/at common/jj problem/nn behind/in most/ap of/in these/dts federal/jj question/nn and/cc diversity/nn cases/nns ./.
Congress/np has/hvz not/* clearly/rb defined/vbn the/at bounds/nns between/in state/nn and/cc federal/jj court/nn competence/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz the/at power/nn to/to do/do so/rb but/cc for/in the/at most/ap part/nn has/hvz left/vbn the/at matter/nn for/in solution/nn by/in judges/nns on/in a/at case-by-case/jj basis/nn ./.
A/at careful/jj student/nn has/hvz suggested/vbn that/cs ``/`` In/in any/dti new/jj revision/nn (/( of/in the/at Judicial/jj-tl Code/nn-tl )/) the/at legislators/nns would/md do/do well/rb to/to remember/vb that/cs the/at allocation/nn of/in power/nn to/in the/at federal/jj courts/nns should/md be/be limited/vbn to/in those/dts matters/nns in/in which/wdt their/pp$ expertise/nn in/in federal/jj law/nn might/md be/be used/vbn ,/, leaving/vbg to/in the/at state/nn judiciaries/nns the/at primary/jj obligation/nn of/in pronouncing/vbg state/nn law/nn ''/'' ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, the/at goal/nn here/rb proposed/vbn is/bez the/at guiding/vbg principle/nn in/in Mr./np Justice/np Frankfurter's/np$ opinions/nns --/-- to/in the/at extent/nn that/cs Congress/np leaves/vbz the/at problem/nn to/in judicial/jj discretion/nn ./.
The/at same/ap rule/nn of/in specialization/nn and/cc division/nn of/in labor/nn guides/vbz him/ppo in/in the/at FELA/nn certiorari/nn cases/nns ,/, in/in the/at administrative/jj law/nn area/nn ,/, and/cc indeed/rb in/in the/at whole/jj realm/nn of/in judicial/jj review/nn ./.
Mr./np Justice/np Black/np no/at doubt/nn concurs/vbz in/in principle/nn but/cc is/bez more/ql apt/jj to/to make/vb exceptions/nns to/to achieve/vb a/at generous/jj and/cc ``/`` just/jj ''/'' result/nn ./.
He/pps will/md not/* be/be ``/`` fooled/vbn by/in technicalities/nns ''/'' ./.



Federal/jj-hl review/nn-hl of/in-hl state/nn-hl decisions/nns-hl 
With/in few/ap exceptions/nns ,/, Congress/np has/hvz not/* given/vbn federal/jj courts/nns exclusive/jj authority/nn to/to enforce/vb rights/nns arising/vbg under/in federal/jj law/nn ./.
To/to put/vb it/ppo differently/rb ,/, state/nn and/cc federal/jj courts/nns have/hv concurrent/jj jurisdiction/nn with/in respect/nn to/in most/ap claims/nns of/in federal/jj right/nn ./.
To/to insure/vb uniformity/nn in/in the/at meaning/nn of/in national/jj law/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, state/nn interpretations/nns are/ber subject/jj to/in Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl review/nn ./.
It/pps may/md be/be noted/vbn ,/, parenthetically/rb ,/, that/cs to/to evade/vb ``/`` desegregation/nn ''/'' an/at ex-Justice/nn and/cc former/ap southern/jj governor/nn has/hvz urged/vbn Congress/np to/to abolish/vb this/dt reviewing/vbg authority/nn ./.
The/at result/nn ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, would/md be/be that/cs federal/jj law/nn inevitably/rb would/md mean/vb different/jj things/nns in/in different/jj states/nns ./.
It/pps would/md also/rb probably/rb mean/vb different/jj things/nns within/in the/at same/ap state/nn --/-- depending/in upon/in what/wdt court/nn (/( state/nn or/cc federal/jj )/) rendered/vbd decision/nn ./.


	We/ppss consider/vb here/rb only/rb a/at few/ap of/in many/ap problems/nns involved/vbn in/in this/dt crucial/jj federal-state/nn relationship/nn ./.
The/at first/od is/bez that/cs enforcement/nn of/in national/jj law/nn in/in state/nn litigation/nn raises/vbz in/in reverse/jj the/at old/jj diversity/nn puzzle/nn of/in the/at relation/nn of/in procedure/nn to/in substance/nn ./.
Subject/jj to/in certain/ap constitutional/jj restraints/nns in/in favor/nn of/in fair/jj trials/nns ,/, each/dt level/nn of/in government/nn is/bez free/jj to/to devise/vb its/pp$ own/jj judicial/jj procedures/nns ./.
Litigants/nns who/wps choose/vb to/to assert/vb federal/jj claims/nns in/in a/at state/nn court/nn go/vb into/in that/dt court/nn subject/jj to/in its/pp$ rules/nns of/in procedure/nn ./.
A/at similar/jj canon/nn applies/vbz to/in those/dts who/wps press/vb state/nn claims/nns in/in federal/jj tribunals/nns ,/, e.g./rb ,/, in/in diversity/nn cases/nns ./.
In/in an/at FELA/nn controversy/nn the/at state/nn court/nn followed/vbd established/vbn state/nn procedure/nn by/in construing/vbg a/at vague/jj complaint/nn ``/`` most/ql strongly/rb against/in ''/'' the/at complainant/nn ./.
In/in other/ap words/nns the/at burden/nn of/in pleading/vbg clearly/rb rested/vbd upon/in the/at pleader/nn by/in state/nn law/nn ./.
The/at result/nn was/bedz that/cs the/at plaintiff's/nn$ case/nn was/bedz dismissed/vbn ./.
Mr./np Justice/np Black/np led/vbd a/at reversing/vbg majority/nn :/: ``/`` Strict/jj local/jj rules/nns of/in pleading/vbg cannot/md* be/be used/vbn to/to impose/vb unnecessary/jj burdens/nns upon/in rights/nns of/in recovery/nn authorized/vbn by/in federal/jj law/nn ''/'' ./.
Here/rb ,/, as/cs in/in the/at Byrd/np case/nn ,/, another/dt element/nn of/in state/nn procedure/nn was/bedz subsumed/vbn to/in federal/jj judge-made/jj law/nn ./.
Justices/nns-tl Frankfurter/np and/cc Jackson/np dissented/vbd :/: ``/`` One/cd State/nn-tl may/md cherish/vb formalities/nns more/rbr than/cs another/dt ,/, one/cd State/nn-tl may/md be/be more/ql responsive/jj than/cs another/dt to/in procedural/jj reforms/nns ./.
If/cs a/at litigant/nn chooses/vbz to/to enforce/vb a/at Federal/jj-tl right/nn in/in a/at State/nn-tl court/nn ,/, he/pps cannot/md* be/be heard/vbn to/to object/vb if/cs he/pps is/bez treated/vbn exactly/rb as/cs are/ber plaintiffs/nns who/wps press/vb like/jj claims/nns arising/vbg under/in State/nn-tl law/nn with/in regard/nn to/in the/at form/nn in/in which/wdt the/at claim/nn must/md be/be stated/vbn --/-- the/at particularity/nn ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, with/in which/wdt a/at cause/nn of/in action/nn must/md be/be described/vbn ./.
Federal/jj law/nn ,/, though/cs invoked/vbn in/in a/at State/nn-tl court/nn ,/, delimits/vbz the/at Federal/jj-tl claim/nn --/-- defines/vbz what/wdt gives/vbz a/at right/nn to/in recovery/nn and/cc what/wdt goes/vbz to/to prove/vb it/ppo ./.
But/cc the/at form/nn in/in which/wdt the/at claim/nn must/md be/be stated/vbn need/md not/* be/be different/jj from/in what/wdt the/at State/nn-tl exacts/vbz in/in the/at enforcement/nn of/in like/jj obligations/nns created/vbn by/in it/ppo ,/, so/ql long/rb as/cs a/at requirement/nn does/doz not/* add/vb to/in ,/, or/cc diminish/vb ,/, the/at right/nn as/cs defined/vbn by/in Federal/jj-tl law/nn ,/, nor/cc burden/vb the/at realization/nn of/in this/dt right/nn in/in the/at actualities/nns of/in litigation/nn ''/'' ./.


	Another/dt problem/nn in/in the/at area/nn of/in federal-state/nn relationships/nns is/bez this/dt :/: what/wdt constitutes/vbz reversible/jj error/nn in/in a/at state/nn decision/nn ?/. ?/.
Terminiello/np-tl v./in-tl Chicago/np-tl involved/vbd a/at conviction/nn for/in disorderly/jj conduct/nn under/in a/at local/jj ordinance/nn ./.
The/at conduct/nn in/in question/nn was/bedz a/at speech/nn ./.
The/at accused/vbn did/dod not/* object/vb to/in the/at trial/nn court's/nn$ charge/nn to/in the/at jury/nn that/cs discourse/nn ``/`` may/md constitute/vb a/at breach/nn of/in the/at peace/nn if/cs it/pps stirs/vbz the/at public/nn to/in anger/nn ,/, invites/vbz dispute/nn ,/, brings/vbz about/rp a/at condition/nn of/in unrest/nn ./.
''/'' For/in present/jj purposes/nns it/pps may/md be/be assumed/vbn that/cs this/dt charge/nn so/ql narrowly/rb limited/vbd speech/nn as/cs to/to violate/vb the/at federal/jj Constitution/nn-tl ./.
Though/cs the/at accused/vbn raised/vbd many/ap other/ap objections/nns ,/, he/pps did/dod not/* object/vb on/in this/dt crucial/jj point/nn at/in any/dti stage/nn of/in the/at proceedings/nns ./.
That/dt is/bez ,/, he/pps did/dod not/* claim/vb in/in any/dti of/in the/at four/cd courts/nns through/in which/wdt his/pp$ case/nn progressed/vbd that/cs the/at jury/nn charge/nn had/hvd denied/vbn him/ppo any/dti federal/jj right/nn ./.

How/wrb else/rb can/md one/pn explain/vb ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, allowing/vbg the/at survival/nn of/in the/at right/nn to/to amortize/vb bond/nn discount/nn and/cc premium/nn (/( section/nn 381(c)(9)/cd )/) ,/, but/cc not/* the/at right/nn to/to amortize/vb bond/nn issue/nn expenses/nns ;/. ;/.
or/cc allowing/vbg a/at deduction/nn for/in payment/nn of/in certain/ap obligations/nns of/in a/at transferor/nn assumed/vbn in/in the/at reorganization/nn (/( section/nn 381(c)(16)/cd )/) ,/, but/cc not/* a/at deduction/nn for/in theft/nn losses/nns sustained/vbn by/in a/at transferor/nn prior/rb to/in a/at reorganization/nn but/cc discovered/vbn after/in it/ppo ;/. ;/.
or/cc requiring/vbg a/at transferor/nn to/to carry/vb over/rp its/pp$ method/nn of/in depreciation/nn (/( section/nn 381(c)(6)/cd )/) ,/, but/cc not/* allowing/vbg rapid/jj amortization/nn of/in emergency/nn facilities/nns transferred/vbn in/in a/at reorganization/nn ;/. ;/.
or/cc allowing/vbg survival/nn of/in a/at dividend/nn carryover/nn to/in a/at personal/jj holding/vbg company/nn (/( section/nn 381(c)(14)/cd )/) ,/, but/cc not/* carryover/nn of/in excess/jj tax/nn credits/nns for/in foreign/jj taxes/nns ?/. ?/.


	These/dts items/nns ,/, and/cc most/ap of/in the/at others/nns listed/vbn above/rb ,/, seem/vb quite/ql comparable/jj to/in items/nns whose/wp$ right/nn of/in survival/nn is/bez provided/vbn for/in in/in section/nn 381/cd ./.
There/ex does/doz not/* seem/vb to/to be/be any/dti reasonable/jj basis/nn for/in distinction/nn either/cc in/in terms/nns of/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at tax/nn attribute/nn or/cc in/in terms/nns of/in tax-avoidance/nn possibilities/nns ./.
With/in respect/nn to/in items/nns such/jj as/cs these/dts the/at provisions/nns of/in section/nn 381(c)/cd ,/, viewed/vbn in/in historical/jj perspective/nn ,/, suggest/vb a/at rule/nn requiring/vbg survival/nn ,/, whether/cs the/at items/nns are/ber beneficial/jj or/cc detrimental/jj to/in the/at surviving/vbg corporation/nn ./.
To/in this/dt extent/nn some/dti stretching/vbg of/in the/at literal/jj meaning/nn of/in the/at Committee/nn-tl Report/nn-tl seems/vbz justified/vbn ,/, since/cs the/at literal/jj meaning/nn conflicts/vbz with/in the/at clear/jj implication/nn ,/, if/cs not/* the/at language/nn ,/, of/in the/at statute/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez not/* contended/vbn that/cs section/nn 381/cd should/md prescribe/vb the/at survival/nn of/in all/abn of/in the/at transferor's/nn$ tax/nn attributes/nns ./.
Such/abl an/at interpretation/nn could/md not/* be/be justified/vbn by/in a/at construction/nn of/in the/at statute/nn alone/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps would/md certainly/rb violate/vb the/at intention/nn of/in Congress/np as/cs expressed/vbn in/in the/at Committee/nn-tl Report/nn-tl ;/. ;/.
and/cc in/in at/in least/ap one/cd instance/nn ,/, involving/vbg refund/nn-hl claims/nns-hl ,/, it/pps might/md be/be contrary/jj to/in another/dt provision/nn of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Code/nn-tl ./.



Refund/nn claims/nns 
Section/nn 203/cd of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Code/nn-tl voids/vbz an/at assignment/nn of/in a/at claim/nn against/in the/at Government/nn-tl unless/cs made/vbn after/cs it/pps has/hvz been/ben allowed/vbn ,/, the/at amount/nn due/jj has/hvz been/ben ascertained/vbn ,/, and/cc a/at warrant/nn for/in its/pp$ payment/nn has/hvz been/ben issued/vbn ./.
If/cs it/pps were/bed not/* for/in judicial/jj development/nn of/in certain/ap exceptions/nns ,/, this/dt section/nn would/md prohibit/vb a/at suit/nn for/in refund/nn by/in an/at acquiring/vbg corporation/nn for/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in a/at transferor/nn corporation/nn ,/, even/rb though/cs the/at reorganization/nn meets/vbz the/at requirements/nns of/in section/nn 381(a)/cd ./.


	A/at clearly/rb recognized/vbn exception/nn is/bez a/at statutory/jj merger/nn or/cc consolidation/nn ./.
The/at leading/vbg case/nn ,/, Seaboard/nn-tl Air/nn-tl Line/nn-tl Railway/nn-tl v./in-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, held/vbd that/cs the/at transferee/nn could/md sue/vb for/in a/at refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in the/at transferor/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps has/hvz been/ben consistently/rb followed/vbn ./.
The/at Court/nn-tl said/vbd the/at purpose/nn of/in the/at section/nn was/bedz principally/rb to/to spare/vb the/at Government/nn-tl the/at embarrassment/nn and/cc trouble/nn of/in dealing/vbg with/in several/ap parties/nns ,/, one/cd of/in them/ppo a/at stranger/nn to/in the/at claim/nn ,/, and/cc to/to prevent/vb traffic/nn in/in claims/nns ,/, particularly/rb tenuous/jj claims/nns ,/, against/in the/at Government/nn-tl ./.
Neither/dtx reason/nn ,/, said/vbd the/at Court/nn-tl ,/, applied/vbd to/in the/at case/nn at/in hand/nn ;/. ;/.
furthermore/rb ,/, Congress/np could/md not/* be/be presumed/vbn to/to have/hv intended/vbn to/to obstruct/vb mergers/nns approved/vbn by/in the/at states/nns ./.
Other/ap exceptions/nns are/ber assignments/nns for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in creditors/nns ,/, corporate/jj dissolutions/nns ,/, transfers/nns by/in descent/nn ,/, or/cc transfers/nns by/in subrogation/nn ./.
Exceptions/nns are/ber often/rb classified/vbn as/cs transfers/nns by/in ``/`` operation/nn of/in law/nn ''/'' ./.


	A/at tax-free/jj reorganization/nn not/* complying/vbg with/in the/at merger/nn or/cc consolidation/nn statutes/nns of/in the/at states/nns involved/vbn is/bez difficult/jj to/to fit/vb into/in an/at ``/`` operation/nn of/in law/nn ''/'' mold/nn ./.
Although/cs it/pps is/bez in/in some/dti ways/nns comparable/jj to/in a/at voluntary/jj sale/nn of/in assets/nns for/in cash/nn ,/, to/in which/wdt section/nn 203/cd quite/ql clearly/rb applies/vbz ,/, the/at courts/nns and/cc Treasury/nn-tl have/hv held/vbn that/cs acquiring/vbg corporations/nns in/in several/ap types/nns of/in non-taxable/jj reorganizations/nns may/md sue/vb for/in refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in transferors/nns ./.
A/at recent/jj case/nn in/in point/nn is/bez Mitchell/np-tl Canneries/nns-tl v./in-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, in/in which/wdt a/at claim/nn against/in the/at Government/nn-tl was/bedz transferred/vbn first/rb from/in a/at corporation/nn to/in a/at partnership/nn ,/, whose/wp$ partners/nns were/bed former/ap stockholders/nns ,/, and/cc then/rb to/in another/dt corporation/nn formed/vbn by/in the/at partners/nns ./.
Holding/vbg the/at final/jj corporation/nn entitled/vbn to/to sue/vb on/in the/at claim/nn ,/, the/at Court/nn-tl cited/vbd the/at Seaboard/nn-tl ,/, Novo/np-tl Trading/vbg-tl ,/, and/cc Roomberg/np cases/nns for/in the/at proposition/nn that/cs ``/`` transfers/nns by/in operation/nn of/in law/nn or/cc in/in conjunction/nn with/in changes/nns of/in corporate/jj structure/nn are/ber not/* assignments/nns prohibited/vbn by/in the/at statute/nn ''/'' ./.


	In/in an/at earlier/jjr case/nn ,/, Kingan/np-tl &/cc-tl Co./nn-tl v./in-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, an/at American/jj corporation/nn was/bedz formed/vbn for/in the/at purpose/nn of/in acquiring/vbg the/at stock/nn of/in a/at British/jj corporation/nn in/in exchange/nn for/in its/pp$ own/jj stock/nn and/cc then/rb liquidating/vbg the/at British/jj corporation/nn ./.
The/at anti-assignment/jj statute/nn was/bedz held/vbn not/* to/to prevent/vb the/at American/jj corporation/nn from/in suing/vbg for/in a/at refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in the/at British/jj corporation/nn ./.
The/at transaction/nn presumably/rb would/md have/hv qualified/vbn under/in section/nn 368(a)(1)/cd as/cs a/at contractual/jj reorganization/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in a/at section/nn 332/cd liquidation/nn ,/, but/cc not/* under/in section/nn 368(a)(1)/cd as/cs a/at statutory/jj merger/nn of/in consolidation/nn ./.
The/at Court/nn-tl ,/, nevertheless/rb ,/, relied/vbd on/in the/at Seaboard/nn-tl case/nn and/cc also/rb mentioned/vbd that/cs the/at shareholders/nns of/in the/at two/cd corporations/nns were/bed the/at same/ap ./.
In/in substance/nn ,/, said/vbd the/at Court/nn-tl ,/, there/ex was/bedz no/at transfer/nn of/in equitable/jj title/nn ./.


	The/at Treasury/nn-tl arrives/vbz at/in substantially/rb the/at same/ap conclusion/nn ,/, but/cc skirts/vbz the/at problem/nn of/in section/nn 203/cd of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Code/nn-tl ./.
Revenue/nn-tl Ruling/nn-tl 54-17/cd provides/vbz that/cs if/cs the/at corporation/nn against/in which/wdt a/at tax/nn was/bedz assessed/vbn has/hvz since/rb been/ben liquidated/vbn by/in merger/nn with/in a/at successor/nn corporation/nn ,/, a/at claim/nn for/in refund/nn should/md be/be filed/vbn by/in the/at successor/nn in/in the/at name/nn and/cc on/in behalf/nn of/in the/at corporation/nn which/wdt paid/vbd the/at tax/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in the/at name/nn of/in the/at successor/nn corporation/nn ./.
Proper/jj evidence/nn of/in the/at liquidation/nn and/cc succession/nn must/md also/rb be/be filed/vbn ./.
If/cs the/at succession/nn is/bez a/at matter/nn of/in public/jj record/nn ,/, certificates/nns of/in the/at Secretaries/nns-tl of/in-tl State/nn-tl or/cc other/ap public/jj officials/nns having/hvg custody/nn of/in the/at documents/nns will/md suffice/vb ;/. ;/.
if/cs the/at succession/nn is/bez not/* of/in record/nn ,/, all/abn documents/nns relating/vbg to/in such/jj succession/nn ,/, properly/rb certified/vbn ,/, are/ber required/vbn ./.
The/at former/ap proof/nn seems/vbz applicable/jj to/in a/at statutory/jj merger/nn or/cc consolidation/nn ,/, the/at latter/ap to/in a/at contractual/jj acquisition/nn ./.
The/at Ruling/nn-tl would/md not/* ,/, however/rb ,/, apply/vb to/in an/at acquisition/nn of/in assets/nns for/in cash/nn ./.
A/at recent/jj Ruling/nn-tl ,/, although/cs rather/ql confusing/vbg ,/, cites/vbz and/cc follows/vbz Rev./np Rul./nn-tl 54-17/cd-tl ./.
The/at Ruling/nn-tl suggests/vbz also/rb that/cs it/pps applies/vbz to/in either/cc a/at statutory/jj or/cc contractual/jj reorganization/nn ./.
Hence/rb ,/, a/at successor/nn corporation/nn in/in a/at C/nn reorganization/nn appears/vbz entitled/vbn to/to sue/vb for/in a/at refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in the/at merged/vbn corporation/nn despite/in section/nn 203/cd ./.


	In/in a/at B/nn reorganization/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in a/at section/nn 332/cd liquidation/nn ,/, those/dts cases/nns which/wdt hold/vb that/cs section/nn 203/cd is/bez inapplicable/jj to/in transfers/nns in/in liquidation/nn appear/vb to/to permit/vb the/at successor/nn corporation/nn to/to sue/vb for/in refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in the/at transferor/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, a/at cash/nn purchase/nn of/in a/at corporation's/nn$ stock/nn followed/vbn by/in liquidation/nn might/md also/rb be/be an/at effective/jj way/nn to/to transfer/vb a/at claim/nn for/in refund/nn if/cs the/at Kimbell-Diamond/np doctrine/nn is/bez not/* applied/vbn to/to eliminate/vb the/at intermediate/jj step/nn ./.


	These/dts results/nns appear/vb sound/jj ./.
As/cs stated/vbn in/in Seaboard/nn-tl and/cc numerous/jj other/ap cases/nns ,/, the/at two/cd primary/jj reasons/nns for/in the/at enactment/nn of/in section/nn 203/cd of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Code/nn-tl were/bed to/to prevent/vb the/at Government/nn-tl from/in having/hvg to/to deal/vb with/in more/ap than/in one/cd claimant/nn and/cc to/to prevent/vb the/at assignment/nn of/in meretricious/jj claims/nns on/in a/at contingent-fee/nn basis/nn ./.
The/at cases/nns have/hv allowed/vbn transfer/nn of/in claims/nns if/cs beneficial/jj ownership/nn is/bez not/* changed/vbn ./.
The/at first/od reason/nn would/md never/rb apply/vb to/in a/at reorganization/nn transfer/nn which/wdt meets/vbz the/at conditions/nns of/in section/nn 381(a)/cd ,/, which/wdt is/bez the/at only/ap type/nn presently/rb under/in discussion/nn ./.
Section/nn 381(a)/cd applies/vbz only/rb to/in a/at transfer/nn by/in liquidation/nn of/in a/at subsidiary/nn owned/vbn to/in the/at extent/nn of/in at/in least/ap 80/cd per/in cent/nn ,/, a/at statutory/jj merger/nn or/cc consolidation/nn ,/, an/at acquisition/nn of/in substantially/rb all/abn a/at corporation's/nn$ assets/nns solely/rb in/in exchange/nn for/in voting/vbg stock/nn ,/, or/cc a/at change/nn of/in identity/nn ,/, form/nn ,/, or/cc place/nn of/in organization/nn ./.
In/in virtually/rb every/at case/nn the/at transferor/nn corporation/nn is/bez liquidated/vbn ,/, and/cc its/pp$ former/ap stockholders/nns either/cc own/vb outright/rb ,/, or/cc have/hv a/at continuing/vbg stock/nn interest/nn in/in ,/, the/at assets/nns which/wdt gave/vbd rise/nn to/in the/at tax/nn ./.
In/in these/dts circumstances/nns the/at possibility/nn of/in multiple/jj or/cc conflicting/vbg claims/nns is/bez exceedingly/ql remote/jj ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, in/in a/at C/nn reorganization/nn the/at continuing/vbg interest/nn of/in stockholders/nns of/in the/at corporation/nn which/wdt paid/vbd the/at tax/nn must/md be/be greater/jjr than/cs is/bez necessary/jj in/in a/at statutory/jj merger/nn ,/, to/in which/wdt the/at statute/nn is/bez clearly/rb inapplicable/jj ./.


	Nor/cc is/bez it/pps at/in all/abn likely/jj that/cs a/at ``/`` desperate/jj ''/'' claim/nn against/in the/at Government/nn-tl will/md be/be assigned/vbn on/in a/at contingent-fee/nn basis/nn in/in the/at guise/nn of/in a/at tax-free/jj reorganization/nn ./.
If/cs the/at transferor/nn has/hvz substantial/jj assets/nns other/ap than/cs the/at claim/nn ,/, it/pps seems/vbz reasonable/jj to/to assume/vb no/at corporation/nn would/md be/be willing/jj to/to acquire/vb all/abn of/in its/pp$ properties/nns in/in the/at dim/jj hope/nn of/in collecting/vbg a/at claim/nn for/in refund/nn of/in taxes/nns ./.
If/cs such/abl an/at unlikely/jj transaction/nn were/bed to/to take/vb place/nn ,/, it/pps would/md more/ql logically/rb be/be accomplished/vbn by/in a/at stock/nn purchase/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in the/at prosecution/nn of/in the/at claim/nn by/in the/at wholly-owned/jj subsidiary/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in liquidation/nn ./.
In/in the/at rare/jj case/nn where/wrb a/at corporation's/nn$ only/ap substantial/jj asset/nn ,/, or/cc its/pp$ most/ql important/jj one/cd ,/, is/bez a/at claim/nn for/in refund/nn ,/, perhaps/rb its/pp$ transfer/nn should/md not/* be/be permitted/vbn ,/, whether/cs the/at reorganization/nn takes/vbz the/at form/nn of/in a/at statutory/jj merger/nn or/cc of/in the/at acquisition/nn of/in assets/nns for/in stock/nn ./.


	It/pps appears/vbz ,/, then/rb ,/, that/cs although/cs the/at matter/nn is/bez not/* dealt/vbn with/in in/in section/nn 381(c)/cd ,/, a/at successor/nn corporation/nn in/in a/at reorganization/nn of/in a/at type/nn specified/vbn in/in section/nn 381(a)/cd is/bez entitled/vbn to/to sue/vb for/in refund/nn of/in taxes/nns paid/vbn by/in a/at transferor/nn corporation/nn ./.
Section/nn 203/cd of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Code/nn-tl has/hvz been/ben interpreted/vbn as/cs not/* applying/vbg to/in claims/nns against/in the/at Government/nn-tl transferred/vbn in/in tax-free/jj reorganizations/nns ./.
The/at successor/nn corporations/nns have/hv been/ben held/vbn entitled/vbn to/to sue/vb on/in such/jj claims/nns ./.



Other/ap-hl tax/nn-hl attributes/nns-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl transferor/nn-hl 
There/ex are/ber certain/ap tax/nn attributes/nns of/in a/at corporation/nn whose/wp$ nature/nn and/cc effect/nn might/md depend/vb on/in the/at facts/nns of/in the/at particular/jj reorganization/nn involved/vbn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, property/nn ``/`` used/vbn in/in the/at trade/nn or/cc business/nn ''/'' of/in a/at transferor/nn corporation/nn ,/, as/cs defined/vbn in/in section/nn 1231/cd ,/, presumably/rb would/md not/* retain/vb its/pp$ special/jj status/nn following/in a/at non-taxable/jj reorganization/nn if/cs it/pps is/bez not/* so/rb used/vbn in/in the/at business/nn of/in the/at acquiring/vbg corporation/nn ./.
The/at parent/nn of/in a/at group/nn filing/vbg consolidated/vbn returns/nns might/md be/be treated/vbn as/cs the/at same/ap corporation/nn following/in a/at reorganization/nn defined/vbn in/in section/nn 368(a)(1)/cd ,/, but/cc as/cs a/at different/jj corporation/nn for/in this/dt purpose/nn after/in a/at tax-free/jj acquisition/nn by/in another/dt corporation/nn which/wdt had/hvd not/* ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, elected/vbn to/to file/vb consolidated/vbn returns/nns with/in its/pp$ own/jj subsidiaries/nns ./.
Similar/jj considerations/nns presumably/rb made/vbd it/ppo difficult/jj to/to prescribe/vb a/at general/jj rule/nn where/wrb the/at acquired/vbn and/cc acquiring/vbg corporations/nns have/hv different/jj methods/nns of/in accounting/vbg (/( section/nn 381(c)(4)/cd )/) or/cc depreciation/nn (/( section/nn 381(c)(6)/cd )/) ./.


	Other/ap sections/nns of/in the/at 1954/cd Internal/jj-tl Revenue/nn-tl Code/nn-tl provide/vb for/in survival/nn of/in certain/ap of/in a/at transferor's/nn$ tax/nn attributes/nns following/in a/at tax-free/jj reorganization/nn ./.
Section/nn 362/cd requires/vbz carryover/nn of/in the/at transferor/nn corporation's/nn$ basis/nn for/in property/nn transferred/vbn ,/, and/cc section/nn 1223/cd provides/vbz for/in tacking/vbg on/rp the/at transferor's/nn$ holding/vbg period/nn for/in such/jj property/nn to/in that/dt of/in the/at transferee/nn ./.
Section/nn 169/cd permits/vbz a/at person/nn acquiring/vbg grain-storage/nn facilities/nns to/to elect/vb to/to continue/vb amortization/nn over/in a/at 60-month/jj period/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, a/at similar/jj privilege/nn was/bedz not/* specifically/rb provided/vbn in/in section/nn 168/cd for/in a/at person/nn acquiring/vbg emergency/nn facilities/nns ./.
Attributes/nns-hl similar/jj-hl to/in-hl a/at-hl loss/nn-hl carryover/nn-hl ./.-hl

There/ex may/md be/be certain/ap items/nns which/wdt are/ber quite/ql similar/jj to/in a/at net/jj operating/vbg loss/nn carryover/nn or/cc operating/vbg deficit/nn and/cc whose/wp$ right/nn to/to survive/vb a/at reorganization/nn should/md perhaps/rb be/be subject/jj to/in the/at conditions/nns applicable/jj to/in those/dts items/nns ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, suppose/vb another/dt excess/jj profits/nns tax/nn similar/jj to/in prior/jj laws/nns is/bez enacted/vbn ,/, providing/vbg for/in carryover/nn of/in excess/jj profits/nns credits/nns ./.
This/dt carryover/nn right/nn has/hvz a/at number/nn of/in things/nns in/in common/jj with/in a/at net/jj operating/vbg loss/nn carryover/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez an/at averaging/vbg device/nn intended/vbn to/to ease/vb the/at tax/nn burden/nn of/in fluctuating/vbg income/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps is/bez a/at tax/nn benefit/nn which/wdt might/md be/be of/in substantial/jj value/nn to/in a/at corporation/nn which/wdt expects/vbz to/to have/hv a/at high/jj excess/jj profits/nns tax/nn ./.
Under/in the/at 1939/cd Code/nn-tl this/dt item/nn was/bedz permitted/vbn to/to survive/vb a/at tax-free/jj reorganization/nn in/in the/at Stanton/np-tl Brewery/nn-tl case/nn ,/, but/cc only/rb over/in the/at dissent/nn of/in Judge/nn-tl Learned/np Hand/np ,/, who/wps wrote/vbd the/at majority/nn opinion/nn in/in the/at Sansome/np case/nn ,/, a/at leading/vbg case/nn requiring/vbg carryover/nn of/in earnings/nns and/cc profits/nns in/in a/at non-taxable/jj reorganization/nn ./.


	Since/cs this/dt type/nn of/in item/nn was/bedz not/* in/in the/at statute/nn when/wrb section/nn 381/cd was/bedz enacted/vbn in/in 1954/cd ,/, one/pn cannot/md* say/vb with/in certainty/nn what/wdt effect/nn the/at enactment/nn of/in that/dt section/nn should/md have/hv ./.
With/in respect/nn to/in this/dt type/nn of/in item/nn ,/, one/pn might/md properly/rb apply/vb the/at language/nn of/in the/at Committee/nn-tl Report/nn-tl ,/, quoted/vbn above/rb ,/, which/wdt cautions/vbz against/in using/vbg section/nn 381/cd as/cs a/at basis/nn for/in treating/vbg other/ap tax/nn attributes/nns not/* mentioned/vbn therein/rb ./.


	Actually/rb ,/, there/ex do/do not/* presently/rb appear/vb to/to be/be items/nns in/in the/at statute/nn comparable/jj to/in a/at net/jj operating/vbg loss/nn carryover/nn ./.
Probably/rb the/at primary/jj reason/nn for/in special/jj treatment/nn of/in a/at net/jj operating/vbg loss/nn carryover/nn is/bez the/at unique/jj opportunity/nn it/pps presents/vbz for/in tax/nn avoidance/nn ./.




A/np-hl ./.-hl
Reasons/nns-hl for/in-hl selecting/vbg-hl mail/nn-hl questionnaire/nn-hl method/nn-hl 
There/ex were/bed two/cd methods/nns that/wps could/md have/hv been/ben used/vbn for/in conducting/vbg the/at study/nn within/in the/at resources/nns available/jj :/: (/( 1/cd )/) interviews/nns in/in depth/nn with/in a/at few/ap selected/vbn companies/nns ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) the/at more/ql limited/vbn interrogation/nn of/in a/at large/jj number/nn of/in companies/nns by/in means/nns of/in a/at mail/nn questionnaire/nn ./.


	While/cs the/at method/nn of/in interviewing/vbg a/at small/jj number/nn of/in companies/nns was/bedz appealing/jj because/rb of/in the/at opportunity/nn it/pps might/md have/hv furnished/vbn to/to probe/vb fully/rb the/at reasons/nns and/cc circumstances/nns of/in a/at company's/nn$ practices/nns and/cc opinions/nns ,/, it/pps also/rb involved/vbd the/at risk/nn of/in paying/vbg undue/jj attention/nn to/in the/at unique/jj and/cc peculiar/jj problems/nns of/in just/rb a/at few/ap individual/jj companies/nns ./.
As/cs a/at result/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz decided/vbn that/cs a/at mail/nn questionnaire/nn sent/vbn to/in a/at large/jj number/nn of/in companies/nns would/md be/be more/ql effective/jj in/in determining/vbg the/at general/jj practices/nns and/cc opinions/nns of/in small/jj firms/nns and/cc in/in highlighting/vbg some/dti of/in the/at fundamental/jj and/cc recurring/vbg problems/nns of/in defense/nn procurement/nn that/wps concern/vb both/abx industry/nn and/cc government/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz also/rb hoped/vbn that/cs responses/nns to/in a/at mail/nn questionnaire/nn would/md suggest/vb fruitful/jj inquiries/nns that/wps might/md be/be made/vbn in/in subsequent/jj studies/nns of/in a/at more/ql detailed/vbn nature/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez recognized/vbn that/cs a/at mail/nn questionnaire/nn has/hvz inherent/jj limitations/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez the/at danger/nn that/cs the/at questions/nns will/md mean/vb different/jj things/nns to/in different/jj respondents/nns ./.
Simple/jj ``/`` yes/rb ''/'' or/cc ``/`` no/rb-nc ''/'' answers/nns do/do not/* reveal/vb the/at different/jj shades/nns of/in opinion/nn that/wpo the/at various/jj respondents/nns may/md have/hv ./.
A/at respondent/nn may/md want/vb to/to make/vb alternative/jj answers/nns because/cs he/pps does/doz not/* know/vb the/at precise/jj circumstances/nns assumed/vbn in/in the/at question/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez also/rb the/at problem/nn of/in the/at respondent's/nn$ frame/nn of/in reference/nn ./.
Is/bez the/at respondent/nn making/vbg a/at recommendation/nn for/in his/pp$ own/jj benefit/nn ,/, for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in his/pp$ industry/nn ,/, for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in a/at specific/jj government/nn department/nn or/cc service/nn ,/, for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in the/at defense/nn program/nn ,/, for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in small/jj business/nn ,/, or/cc for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in the/at taxpayers/nns ?/. ?/.


	There/ex is/bez also/rb the/at question/nn of/in whether/cs the/at respondent/nn based/vbd his/pp$ answers/nns on/in factual/jj information/nn and/cc carefully/rb considered/vbn judgment/nn ,/, or/cc whether/cs his/pp$ answers/nns were/bed casual/jj guesses/nns ./.
Finally/rb ,/, there/ex is/bez the/at question/nn of/in how/wql strongly/rb an/at expressed/vbn opinion/nn is/bez held/vbn --/-- whether/cs it/pps is/bez a/at firm/jj opinion/nn or/cc one/cd that/wpo the/at respondent/nn favors/vbz only/ql slightly/rb over/in the/at alternatives/nns ./.


	The/at research/nn team/nn was/bedz very/ql mindful/jj of/in these/dts dangers/nns and/cc limitations/nns of/in a/at mail/nn questionnaire/nn ./.
Under/in the/at circumstances/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at team/nn considered/vbd it/pps would/md provide/vb the/at most/ql useful/jj information/nn at/in this/dt point/nn ./.
In/in the/at preparation/nn of/in the/at questionnaire/nn the/at problems/nns noted/vbn above/rb were/bed carefully/rb considered/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at structure/nn and/cc phraseology/nn used/vbn were/bed designed/vbn to/to minimize/vb the/at effects/nns of/in these/dts limitations/nns ./.



B/np-hl ./.-hl
Design/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl questionnaire/nn-hl 
The/at questionnaire/nn was/bedz designed/vbn to/to elicit/vb three/cd types/nns of/in information/nn :/: (/( 1/cd )/) the/at facts/nns regarding/in certain/ap characteristics/nns of/in the/at respondents/nns ,/, including/in their/pp$ experience/nn with/in ,/, and/cc interest/nn in/in ,/, securing/vbg defense/nn business/nn ;/. ;/.
(/( 2/cd )/) the/at actual/jj selling/vbg and/cc buying/vbg practices/nns of/in the/at respondents/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc (/( 3/cd )/) the/at attitudes/nns and/cc opinions/nns of/in the/at respondents/nns concerning/in bidding/nn procedures/nns and/cc the/at methods/nns of/in awarding/vbg defense/nn contracts/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz hoped/vbn that/cs the/at facts/nns concerning/in the/at characteristics/nns and/cc practices/nns of/in the/at respondents/nns would/md offer/vb clues/nns to/in the/at reasons/nns why/wrb they/ppss took/vbd the/at positions/nns and/cc made/vbd the/at recommendations/nns which/wdt they/ppss did/dod ./.


	The/at major/jj sections/nns of/in the/at questionnaire/nn (/( see/vb Appendix/nn-tl B/np-tl )/) are/ber devoted/vbn to/in the/at following/nn :/: 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Information/nn for/in classifying/vbg respondents/nns (/( Part/nn-tl A/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 2/cd-hl ./.-hl

Characteristics/nns of/in defense/nn sales/nns activities/nns (/( Part/nn-tl B/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 3/cd-hl ./.-hl

Respondents'/nns$ practices/nns in/in participating/vbg in/in advertised/vbn bidding/nn for/in defense/nn business/nn (/( Part/nn-tl C/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 4/cd-hl ./.-hl

Respondents'/nns$ practices/nns in/in participating/vbg in/in negotiated/vbn bidding/nn for/in defense/nn purposes/nns (/( Part/nn-tl D/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 5/cd-hl ./.-hl

Respondents'/nns$ opinions/nns regarding/in advertised/vbn bidding/nn (/( Part/nn-tl E/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 6/cd-hl ./.-hl

Respondents'/nns$ opinions/nns regarding/in negotiated/vbn bidding/nn (/( Part/nn-tl F/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 7/cd-hl ./.-hl

Respondents'/nns$ preferences/nns regarding/in the/at methods/nns of/in awarding/vbg defense/nn contracts/nns (/( Part/nn-tl G/np-tl of/in the/at questionnaire/nn )/) 

	The/at questionnaire/nn provided/vbd a/at place/nn for/in the/at name/nn of/in the/at respondent/nn but/cc stated/vbd that/dt identification/nn of/in the/at respondent/nn was/bedz optional/jj ./.
The/at questionnaire/nn also/rb stated/vbd that/cs ,/, in/in any/dti event/nn ,/, all/abn replies/nns would/md be/be treated/vbn confidentially/rb ./.
It/pps is/bez interesting/jj to/to note/vb that/cs 75/cd per/in cent/nn of/in those/dts who/wps returned/vbd the/at questionnaire/nn identified/vbd themselves/ppls ./.



C/np-hl ./.-hl
Preparation/nn-hl and/cc-hl pretest/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl questionnaire/nn-hl 
The/at research/nn team/nn prepared/vbd and/cc then/rb revised/vbd the/at questionnaire/nn over/in a/at period/nn of/in six/cd months/nns ./.
In/in June/np ,/, 1960/cd ,/, an/at early/jj draft/nn of/in the/at questionnaire/nn ,/, along/rb with/in a/at cover/nn letter/nn ,/, was/bedz mailed/vbn to/in fourteen/cd companies/nns in/in the/at state/nn of/in Washington/np ./.
Several/ap days/nns after/cs the/at companies/nns had/hvd received/vbn the/at questionnaire/nn ,/, members/nns of/in the/at research/nn team/nn contacted/vbd the/at presidents/nns of/in eleven/cd of/in these/dts companies/nns in/in person/nn or/cc by/in phone/nn to/to discuss/vb any/dti ambiguities/nns or/cc difficulties/nns the/at addressees/nns might/md have/hv experienced/vbn in/in completing/vbg the/at questionnaire/nn ./.
This/dt test/nn resulted/vbd in/in further/jjr revisions/nns of/in the/at questionnaire/nn ./.


	The/at research/nn team/nn was/bedz concerned/vbn that/cs responses/nns from/in firms/nns in/in the/at state/nn of/in Washington/np might/md not/* be/be typical/jj of/in those/dts throughout/in the/at country/nn ,/, or/cc that/cs the/at results/nns might/md be/be different/jj when/wrb no/at phone/nn or/cc personal/jj follow-up/nn was/bedz made/vbn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, another/dt test/nn of/in the/at questionaire/nn was/bedz made/vbn ./.
The/at revised/vbn draft/nn was/bedz mailed/vbn in/in July/np ,/, 1960/cd ,/, to/in 100/cd firms/nns throughout/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ./.
Fifty/cd of/in the/at 100/cd firms/nns were/bed selected/vbn on/in a/at random/jj basis/nn from/in 3,500/cd names/nns submitted/vbn by/in member/nn companies/nns of/in the/at Aerospace/np-tl Industries/nns-tl Association/nn-tl (/( AIA/np list/nn )/) and/cc fifty/cd were/bed selected/vbn in/in a/at similar/jj manner/nn from/in a/at list/nn of/in 1,500/cd names/nns compiled/vbn by/in the/at research/nn team/nn from/in the/at Thomas/np-tl Register/nn-tl (/( TR/np list/nn )/) ./.
The/at method/nn of/in compiling/vbg the/at AIA/nn and/cc TR/nn lists/nns will/md be/be described/vbn later/rbr ./.


	Ten/cd days/nns after/cs the/at questionnaires/nns were/bed mailed/vbn ,/, follow-up/jj airmail/nn postcards/nns were/bed sent/vbn urging/vbg those/dts companies/nns which/wdt had/hvd not/* yet/rb returned/vbn their/pp$ questionnaires/nns to/to do/do so/rb at/in once/rb ./.
Twenty-eight/cd returns/nns in/in all/abn were/bed received/vbn ./.
The/at responses/nns were/bed carefully/rb checked/vbn for/in obvious/jj errors/nns in/in the/at answers/nns or/cc for/in questions/nns that/wps were/bed apparently/rb not/* understood/vbn by/in the/at respondent/nn ./.
The/at cover/nn letter/nn ,/, questionnaire/nn ,/, and/cc follow-up/jj postcard/nn were/bed then/rb revised/vbn into/in final/jj form/nn (/( see/vb Appendixes/nns-tl A/np-tl ,/, B/np-tl ,/, and/cc C/nn )/) ./.



D/np-hl ./.-hl
Compilation/nn-hl of/in-hl mailing/vbg-hl lists/nns-hl 
The/at objective/nn of/in the/at study/nn was/bedz to/to determine/vb the/at opinions/nns and/cc practices/nns of/in small/jj firms/nns selling/vbg to/in defense/nn programs/nns ./.
The/at firms/nns to/to receive/vb the/at questionnaires/nns were/bed selected/vbn with/in this/dt objective/nn in/in mind/nn ./.


	Three/cd lists/nns of/in companies/nns were/bed made/vbn and/cc used/vbn in/in the/at study/nn ./.


	The/at first/od was/bedz a/at list/nn of/in fourteen/cd manufacturing/vbg companies/nns located/vbn in/in the/at state/nn of/in Washington/np which/wdt were/bed personally/rb known/vbn to/in the/at research/nn team/nn to/to be/be active/jj in/in defense/nn work/nn ./.
The/at primary/jj consideration/nn in/in the/at compilation/nn of/in this/dt list/nn was/bedz convenience/nn in/in discussing/vbg the/at questionnaire/nn with/in company/nn officers/nns ./.


	The/at second/od list/nn was/bedz derived/vbn from/in a/at group/nn of/in approximately/rb 8,000/cd names/nns supplied/vbn to/in the/at research/nn team/nn by/in the/at Aerospace/np-tl Industries/nns-tl Association/nn-tl ./.
These/dts names/nns were/bed secured/vbn from/in member/nn companies/nns by/in the/at Association/nn-tl from/in the/at forty-four/cd sources/nns listed/vbn in/in Appendix/nn-tl Aj/np-tl ./.
Each/dt source/nn selected/vbd from/in its/pp$ approved/vbn bidders/nns list/vb about/rb 200/cd firms/nns which/wdt it/pps believed/vbd to/to be/be small/jj businesses/nns that/wps participated/vbd in/in the/at production/nn of/in weapons/nns and/cc weapon/nn support/nn systems/nns ./.
Where/wrb possible/jj ,/, the/at name/nn of/in an/at executive/nn was/bedz supplied/vbn along/rb with/in the/at company/nn name/nn and/cc address/nn ./.


	The/at forty-four/cd lists/nns supplied/vbn by/in the/at AIA/nn member/nn companies/nns were/bed merged/vbn and/cc duplicate/jj names/nns were/bed eliminated/vbn ./.
There/ex was/bedz further/jjr elimination/nn of/in all/abn companies/nns that/wps were/bed not/* accompanied/vbn by/in the/at name/nn of/in a/at responsible/jj company/nn executive/nn ./.
The/at remaining/vbg names/nns were/bed then/rb checked/vbn against/in the/at Thomas/np-tl Register/nn-tl list/nn (/( see/vb below/rb )/) and/cc duplicate/jj names/nns were/bed removed/vbn from/in the/at AIA/nn lists/nns ./.
By/in these/dts steps/nns the/at final/jj AIA/nn list/nn was/bedz reduced/vbn from/in 8,000/cd to/in 3,500/cd ./.


	The/at third/od list/nn was/bedz selected/vbn by/in the/at research/nn team/nn on/in a/at random/jj basis/nn from/in the/at Thomas/np-tl Register/nn-tl ./.
It/pps was/bedz compiled/vbn as/cs a/at control/nn sample/nn to/to determine/vb if/cs the/at opinions/nns and/cc practices/nns of/in companies/nns on/in the/at lists/nns submitted/vbn by/in the/at members/nns of/in the/at Aerospace/np-tl Industries/nns-tl Association/nn-tl were/bed materially/ql different/jj from/in those/dts of/in other/ap small/jj firms/nns selling/vbg to/in defense/nn programs/nns ./.
Such/abl a/at difference/nn might/md have/hv resulted/vbn from/in :/: 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at fact/nn that/cs the/at Aerospace/np-tl Industries/nns-tl Association/nn-tl members/nns whose/wp$ lists/nns were/bed used/vbn did/dod not/* comprise/vb all/abn firms/nns engaged/vbn in/in defense/nn programs/nns ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at fact/nn that/cs companies/nns on/in the/at AIA/nn lists/nns were/bed already/rb participating/vbg in/in the/at defense/nn program/nn because/rb of/in the/at manner/nn of/in their/pp$ selection/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, as/cs ``/`` in-group/nn ''/'' ,/, they/ppss might/md have/hv different/jj opinions/nns and/cc practices/nns than/cs an/at ``/`` out-group/nn ''/'' composed/vbn of/in those/dts companies/nns not/* so/rb participating/vbg but/cc interested/vbn in/in defense/nn business/nn ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at fact/nn that/cs AIA/nn lists/nns might/md not/* have/hv been/ben selected/vbn on/in a/at random/jj basis/nn ./.


	The/at control/nn sample/nn was/bedz selected/vbn by/in taking/vbg the/at bottom/jj name/nn of/in each/dt of/in the/at two/cd columns/nns of/in names/nns on/in each/dt page/nn of/in the/at alphabetical/jj listing/nn of/in manufacturers/nns in/in the/at Thomas/np-tl Register/nn-tl ./.
If/cs the/at bottom/jj name/nn in/in each/dt column/nn did/dod not/* have/hv a/at responsible/jj executive/nn identified/vbn ,/, the/at next/ap name/nn above/rb which/wdt identified/vbd such/abl a/at responsible/jj executive/nn was/bedz substituted/vbn ./.
Fifteen/cd hundred/cd names/nns were/bed selected/vbn in/in this/dt fashion/nn ./.



E/np-hl ./.-hl
Mailing/vbg-hl the/at-hl questionnaire/nn-hl 
Each/dt questionnaire/nn was/bedz mailed/vbn with/in a/at cover/nn letter/nn addressed/vbn personally/rb to/in the/at president/nn or/cc other/ap executive/nn of/in each/dt firm/nn ./.
The/at questionnaires/nns were/bed mailed/vbn in/in Seattle/np ,/, Washington/np ,/, and/cc sent/vbn by/in regular/jj mail/nn to/in addresses/nns in/in the/at states/nns of/in Idaho/np ,/, Montana/np ,/, Oregon/np ,/, and/cc Washington/np ./.
Airmail/nn was/bedz used/vbn for/in the/at addresses/nns outside/in the/at Pacific/jj-tl Northwest/nn-tl ./.


	Each/dt letter/nn contained/vbd a/at postage-prepaid/jj return/nn envelope/nn by/in regular/jj mail/nn for/in addresses/nns in/in the/at Pacific/jj-tl Northwest/nn-tl ,/, and/cc by/in airmail/nn for/in those/dts outside/in the/at Pacific/jj-tl Northwest/nn-tl ./.
Approximately/rb ten/cd days/nns after/cs the/at questionnaire/nn was/bedz mailed/vbn ,/, a/at follow-up/jj airmail/nn postcard/nn was/bedz sent/vbn to/in each/dt of/in the/at original/jj names/nns ./.


	The/at first/od test/nn mailing/nn (/( to/in 14/cd companies/nns )/) was/bedz made/vbn in/in June/np ,/, 1960/cd ./.
The/at second/od test/nn mailing/nn (/( to/in 100/cd companies/nns )/) was/bedz made/vbn in/in July/np ,/, 1960/cd ./.
The/at final/jj mailing/nn of/in the/at questionnaire/nn was/bedz made/vbn late/rb in/in August/np ,/, 1960/cd ,/, to/in 4,900/cd firms/nns consisting/vbg of/in 3,450/cd from/in the/at AIA/nn list/nn and/cc 1,450/cd from/in the/at TR/nn list/nn ./.



F/np-hl ./.-hl
Returns/nns-hl received/vbn-hl 
Over/rp 1,000/cd returns/nns were/bed received/vbn within/in two/cd weeks/nns after/cs the/at final/jj mailing/nn was/bedz made/vbn ./.
They/ppss continued/vbd to/to arrive/vb until/in the/at end/nn of/in December/np ,/, 1960/cd ,/, by/in which/wdt time/nn a/at total/nn of/in 1,343/cd returns/nns were/bed received/vbn representing/vbg 26.8/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at 5,014/cd questionnaires/nns sent/vbn out/rp ./.
Fifty-seven/cd returns/nns could/md not/* be/be used/vbn because/cs they/ppss were/bed incomplete/jj or/cc received/vbn too/ql late/rb to/to be/be processed/vbn ./.
The/at remaining/vbg 1,286/cd returns/nns that/wps were/bed processed/vbn came/vbd from/in the/at categories/nns in/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.



G/np-hl ./.-hl
Processing/vbg-hl the/at-hl returns/nns-hl 
Each/dt questionnaire/nn was/bedz audited/vbn for/in obvious/jj mistakes/nns and/cc for/in comments/nns ,/, and/cc was/bedz identified/vbn by/in a/at serial/nn number/nn ,/, by/in the/at source/nn list/nn from/in which/wdt the/at company/nn name/nn was/bedz selected/vbn ,/, and/cc by/in the/at geographical/jj location/nn of/in the/at company/nn as/cs determined/vbn by/in the/at postmark/nn on/in the/at return/nn envelope/nn ./.
All/abn responses/nns ,/, except/in comments/nns ,/, were/bed numerically/rb coded/vbn to/to permit/vb use/nn of/in data-processing/jj equipment/nn ./.
The/at codes/nns were/bed key-punched/vbn into/in IBM/nn punch/nn cards/nns and/cc verified/vbn ./.
Each/dt return/nn required/vbd three/cd cards/nns and/cc involved/vbd key/nn punching/nn 228/cd digital/jj columns/nns ./.
In/in order/nn to/to be/be able/jj to/to properly/rb relate/vb the/at data/nn for/in a/at single/ap company/nn each/dt of/in the/at three/cd cards/nns comprising/vbg the/at set/nn for/in each/dt firm/nn was/bedz identified/vbn with/in the/at appropriate/jj serial/nn number/nn of/in the/at respondent/nn ./.
The/at cards/nns were/bed then/rb processed/vbn using/vbg standard/jj IBM/nn punch/nn card/nn equipment/nn ,/, including/in an/at IBM/nn 650/cd computer/nn ./.


	The/at first/od step/nn in/in processing/vbg was/bedz to/to analyze/vb the/at returns/nns from/in Questions/nns-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, 2/cd-tl ,/, and/cc 3/cd to/to determine/vb whether/cs the/at respondents/nns were/bed large/jj businesses/nns or/cc small/jj businesses/nns ,/, in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at definitions/nns contained/vbn in/in ASPR/nn Section/nn-tl 1-701/cd-tl ./.
(/( see/vb Chapter/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
)/) The/at results/nns are/ber shown/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ./.


	The/at returns/nns from/in companies/nns classified/vbn as/cs large/jj businesses/nns were/bed set/vbn aside/rb and/cc not/* used/vbn because/cs they/ppss were/bed not/* relevant/jj to/in a/at study/nn of/in the/at opinions/nns and/cc practices/nns of/in small/jj firms/nns ./.


	The/at second/od step/nn in/in processing/vbg was/bedz to/to compare/vb the/at responses/nns from/in companies/nns on/in the/at AIA/nn list/nn with/in those/dts from/in companies/nns on/in the/at TR/nn list/nn in/in order/nn to/to determine/vb whether/cs it/pps would/md be/be appropriate/jj to/to merge/vb the/at responses/nns for/in the/at purposes/nns of/in the/at study/nn ./.
The/at methods/nns and/cc results/nns of/in this/dt comparative/jj analysis/nn are/ber described/vbn in/in Appendix/nn-tl Aj/np-tl ./.
It/pps was/bedz concluded/vbn that/cs it/pps would/md be/be appropriate/jj to/to process/vb the/at two/cd groups/nns of/in responses/nns as/cs a/at single/ap sample/nn of/in all/abn small/jj businesses/nns engaged/vbn in/in ,/, or/cc wishing/vbg to/to sell/vb to/in ,/, defense/nn programs/nns ./.
In/in the/at first/od place/nn ,/, the/at two/cd groups/nns of/in firms/nns ,/, when/wrb combined/vbn ,/, had/hvd characteristics/nns and/cc practices/nns that/wps were/bed more/ql representative/jj of/in companies/nns that/wps were/bed the/at subject/nn of/in this/dt study/nn than/cs did/dod the/at firms/nns from/in the/at AIA/nn list/nn alone/rb ./.



	The/at vast/jj Central/jj-tl Valley/nn-tl of/in-tl California/np-tl is/bez one/cd of/in the/at most/ql productive/jj agricultural/jj areas/nns in/in the/at world/nn ./.
During/in the/at summer/nn of/in 1960/cd ,/, it/pps became/vbd the/at setting/nn for/in a/at bitter/jj and/cc basic/jj labor-management/nn struggle/nn ./.


	The/at contestants/nns in/in this/dt economic/jj struggle/nn are/ber the/at Agricultural/jj-tl Workers/nns-tl Organizing/vbg-tl Committee/nn-tl (/( AWOC/np )/) of/in the/at AFL-CIO/nn and/cc the/at agricultural/jj employers/nns of/in the/at State/nn-tl ./.
By/in virtue/nn of/in the/at legal/jj responsibilities/nns of/in the/at Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Employment/nn-tl in/in the/at farm/nn placement/nn program/nn ,/, we/ppss necessarily/rb found/vbd ourselves/ppls in/in the/at middle/nn between/in these/dts two/cd forces/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* a/at pleasant/jj or/cc easy/jj position/nn ,/, but/cc one/cd we/ppss have/hv endeavored/vbn to/to maintain/vb ./.
We/ppss have/hv sought/vbn to/to be/be strictly/ql neutral/jj as/cs between/in the/at parties/nns ,/, but/cc at/in the/at same/ap time/nn we/ppss have/hv been/ben required/vbn frequently/rb to/to rule/vb on/in specific/jj issues/nns or/cc situations/nns as/cs they/ppss arose/vbd ./.


	Inevitably/rb ,/, one/cd side/nn was/bedz pleased/vbn and/cc the/at other/ap displeased/vbn ,/, regardless/rb of/in how/wrb we/ppss ruled/vbd ./.
Often/rb the/at displeased/vbn parties/nns interpreted/vbd our/pp$ decision/nn as/cs implying/vbg favoritism/nn toward/in the/at other/ap ./.
We/ppss have/hv consoled/vbn ourselves/ppls with/in the/at thought/nn that/cs this/dt is/bez a/at normal/jj human/jj reaction/nn and/cc is/bez one/cd of/in the/at consequences/nns of/in any/dti decision/nn in/in an/at adversary/nn proceeding/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez disconcerting/jj ,/, nevertheless/rb ,/, to/to read/vb in/in a/at labor/nn weekly/nn ,/, ``/`` Perluss/np knuckles/vbz down/rp to/in growers/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc then/rb to/to be/be confronted/vbn with/in a/at growers'/nns$ publication/nn which/wdt states/vbz ,/, ``/`` Perluss/np recognizes/vbz obviously/rb phony/jj and/cc trumped-up/jj strikes/nns as/cs bona/fw-jj fide/fw-nn ''/'' ./.


	For/in a/at number/nn of/in years/nns ,/, there/ex have/hv been/ben sporadic/jj attempts/nns in/in California/np to/to organize/vb farm/nn workers/nns ./.
These/dts attempts/nns met/vbd with/in little/ap sucess/nn for/in a/at variety/nn of/in reasons/nns ./.
They/ppss were/bed inadequately/rb financed/vbn ,/, without/in experienced/vbn leadership/nn ,/, and/cc lacked/vbd the/at general/jj support/nn of/in organized/vbn labor/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn ./.
This/dt past/jj year/nn the/at pattern/nn has/hvz been/ben different/jj :/: The/at organizing/vbg program/nn had/hvd the/at full/jj support/nn of/in the/at AFL-CIO/nn ,/, which/wdt supplied/vbd staff/nn and/cc money/nn to/in the/at AWOC/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs moral/jj support/nn ./.
Leadership/nn was/bedz experienced/vbn and/cc skillful/jj ,/, and/cc financial/jj resources/nns were/bed significant/jj ./.
Regardless/rb of/in where/wrb personal/jj sympathies/nns may/md lie/vb as/cs between/in the/at parties/nns ,/, failure/nn to/to recognize/vb these/dts changed/vbn conditions/nns would/md be/be to/to ignore/vb the/at facts/nns of/in life/nn ./.


	As/cs a/at result/nn of/in these/dts changed/vbn conditions/nns ,/, the/at impact/nn of/in the/at organizational/jj effort/nn on/in agricultural/jj labor-management/nn relations/nns has/hvz been/ben much/ql greater/jjr than/cs in/in the/at past/nn ./.
The/at AWOC/nn has/hvz been/ben able/jj to/to employ/vb the/at traditional/jj weapons/nns of/in labor/nn --/-- the/at strike/nn and/cc the/at picket/nn line/nn --/-- with/in considerable/jj success/nn ,/, particularly/rb in/in the/at area/nn of/in wages/nns ./.


	By/in the/at very/ap nature/nn of/in the/at situation/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez the/at union/nn which/wdt has/hvz been/ben able/jj to/to select/vb the/at time/nn and/cc place/nn to/to bring/vb pressure/nn upon/in management/nn ./.
To/in date/nn ,/, at/in least/ap ,/, the/at strategy/nn of/in the/at AWOC/nn has/hvz been/ben selective/jj ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez to/to say/vb ,/, to/to concentrate/vb on/in a/at particular/ap crop/nn or/cc activity/nn in/in a/at particular/ap area/nn at/in a/at strategic/jj time/nn ,/, rather/rb than/cs any/dti broadside/jj engagement/nn with/in management/nn throughout/in an/at area/nn or/cc the/at State/nn-tl ./.


	Primarily/rb ,/, we/ppss became/vbd involved/vbn in/in these/dts disputes/nns because/rb of/in our/pp$ referral/nn obligations/nns under/in our/pp$ farm/nn placement/nn program/nn ./.
Normally/rb ,/, because/cs agricultural/jj labor/nn is/bez not/* covered/vbn by/in unemployment/nn insurance/nn ,/, we/ppss would/md not/* expect/vb any/dti issues/nns to/to arise/vb regarding/in benefit/nn payments/nns under/in the/at trade/nn dispute/nn provision/nn of/in the/at Unemployment/nn-tl Insurance/nn-tl Code/nn-tl ,/, although/cs such/abl a/at situation/nn is/bez quite/ql within/in the/at realm/nn of/in possibility/nn ./.
But/cc the/at current/jj issues/nns arose/vbd out/rp of/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl concerning/in referrals/nns to/in an/at establishment/nn where/wrb a/at labor/nn dispute/nn exists/vbz ,/, and/cc out/rp of/in Public/jj-tl Law/nn-tl 78/cd-tl and/cc the/at Migrant/jj-tl Labor/nn-tl Agreement/nn-tl if/cs Mexican/jj nationals/nns were/bed employed/vbn at/in the/at ranch/nn ./.


	Most/ap of/in us/ppo remember/vb and/cc think/vb of/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl in/in its/pp$ historical/jj sense/nn ,/, as/cs a/at major/jj milestone/nn in/in the/at development/nn of/in public/jj placement/nn services/nns ./.
Infrequently/rb do/do we/ppss think/vb of/in it/ppo as/cs a/at living/vbg ,/, continuing/vbg ,/, operating/vbg control/nn over/in the/at system/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, when/wrb labor/nn disputes/nns arise/vb ,/, its/pp$ provisions/nns come/vb clearly/rb into/in play/nn ./.
California/np has/hvz accepted/vbn the/at provisions/nns of/in that/dt Act/nn-tl (/( as/cs have/hv all/abn other/ap States/nns-tl )/) by/in enacting/vbg into/in our/pp$ Code/nn-tl (/( Section/nn-tl 2051/cd )/) a/at provision/nn that/cs 

	The/at-tl State/nn-tl of/in-tl California/np-tl accepts/vbz the/at provisions/nns of/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl ,/, and/cc will/md observe/vb and/cc comply/vb with/in the/at requirements/nns of/in that/dt act/nn ./.


	With/in respect/nn to/in labor/nn disputes/nns ,/, the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl states/vbz only/rb ,/, 

	In/in carrying/vbg out/rp the/at provisions/nns of/in this/dt Act/nn-tl ,/, the/at Secretary/nn-tl is/bez authorized/vbn and/cc directed/vbn to/to provide/vb for/in the/at giving/nn of/in notice/nn of/in strikes/nns or/cc lock-outs/nns to/in applicants/nns before/cs they/ppss are/ber referred/vbn to/in employment/nn ./.


	Other/ap provisions/nns of/in the/at Act/nn-tl empower/vb the/at Secretary/nn-tl to/to adopt/vb regulations/nns necessary/jj to/to carry/vb out/rp its/pp$ provisions/nns ,/, and/cc he/pps has/hvz done/vbn so/rb ./.
The/at pertinent/jj regulation/nn for/in our/pp$ purposes/nns is/bez Section/nn-tl 602.2/cd-tl (/( ,/, )/) ,/, as/cs follows/vbz :/: 

	Referrals/nns in/in labor/nn dispute/nn situations/nns ./.
No/at person/nn shall/md be/be referred/vbn to/in a/at position/nn the/at filling/nn of/in which/wdt will/md aid/vb directly/rb or/cc indirectly/rb in/in filling/vbg a/at job/nn which/wdt (/( 1/cd )/) is/bez vacant/jj because/cs the/at former/ap occupant/nn is/bez on/in strike/nn or/cc is/bez being/beg locked/vbn out/rp in/in the/at course/nn of/in a/at labor/nn dispute/nn ,/, or/cc (/( 2/cd )/) the/at filling/nn of/in which/wdt is/bez an/at issue/nn in/in a/at labor/nn dispute/nn ./.
With/in respect/nn to/in positions/nns not/* covered/vbn by/in subparagraph/nn (/( 1/cd )/) or/cc (/( 2/cd )/) of/in this/dt paragraph/nn ,/, any/dti individual/nn may/md be/be referred/vbn to/in a/at place/nn of/in employment/nn in/in which/wdt a/at labor/nn dispute/nn exists/vbz ,/, provided/vbn he/pps is/bez given/vbn written/vbn notice/nn of/in such/jj dispute/nn prior/rb to/in or/cc at/in the/at time/nn of/in his/pp$ referral/nn ./.


	In/in analyzing/vbg this/dt regulation/nn ,/, let/vb us/ppo take/vb the/at last/ap sentence/nn first/rb ./.
It/pps permits/vbz referrals/nns under/in certain/ap circumstances/nns even/rb when/wrb there/ex is/bez a/at labor/nn dispute/nn ,/, provided/vbn the/at individual/nn is/bez given/vbn written/vbn notice/nn of/in such/abl a/at dispute/nn ./.
Assume/vb ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, a/at situation/nn where/wrb a/at farm/nn has/hvz a/at packing/vbg shed/nn and/cc fields/nns ./.
The/at packing/vbg shed/nn workers/nns go/vb on/in strike/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez no/at dispute/nn involving/in fieldwork/nn ./.
We/ppss concluded/vbd that/cs we/ppss may/md refer/vb workers/nns to/in the/at fieldwork/nn (/( but/cc not/* the/at packing/vbg shed/nn work/nn )/) provided/vbn we/ppss give/vb them/ppo written/vbn notice/nn of/in the/at packing/vbg shed/nn dispute/nn ./.
So/ql far/rb ,/, no/at troublesome/jj cases/nns have/hv arisen/vbn under/in this/dt provision/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez the/at first/od part/nn of/in the/at Regulation/nn-tl that/wps is/bez currently/rb at/in issue/nn ./.
Note/vb that/cs it/pps prohibits/vbz referrals/nns under/in either/cc condition/nn (/( 1/cd )/) or/cc condition/nn (/( 2/cd )/) ./.
Employer/nn representatives/nns have/hv contended/vbn that/cs the/at Secretary/nn-tl has/hvz gone/vbn beyond/in his/pp$ authority/nn by/in such/abl a/at prohibition/nn ,/, on/in the/at grounds/nns that/cs the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl requires/vbz only/ap written/vbn notice/nn to/in the/at prospective/jj worker/nn that/cs a/at dispute/nn exists/vbz ./.



Into/in-hl court/nn-hl 
The/at matter/nn got/vbd into/in the/at courts/nns this/dt way/nn :/: One/cd of/in the/at early/jj strikes/nns called/vbn by/in the/at AWOC/nn was/bedz at/in the/at DiGiorgio/np pear/nn orchards/nns in/in Yuba/np-tl County/nn-tl ./.
We/ppss found/vbd that/cs a/at labor/nn dispute/nn existed/vbd ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at workers/nns had/hvd left/vbn their/pp$ jobs/nns ,/, which/wdt were/bed then/rb vacant/jj because/rb of/in the/at dispute/nn ./.
Accordingly/rb ,/, under/in clause/nn (/( 1/cd )/) of/in the/at Secretary's/nn$-tl Regulation/nn-tl ,/, we/ppss suspended/vbd referrals/nns to/in the/at employer/nn ./.
(/( Incidentally/rb ,/, no/at Mexican/jj nationals/nns were/bed involved/vbn ./.
)/) The/at employer/nn ,/, seeking/vbg to/to continue/vb his/pp$ harvest/nn ,/, challenged/vbd our/pp$ right/nn to/to cease/vb referrals/nns to/in him/ppo ,/, and/cc sought/vbd relief/nn in/in the/at Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl of/in-tl Yuba/np-tl County/nn-tl ./.
The/at court/nn issued/vbd a/at temporary/jj restraining/vbg order/nn ,/, directing/vbg us/ppo to/to resume/vb referrals/nns ./.
We/ppss ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, obeyed/vbd the/at court/nn order/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at Attorney/nn-tl General/jj-tl of/in-tl California/np-tl ,/, at/in the/at request/nn of/in the/at Secretary/nn-tl of/in-tl Labor/nn-tl ,/, sought/vbd to/to have/hv the/at jurisdiction/nn over/in the/at issue/nn removed/vbn to/in the/at Federal/jj-tl District/nn-tl Court/nn-tl ,/, on/in grounds/nns that/cs it/pps was/bedz predominantly/rb a/at Federal/jj-tl issue/nn since/cs the/at validity/nn of/in the/at Secretary's/nn$-tl Regulation/nn-tl was/bedz being/beg challenged/vbn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at Federal/jj-tl Court/nn-tl held/vbd that/cs since/cs the/at State/nn-tl had/hvd accepted/vbn the/at provisions/nns of/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl into/in its/pp$ own/jj Code/nn-tl ,/, and/cc presumably/rb therefore/rb also/rb the/at regulations/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz now/rb a/at State/nn-tl matter/nn ./.
It/pps accordingly/rb refused/vbd to/to assume/vb jurisdiction/nn ,/, whereupon/cs the/at California/np-tl Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl made/vbd the/at restraining/vbg order/nn permanent/jj ./.
Under/in that/dt order/nn ,/, we/ppss have/hv continued/vbn referring/vbg workers/nns to/in the/at ranch/nn ./.
A/at similar/jj case/nn arose/vbd at/in the/at Bowers/np ranch/nn in/in Butte/np-tl County/nn-tl ,/, and/cc the/at Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl of/in that/dt county/nn issued/vbd similar/jj restraining/vbg orders/nns ./.


	The/at growers/nns have/hv strenuously/rb argued/vbn that/cs I/ppss should/md have/hv accepted/vbn the/at Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl decisions/nns as/cs conclusive/jj and/cc issued/vbn statewide/jj instructions/nns to/in our/pp$ staff/nn to/to ignore/vb this/dt provision/nn in/in the/at Secretary's/nn$-tl Regulation/nn-tl ./.
I/ppss cannot/md* accept/vb that/dt view/nn ,/, either/cc as/cs a/at lawyer/nn or/cc as/cs an/at administrator/nn ./.



Legal/jj-hl considerations/nns-hl 
First/rb ,/, let/vb us/ppo examine/vb briefly/rb some/dti of/in the/at legal/jj considerations/nns involved/vbn ./.
It/pps is/bez an/at accepted/vbn juridical/jj principle/nn in/in California/np that/cs a/at Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl decision/nn does/doz not/* constitute/vb a/at binding/vbg legal/jj precedent/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez conclusive/jj ,/, unless/cs appealed/vbn ,/, only/rb upon/in the/at particular/ap parties/nns to/in the/at particular/ap action/nn which/wdt was/bedz heard/vbn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* binding/vbg upon/in another/dt Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt could/md rule/vb to/in the/at contrary/nn ./.
Only/rb when/wrb a/at decision/nn is/bez rendered/vbn by/in the/at District/nn-tl Court/nn-tl of/in-tl Appeal/nn-tl (/( or/cc ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl )/) is/bez a/at binding/vbg precedent/nn established/vbn ./.
In/in that/dt event/nn ,/, we/ppss can/md correctly/rb say/vb that/cs we/ppss have/hv received/vbn an/at authoritative/jj interpretation/nn of/in the/at matter/nn ,/, and/cc one/cd which/wdt we/ppss can/md follow/vb statewide/rb with/in confidence/nn that/cs the/at policy/nn will/md not/* be/be overthrown/vbn in/in other/ap Superior/jj-tl Courts/nns-tl ./.


	But/cc over/in and/cc beyond/in the/at compelling/jj need/nn for/in a/at binding/vbg precedent/nn decision/nn ,/, I/ppss am/bem convinced/vbn that/cs the/at decisions/nns of/in the/at Superior/jj-tl Courts/nns-tl which/wdt in/in effect/nn nullify/vb the/at Secretary's/nn$-tl Regulation/nn-tl are/ber not/* a/at correct/jj interpretation/nn of/in the/at Secretary's/nn$-tl power/nn under/in the/at Federal/jj-tl law/nn ./.
I/ppss believe/vb I/ppss am/bem in/in good/jj company/nn in/in this/dt view/nn ./.
The/at Attorney/nn-tl General/jj-tl of/in-tl California/np-tl concurs/vbz in/in this/dt interpretation/nn and/cc has/hvz filed/vbn an/at appeal/nn from/in these/dts decisions/nns to/in the/at District/nn-tl Court/nn-tl of/in-tl Appeal/nn-tl ./.
The/at Attorney/nn-tl General/jj-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, in/in considering/vbg the/at power/nn of/in the/at Secretary/nn-tl to/to issue/vb similar/jj regulations/nns under/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl relating/vbg to/in the/at interstate/jj recruitment/nn of/in farm/nn workers/nns ,/, has/hvz rendered/vbn an/at opinion/nn sustaining/vbg his/pp$ authority/nn ./.
Further/rbr ,/, and/cc as/cs an/at evidence/nn of/in legislative/jj intent/nn only/rb ,/, the/at Senate/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl recently/rb defeated/vbd by/in a/at substantial/jj majority/nn the/at ``/`` Holland/np-tl Amendment/nn-tl ''/'' to/in the/at Fair/jj-tl Labor/nn-tl Standards/nns-tl Act/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt would/md have/hv specifically/rb limited/vbn the/at regulatory/jj authority/nn of/in the/at Secretary/nn-tl in/in these/dts matters/nns ./.


	Next/rb ,/, let/vb us/ppo consider/vb briefly/rb the/at program/nn and/cc administrative/jj implications/nns of/in a/at failure/nn on/in our/pp$ part/nn to/to pursue/vb our/pp$ appeals/nns ./.


	There/ex is/bez far/ql too/ql much/ap at/in stake/nn for/in all/abn of/in the/at parties/nns concerned/vbn to/to leave/vb the/at matter/nn hanging/vbg in/in midair/nn ./.
The/at ramifications/nns of/in the/at issue/nn are/ber enormous/jj ./.
A/at decision/nn to/to refer/vb workers/nns to/in jobs/nns vacant/jj because/rb of/in a/at strike/nn would/md have/hv to/to be/be applied/vbn equally/rb to/in nonagricultural/jj situations/nns ,/, and/cc might/nn in/in effect/nn place/vb the/at public/jj employment/nn services/nns in/in the/at position/nn of/in acting/vbg as/cs strikebreakers/nns ./.
The/at public/jj interest/nn is/bez so/ql dominant/jj in/in such/abl an/at issue/nn that/cs I/ppss cannot/md* be/be so/ql presumptuous/jj as/cs to/to attempt/vb to/to settle/vb it/ppo by/in an/at administrative/jj order/nn based/vbn upon/in conclusions/nns reached/vbn in/in a/at summary/nn action/nn in/in one/cd or/cc two/cd Superior/jj-tl Courts/nns-tl in/in the/at State/nn-tl ./.
It/pps is/bez an/at issue/nn which/wdt may/md well/rb reach/vb the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl before/cs judicial/jj finality/nn is/bez achieved/vbn ./.


	As/cs an/at administrator/nn ,/, I/ppss cannot/md* place/vb the/at Employment/nn-tl Service/nn-tl in/in California/np in/in jeopardy/nn of/in being/beg out/rp of/in compliance/nn with/in the/at Federal/jj-tl laws/nns by/in my/pp$ failure/nn to/to pursue/vb the/at avenues/nns of/in appeal/nn open/jj to/in me/ppo ./.
To/to have/hv applied/vbn statewide/rb the/at decisions/nns of/in the/at two/cd cases/nns heard/vbn in/in Superior/jj-tl Court/nn-tl ,/, in/in my/pp$ opinion/nn ,/, would/md have/hv placed/vbn us/ppo clearly/rb out/rp of/in compliance/nn with/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl and/cc would/md have/hv immediately/rb opened/vbn the/at way/nn for/cs the/at Secretary/nn-tl of/in-tl Labor/nn-tl ,/, were/bed he/pps so/rb inclined/vbn ,/, to/to notify/vb the/at Governor/nn-tl of/in such/jj noncompliance/nn ,/, set/vb a/at date/nn for/in hearing/nn ,/, and/cc issue/vb his/pp$ finding/nn ./.
The/at impact/nn of/in noncompliance/nn under/in the/at Wagner-Peyser/np-tl Act/nn-tl is/bez clear/jj :/: the/at withdrawal/nn of/in some/rb $11/nns million/cd a/at year/nn of/in administrative/jj funds/nns which/wdt finance/vb our/pp$ employment/nn service/nn program/nn or/cc ,/, as/cs a/at corollary/nn ,/, the/at taking/vbg over/rp by/in the/at Federal/jj-tl Government/nn-tl of/in its/pp$ operation/nn ./.


	Thus/ql far/rb ,/, the/at cases/nns which/wdt have/hv come/vbn before/in the/at courts/nns have/hv involved/vbn only/rb the/at issue/nn of/in referral/nn where/wrb the/at job/nn is/bez vacant/jj due/rb to/in a/at strike/nn --/-- condition/nn (/( 1/cd )/) in/in the/at Regulation/nn-tl of/in the/at Secretary/nn-tl ./.
None/pn has/hvz yet/rb arisen/vbn under/in condition/nn (/( 2/cd )/) ,/, relating/vbg to/in referral/nn to/in jobs/nns ``/`` the/at filling/nn of/in which/wdt is/bez an/at issue/nn in/in a/at labor/nn dispute/nn ''/'' ./.


	Here/rb the/at problem/nn is/bez essentially/rb one/cd of/in defining/vbg the/at word/nn ``/`` filling/vbg-nc ''/'' ./.
Should/md it/ppo be/be defined/vbn in/in a/at narrow/jj sense/nn to/to include/vb only/rb such/jj elements/nns as/cs job/nn specifications/nns ,/, union/nn membership/nn ,/, union/nn jurisdiction/nn ,/, and/cc the/at like/jj ?/. ?/.
Or/cc should/md it/ppo have/hv a/at broader/jjr connotation/nn of/in including/vbg wage/nn demands/nns and/cc other/ap factors/nns not/* necessarily/rb associated/vbn with/in the/at mechanics/nn of/in ``/`` filling/vbg ''/'' the/at job/nn ./.


	Because/rb of/in the/at uncertainty/nn of/in this/dt definition/nn ,/, I/ppss solicited/vbd the/at interpretation/nn of/in the/at Secretary/nn-tl of/in-tl Labor/nn-tl ./.
He/pps has/hvz advised/vbn me/ppo that/cs the/at narrower/jjr interpretation/nn is/bez the/at proper/jj one/cd ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, that/cs if/cs wages/nns ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, is/bez the/at only/ap issue/nn in/in a/at labor/nn dispute/nn ,/, and/cc no/at workers/nns have/hv left/vbn their/pp$ jobs/nns because/rb of/in the/at dispute/nn ,/, we/ppss may/md continue/vb to/to make/vb referrals/nns ./.

9/cd-hl ./.-hl

Martin/np and/cc Stendler/np present/vb evidence/nn that/cs infants/nns and/cc young/jj children/nns can/md and/cc do/do solve/vb many/ap problems/nns at/in a/at relatively/ql simple/jj perceptual/jj level/nn simply/rb by/in combining/vbg objects/nns and/cc counting/vbg them/ppo ./.
After/cs they/ppss have/hv developed/vbn concepts/nns ,/, they/ppss are/ber free/jj from/in the/at necessity/nn of/in manipulating/vbg objects/nns ;/. ;/.
they/ppss do/do symbolically/rb what/wdt they/ppss once/rb had/hvd to/to do/do concretely/rb ./.
The/at ability/nn to/to think/vb seems/vbz to/to increase/vb consistently/rb with/in age/nn ./.
One/cd experiment/nn showed/vbd the/at greatest/jjt one-year/nn difference/nn occurring/vbg between/in the/at eleventh/od and/cc twelfth/od years/nns ./.
10/cd-hl ./.-hl

Many/ap studies/nns indicate/vb that/cs elementary-school/nn children's/nns$ interests/nns cover/vb the/at whole/jj field/nn of/in science/nn ;/. ;/.
that/cs their/pp$ questions/nns indicate/vb a/at genuine/jj interest/nn in/in social/jj processes/nns and/cc events/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc that/cs as/cs they/ppss mature/vb their/pp$ interests/nns and/cc capabilities/nns change/vb and/cc broaden/vb ./.
Emotional/jj-hl characteristics/nns-hl 
How/wrb a/at child/nn feels/vbz about/in himself/ppl ,/, about/in other/ap people/nns ,/, and/cc about/in the/at tasks/nns confronting/vbg him/ppo in/in school/nn may/md have/hv as/ql much/ap influence/nn on/in his/pp$ success/nn in/in school/nn as/cs his/pp$ physical/jj and/cc intellectual/jj characteristics/nns ./.
A/at considerable/jj amount/nn of/in evidence/nn exists/vbz to/to show/vb that/cs an/at unhappy/jj and/cc insecure/jj child/nn is/bez not/* likely/jj to/to do/do well/rb in/in school/nn subjects/nns ./.
Emotional/jj maturity/nn is/bez the/at result/nn of/in many/ap factors/nns ,/, the/at principal/jjs ones/nns being/beg the/at experiences/nns of/in the/at first/od few/ap years/nns of/in the/at child's/nn$ life/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at teacher/nn who/wps understands/vbz the/at influence/nn of/in emotions/nns on/in behavior/nn may/md be/be highly/ql influential/jj in/in helping/vbg pupils/nns gain/vb confidence/nn ,/, security/nn ,/, and/cc satisfaction/nn ./.


	Concerning/in this/dt responsibility/nn of/in the/at teacher/nn ,/, suggestions/nns for/in helping/vbg children/nns gain/vb better/jjr control/nn of/in the/at emotions/nns are/ber presented/vbn in/in Chapter/nn-tl 11/cd-tl ./.
The/at following/vbg generalizations/nns about/in the/at emotional/jj characteristics/nns of/in elementary-school/nn children/nns may/md be/be helpful/jj ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl

Typically/rb ,/, the/at young/jj child's/nn$ emotional/jj reactions/nns last/vb for/in a/at relatively/rb short/jj time/nn ,/, as/cs contrasted/vbn to/in those/dts of/in an/at adult/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

As/cs the/at child/nn grows/vbz older/jjr ,/, his/pp$ emotional/jj reactions/nns lead/vb to/in ``/`` moods/nns ''/'' ,/, or/cc emotional/jj states/nns drawn/vbn out/rp over/in a/at period/nn of/in time/nn and/cc expressed/vbn slowly/rb ,/, rather/rb than/cs in/in short/jj ,/, abrupt/jj outbursts/nns ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

Studies/nns of/in the/at growth/nn and/cc decline/nn of/in children's/nns$ fears/nns indicate/vb that/cs fears/nns due/jj to/in strange/jj objects/nns ,/, noises/nns ,/, falling/vbg ,/, and/cc unexpected/jj movement/nn decline/vb during/in the/at preschool/jj years/nns ,/, but/cc that/cs fears/nns of/in the/at dark/nn ,/, of/in being/beg alone/rb ,/, and/cc of/in imaginary/jj creatures/nns or/cc robbers/nns increase/vb ./.
4/cd-hl ./.-hl

Ridiculing/vbg a/at child/nn for/in being/beg afraid/jj or/cc forcing/vbg him/ppo to/to meet/vb the/at feared/vbn situation/nn alone/rb are/ber poor/jj ways/nns of/in dealing/vbg with/in the/at problem/nn ;/. ;/.
more/ql effective/jj solutions/nns include/vb explanations/nns ,/, the/at example/nn of/in another/dt child/nn ,/, or/cc conditioning/vbg by/in associating/vbg the/at feared/vbn object/nn ,/, place/nn ,/, or/cc person/nn with/in something/pn pleasant/jj ./.
5/cd-hl ./.-hl

Children/nns need/vb help/nn in/in learning/vbg to/to control/vb their/pp$ emotions/nns ./.
The/at young/jj child/nn learns/vbz from/in parents/nns and/cc teachers/nns that/cs temper/nn tantrums/nns ,/, screaming/vbg ,/, kicking/vbg ,/, and/cc hitting/vbg will/md not/* get/vb him/ppo what/wdt he/pps wants/vbz ;/. ;/.
the/at older/jjr child/nn learns/vbz that/cs intense/jj emotional/jj outbursts/nns will/md not/* win/vb approval/nn by/in his/pp$ peers/nns ,/, and/cc ,/, therefore/rb ,/, makes/vbz a/at real/jj effort/nn to/to control/vb his/pp$ emotions/nns ./.
6/cd-hl ./.-hl

Children/nns differ/vb widely/rb in/in their/pp$ emotional/jj responses/nns ./.
Among/in infants/nns the/at patterns/nns of/in emotional/jj responses/nns are/ber similar/jj ;/. ;/.
as/cs the/at influence/nn of/in learning/vbg and/cc environment/nn are/ber felt/vbn ,/, emotional/jj behavior/nn becomes/vbz individualized/vbn ./.
Social/jj-hl characteristics/nns-hl 
Although/cs no/at national/jj norms/nns exist/vb for/in the/at social/jj development/nn of/in children/nns ,/, the/at teacher/nn can/md find/vb a/at great/jj deal/nn of/in information/nn concerning/in types/nns of/in social/jj behavior/nn normally/rb displayed/vbn by/in children/nns at/in various/ap age/nn levels/nns ./.
The/at following/vbg summary/nn will/md give/vb the/at student/nn some/dti idea/nn about/in the/at social/jj characteristics/nns of/in elementary-school/nn children/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at student/nn will/md certainly/rb want/vb to/to explore/vb more/ql deeply/rb into/in the/at fascinating/jj study/nn of/in immature/jj individuals/nns ,/, struggling/vbg to/to meet/vb their/pp$ developmental/jj needs/nns ,/, and/cc at/in the/at same/ap time/nn trying/vbg to/to learn/vb the/at rules/nns of/in the/at game/nn in/in the/at ever-expanding/jj number/nn of/in groups/nns in/in which/wdt they/ppss hold/vb membership/nn ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl

During/in early/jj childhood/nn ,/, children/nns are/ber more/ql interested/vbn in/in the/at approval/nn of/in their/pp$ parents/nns and/cc teachers/nns than/cs they/ppss are/ber in/in the/at approval/nn of/in other/ap children/nns ;/. ;/.
after/cs they/ppss have/hv been/ben in/in school/nn a/at few/ap years/nns ,/, their/pp$ interest/nn in/in playmates/nns of/in their/pp$ own/jj age/nn increases/vbz ,/, and/cc their/pp$ interest/nn in/in adults/nns decreases/vbz ;/. ;/.
the/at child/nn who/wps had/hvd once/rb considered/vbn it/ppo a/at treat/nn to/to accompany/vb his/pp$ parents/nns on/in picnics/nns and/cc family/nn gatherings/nns now/rb considers/vbz it/ppo a/at bore/nn ./.
In/in late/jj childhood/nn the/at influence/nn of/in the/at group/nn on/in the/at social/jj behavior/nn of/in the/at child/nn continues/vbz to/to increase/vb ;/. ;/.
the/at group/nn sets/vbz the/at styles/nns in/in clothing/nn ,/, the/at kind/nn of/in play/nn engaged/vbn in/in ,/, and/cc the/at ideals/nns of/in right/jj and/cc wrong/jj behavior/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in early/jj childhood/nn the/at choice/nn of/in a/at companion/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be for/in another/dt child/nn of/in his/pp$ own/jj age/nn or/cc a/at year/nn or/cc two/cd older/jjr ,/, who/wps can/md do/do the/at things/nns he/pps likes/vbz to/to do/do ;/. ;/.
such/jj factors/nns as/cs sex/nn ,/, intelligence/nn ,/, and/cc status/nn in/in the/at group/nn do/do not/* influence/vb his/pp$ choice/nn much/rb at/in this/dt time/nn ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

In/in later/jjr childhood/nn ,/, an/at interest/nn in/in team/nn games/nns replaces/vbz individual/jj play/nn ;/. ;/.
loyalty/nn to/in the/at group/nn ,/, a/at feeling/nn of/in superiority/nn over/in those/dts who/wps are/ber not/* members/nns ,/, and/cc unwillingness/nn to/to play/vb with/in members/nns of/in the/at opposite/jj sex/nn become/vb dominant/jj traits/nns ./.
4/cd-hl ./.-hl

During/in early/jj childhood/nn boys/nns tease/vb and/cc bully/vb ,/, on/in the/at average/jj ,/, more/rbr than/cs girls/nns ;/. ;/.
those/dts who/wps feel/vb inferior/jj or/cc insecure/jj engage/vb in/in these/dts activities/nns more/rbr than/cs do/do well-adjusted/jj children/nns ./.
5/cd-hl ./.-hl

During/in late/jj childhood/nn boys/nns like/vb to/to tease/vb ,/, jostle/vb ,/, and/cc talk/vb smart/rb to/in girls/nns ;/. ;/.
girls/nns ,/, who/wps are/ber more/ql mature/jj than/cs boys/nns ,/, frown/vb upon/in the/at youthful/jj antics/nns of/in boys/nns of/in their/pp$ own/jj age/nn ./.
6/cd-hl ./.-hl

By/in the/at time/nn pupils/nns reach/vb the/at sixth/od grade/nn ,/, their/pp$ ethical/jj and/cc moral/jj standards/nns are/ber fairly/ql well/rb developed/vbn ;/. ;/.
they/ppss exhibit/vb a/at keen/jj interest/nn in/in social/jj ,/, political/jj ,/, and/cc economic/jj problems/nns ,/, but/cc they/ppss frequently/rb have/hv vague/jj and/cc incorrect/jj notions/nns about/in the/at terms/nns they/ppss use/vb rather/ql glibly/rb in/in their/pp$ routine/jj school/nn work/nn ./.
7/cd-hl ./.-hl

Between/in the/at ages/nns of/in two/cd and/cc four/cd years/nns ,/, negativism/nn or/cc resistance/nn to/in adult/nn authority/nn is/bez noticeable/jj ;/. ;/.
after/in the/at fourth/od year/nn it/pps begins/vbz to/to decline/vb ./.
However/rb ,/, as/cs we/ppss have/hv seen/vbn ,/, in/in later/jjr childhood/nn the/at child/nn begins/vbz to/to substitute/vb the/at standards/nns of/in the/at peer/nn group/nn for/in those/dts of/in parents/nns and/cc teachers/nns ./.
8/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at elementary-school/nn child/nn grows/vbz gradually/rb in/in his/pp$ ability/nn to/to work/vb in/in groups/nns ./.
The/at child/nn in/in the/at primary/jj grades/nns can/md play/vb harmoniously/rb with/in one/cd companion/nn ,/, but/cc his/pp$ desire/nn to/to be/be first/od in/in everything/pn gets/vbz him/ppo into/in trouble/nn when/wrb the/at group/nn gets/vbz larger/jjr ;/. ;/.
he/pps wants/vbz to/to be/be with/in people/nns ,/, but/cc he/pps hasn't/hvz* yet/rb learned/vbn to/to cooperate/vb ./.
In/in the/at middle/jj grades/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, he/pps begins/vbz to/to participate/vb more/ql effectively/rb in/in group/nn activities/nns such/jj as/cs selecting/vbg a/at leader/nn ,/, helping/vbg to/to make/vb plans/nns and/cc carry/vb on/rp group/nn activities/nns ,/, and/cc setting/vbg up/rp rules/nns governing/vbg the/at enterprise/nn ./.



Why/wrb-hl the/at-hl teacher/nn-hl should/md-hl study/vb-hl the/at-hl individual/jj-hl pupil/nn-hl 
Much/ap progress/nn has/hvz been/ben made/vbn in/in the/at last/ap two/cd decades/nns in/in developing/vbg techniques/nns for/in understanding/vbg children/nns ,/, yet/cc in/in almost/rb any/dti classroom/nn today/nr can/md be/be found/vbn children/nns whose/wp$ needs/nns are/ber not/* being/beg met/vbn by/in the/at school/nn program/nn ./.
Some/dti are/ber failing/vbg to/to achieve/vb as/ql much/ap as/cs their/pp$ ability/nn would/md permit/vb ;/. ;/.
others/nns never/rb seem/vb able/jj to/to enter/vb fully/rb into/in the/at life/nn of/in the/at classroom/nn ./.
These/dts children/nns have/hv been/ben described/vbn as/cs those/dts who/wps were/bed trying/vbg to/to say/vb something/pn to/in adults/nns who/wps did/dod not/* understand/vb ./.


	Many/ap school/nn systems/nns now/rb employ/vb school/nn psychologists/nns and/cc child/nn guidance/nn specialists/nns ./.
These/dts specialists/nns perform/vb valuable/jj services/nns by/in helping/vbg teachers/nns learn/vb to/to identify/vb children/nns who/wps need/vb special/jj attention/nn ,/, by/in suggesting/vbg ways/nns of/in meeting/vbg the/at needs/nns of/in individual/jj children/nns in/in the/at regular/jj classroom/nn ,/, and/cc by/in providing/vbg clinical/jj services/nns for/in severely/ql maladjusted/jj children/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at classroom/nn teacher/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, who/wps has/hvz daily/jj contacts/nns with/in pupils/nns ,/, and/cc who/wps is/bez in/in a/at unique/jj position/nn to/to put/vb sound/jj psychological/jj principles/nns into/in practice/nn ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, a/at study/nn of/in the/at individual/jj child/nn is/bez an/at integral/jj part/nn of/in the/at work/nn of/in the/at elementary-school/nn teacher/nn ,/, rather/rb than/cs merely/rb an/at additional/jj chore/nn ./.


	Teachers/nns and/cc administrators/nns in/in many/ap elementary/jj schools/nns have/hv assumed/vbn that/cs dividing/vbg the/at pupils/nns in/in any/dti grade/nn into/in groups/nns on/in the/at basis/nn of/in test/nn scores/nns solves/vbz the/at problem/nn of/in meeting/vbg the/at needs/nns of/in individuals/nns ./.
What/wdt they/ppss should/md recognize/vb is/bez that/cs children/nns who/wps have/hv been/ben placed/vbn in/in one/cd of/in these/dts groups/nns on/in a/at narrow/jj academic/jj basis/nn still/rb differ/vb widely/rb in/in attributes/nns that/wps influence/vb success/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs they/ppss still/rb must/md be/be treated/vbn as/cs individuals/nns ./.
Although/cs the/at teacher/nn must/md be/be concerned/vbn with/in maintaining/vbg standards/nns ,/, he/pps must/md also/rb be/be concerned/vbn about/in understanding/vbg differences/nns in/in ability/nn ,/, background/nn ,/, and/cc experience/nn ./.
Factors/nns-hl that/wps-hl inhibit/vb-hl learning/vbg-hl and/cc-hl lead/vb-hl to/in-hl maladjustment/nn-hl 
Studies/nns conducted/vbn in/in various/ap sections/nns of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl indicate/vb that/cs many/ap children/nns in/in elementary/jj schools/nns are/ber maladjusted/jj emotionally/rb ,/, and/cc that/cs many/ap of/in them/ppo are/ber failing/vbg to/to make/vb satisfactory/jj progress/nn in/in school/nn subjects/nns ./.
One/cd study/nn ,/, which/wdt involved/vbd 1,524/cd pupils/nns in/in grades/nns one/cd to/in six/cd ,/, found/vbd that/cs 12/cd percent/nn of/in the/at pupils/nns were/bed seriously/ql maladjusted/jj and/cc that/cs 23/cd percent/nn were/bed reading/vbg a/at year/nn below/in capacity/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez apparent/jj ,/, therefore/rb ,/, that/cs the/at teacher/nn needs/vbz to/to know/vb what/wdt factors/nns have/hv a/at vital/jj bearing/nn on/in the/at learning/nn and/cc adjustment/nn of/in children/nns ./.
When/wrb a/at child/nn fails/vbz to/to meet/vb the/at standards/nns of/in the/at school/nn in/in his/pp$ rate/nn of/in learning/vbg ,/, insecurity/nn ,/, unhappiness/nn ,/, and/cc other/ap forms/nns of/in maladjustment/nn frequently/rb follow/vb ./.
These/dts maladjustments/nns in/in turn/nn inhibit/vb learning/vbg ,/, and/cc a/at vicious/jj cycle/nn is/bez completed/vbn ./.


	It/pps is/bez easy/jj for/cs the/at teacher/nn to/to rationalize/vb that/cs the/at child/nn who/wps is/bez not/* achieving/vbg in/in accordance/nn with/in his/pp$ known/vbn ability/nn is/bez just/rb plain/ql lazy/jj ,/, or/cc that/cs the/at child/nn who/wps lacks/vbz interest/nn in/in school/nn ,/, who/wps dislikes/vbz the/at teacher/nn ,/, or/cc who/wps is/bez overaggressive/jj is/bez a/at hopeless/jj delinquent/nn ./.
The/at causes/nns of/in retardation/nn and/cc maladjustment/nn may/md be/be found/vbn in/in physical/jj factors/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs defective/jj speech/nn or/cc hearing/nn ,/, impaired/vbn vision/nn ,/, faulty/jj motor/nn coordination/nn ,/, a/at frail/jj constitution/nn ,/, chronic/jj disease/nn ,/, malnutrition/nn ,/, and/cc glandular/jj malfunctioning/nn ./.
They/ppss may/md be/be caused/vbn by/in poor/jj health/nn habits/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs faulty/jj eating/vbg and/cc sleeping/vbg habits/nns ./.
They/ppss may/md be/be related/vbn to/in mental/jj immaturity/nn or/cc lack/nn of/in aptitude/nn for/in certain/ap types/nns of/in school/nn work/nn ./.
The/at curriculum/nn may/md be/be too/ql difficult/jj for/in some/dti and/cc too/ql easy/jj for/in others/nns ./.
Teaching/vbg methods/nns ,/, learning/vbg materials/nns ,/, and/cc promotion/nn policies/nns may/md inhibit/vb learning/vbg and/cc lead/vb to/in maladjustments/nns for/in some/dti children/nns ./.
Unwholesome/jj family/nn relations/nns ,/, broken/vbn homes/nns ,/, and/cc undesirable/jj community/nn influences/nns may/md also/rb be/be contributing/vbg factors/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez only/rb a/at minimum/jj list/nn of/in the/at factors/nns that/wps inhibit/vb learning/vbg and/cc contribute/vb to/in maladjustment/nn among/in children/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, these/dts conditions/nns do/do not/* influence/vb all/abn children/nns in/in the/at same/ap manner/nn ./.
A/at vision/nn handicap/nn that/wps may/md produce/vb nervous/jj tension/nn and/cc reading/vbg disability/nn for/in one/cd child/nn may/md spur/vb another/dt child/nn on/rp to/in even/ql greater/jjr achievement/nn in/in reading/vbg ./.
An/at impoverished/jj home/nn that/wps may/md discourage/vb one/cd child/nn may/md constitute/vb the/at motivation/nn causing/vbg another/dt to/to work/vb harder/rbr for/in successful/jj achievement/nn in/in school/nn ./.
At/in any/dti rate/nn ,/, the/at teacher/nn who/wps recognizes/vbz common/jj causes/nns of/in retardation/nn and/cc maladjustment/nn can/md frequently/rb do/do a/at great/jj deal/nn to/to eliminate/vb the/at causes/nns of/in pupil/nn discouragement/nn ,/, failure/nn ,/, and/cc maladjustment/nn ./.



Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl information/nn-hl about/in-hl children/nns-hl 
Successful/jj teaching/nn involves/vbz getting/vbg enough/ap information/nn about/in each/dt pupil/nn to/to understand/vb why/wrb he/pps behaves/vbz as/cs he/pps does/doz in/in certain/ap situations/nns and/cc how/wrb his/pp$ achievement/nn in/in school/nn is/bez being/beg influenced/vbn by/in various/ap factors/nns in/in his/pp$ environment/nn ./.
The/at classroom/nn teacher/nn cannot/md* be/be expected/vbn to/to be/be as/ql proficient/jj in/in the/at use/nn of/in the/at techniques/nns of/in child/nn study/nn as/cs the/at clinical/jj psychologist/nn ;/. ;/.
he/pps cannot/md* be/be expected/vbn to/to administer/vb all/abn the/at tests/nns and/cc gather/vb all/abn the/at information/nn needed/vbn about/in each/dt child/nn in/in his/pp$ classroom/nn ./.
He/pps can/md be/be expected/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, to/to examine/vb and/cc interpret/vb the/at information/nn already/rb available/jj ;/. ;/.
to/to refine/vb and/cc extend/vb his/pp$ own/jj techniques/nns for/in studying/vbg individual/jj children/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc to/to utilize/vb opportunities/nns ,/, arising/vbg in/in connection/nn with/in regular/jj classroom/nn activities/nns ,/, for/in gaining/vbg a/at better/jjr understanding/nn of/in his/pp$ pupils/nns ./.
This/dt section/nn deals/vbz with/in some/dti of/in the/at sources/nns of/in information/nn that/wps can/md be/be tapped/vbn by/in the/at classroom/nn teacher/nn ;/. ;/.
Chapter/nn-tl 15/cd-tl provides/vbz more/ql detailed/vbn information/nn about/in specific/jj techniques/nns used/vbn in/in evaluating/vbg pupil/nn progress/nn ./.
Cumulative/jj-hl records/nns-hl 
Most/ap school/nn systems/nns today/nr maintain/vb a/at system/nn of/in cumulative/jj records/nns of/in pupils/nns ./.
These/dts records/nns ,/, when/wrb systematically/rb maintained/vbn ,/, provide/vb much/ap information/nn about/in the/at children/nns ,/, which/wdt the/at teacher/nn can/md use/vb in/in guidance/nn ,/, instruction/nn ,/, grouping/vbg ,/, and/cc reporting/vbg to/in parents/nns ./.
Each/dt teacher/nn has/hvz in/in his/pp$ classroom/nn a/at metal/nn file/nn ,/, equipped/vbn with/in a/at lock/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez used/vbn to/to store/vb cumulative/jj record/nn folders/nns ./.
During/in summer/nn vacation/nn periods/nns these/dts records/nns are/ber stored/vbn in/in the/at office/nn of/in the/at principal/nn ./.
Only/rb the/at teacher/nn and/cc other/ap professional/jj personnel/nns are/ber permitted/vbn to/to see/vb or/cc use/vb these/dts records/nns ./.
Each/dt new/jj teacher/nn to/in whom/wpo the/at pupil/nn goes/vbz is/bez expected/vbn to/to study/vb the/at information/nn in/in the/at cumulative/jj record/nn and/cc to/to bring/vb it/ppo up/rp to/in date/nn ./.
Some/dti school/nn systems/nns provide/vb written/vbn instructions/nns to/in principals/nns and/cc teachers/nns designating/vbg when/wrb certain/ap information/nn is/bez to/to be/be recorded/vbn on/in cumulative/jj record/nn forms/nns and/cc explaining/vbg how/wrb the/at information/nn is/bez to/to be/be summarized/vbn and/cc used/vbn ./.



	The/at Summary/nn-tl Report/nn-tl On/in-tl Desegregation/nn-tl Progress/nn-tl In/in-tl Education/nn-tl In/in-tl The/at-tl Middle-South/jj-tl Region/nn-tl ,/, 1959/cd-tl -/in-tl 1960/cd-tl ''/'' clearly/rb shows/vbz two/cd pieces/nns of/in information/nn ./.
The/at Summary/nn-tl Report/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt was/bedz prepared/vbn for/in this/dt Conference/nn-tl ,/, indicates/vbz ,/, first/rb ,/, that/cs actual/jj or/cc pending/jj school/nn desegregation/nn is/bez increasing/vbg ;/. ;/.
second/rb ,/, that/cs both/abx actual/jj and/cc pending/jj desegregation/nn is/bez ,/, with/in few/ap exceptions/nns ,/, the/at product/nn or/cc result/nn of/in court/nn order/nn ./.
The/at Report/nn-tl together/rb with/in other/ap information/nn suggests/vbz that/cs desegregation/nn in/in the/at schools/nns is/bez slow/jj ./.


	The/at Middle-South/jj-tl Region/nn-tl ,/, as/cs defined/vbn by/in the/at National/jj-tl Association/nn-tl of/in-tl Intergroup/jj-tl Relations/nns-tl Officials/nns-tl (/( NAIRO/np )/) ,/, consists/vbz of/in the/at states/nns of/in Kentucky/np ,/, Maryland/np ,/, Tennessee/np ,/, West/jj-tl Virginia/np-tl ,/, Delaware/np ,/, Virginia/np and/cc the/at District/nn-tl of/in-tl Columbia/np-tl ./.
The/at states/nns and/cc the/at Nation's/nn$-tl Capital/nn-tl all/abn have/hv some/dti desegregation/nn ,/, in/in fact/nn some/dti dating/vbg back/rb to/in 1954/cd ;/. ;/.
but/cc the/at region/nn also/rb embraces/vbz some/dti of/in the/at staunchest/jjt opposition/nn ./.
Desegregation/nn has/hvz been/ben opposed/vbn by/in massive/jj resistance/nn ,/, interposition/nn ,/, pupil/nn assignment/nn (/( with/in no/at assignments/nns of/in Negro/np children/nns )/) ,/, and/cc hate/nn bombings/nns ./.



Desegregation/nn-hl and/cc-hl court/nn-hl order/nn-hl 
Now/rb let's/vb+ppo look/vb at/in the/at evidence/nn that/wps shows/vbz the/at increase/nn in/in desegregation/nn and/cc such/jj increase/nn as/cs a/at result/nn of/in court/nn order/nn ./.
First/rb Kentucky/np ./.
Elementary/jj school/nn desegregation/nn came/vbd to/in Owen/np and/cc Union/nn-tl Counties/nns-tl ,/, which/wdt already/rb had/hvd high/jj school/nn desegregation/nn ./.
The/at action/nn was/bedz a/at result/nn of/in a/at court/nn order/nn ,/, the/at citation/nn for/in which/wdt (/( and/cc for/in other/ap court/nn action/nn mentioned/vbn in/in this/dt paper/nn )/) is/bez taken/vbn from/in the/at Summary/nn-tl Report/nn-tl for/in this/dt Conference/nn-tl ./.
In/in Maryland/np the/at Harford/np-tl County/nn-tl Board/nn-tl of/in-tl Education/nn-tl had/hvd prepared/vbn a/at desegregation/nn plan/nn which/wdt the/at Court/nn-tl approved/vbd but/cc which/wdt a/at plaintiff/nn had/hvd challenged/vbn ;/. ;/.
thus/rb ,/, county/nn school/nn board/nn and/cc Federal/jj-tl court/nn joined/vbd hands/nns here/rb to/to promote/vb school/nn desegregation/nn ./.


	Additional/jj school/nn desegregation/nn in/in Tennessee/np resulted/vbd from/in a/at court/nn order/nn opening/vbg a/at school/nn serving/vbg children/nns of/in military/jj personnel/nns ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, further/ap desegregation/nn may/md come/vb from/in suits/nns pending/jj in/in three/cd Tennessee/np cities/nns ,/, Chattanooga/np ,/, Knoxville/np ,/, and/cc Memphis/np ./.
In/in West/jj-tl Virginia/np-tl the/at number/nn of/in white/jj and/cc Negro/np children/nns attending/vbg the/at same/ap school/nn has/hvz increased/vbn almost/ql twofold/rb ./.
There/ex are/ber no/at court/nn decisions/nns here/rb ./.


	As/cs in/in Maryland/np ,/, a/at District/nn-tl court/nn has/hvz approved/vbn an/at official/jj plan/nn of/in school/nn desegregation/nn in/in Delaware/np ./.
As/cs a/at result/nn of/in the/at State/nn-tl Board/nn-tl of/in-tl Education/nn-tl plan/nn ,/, Negro/np children/nns entered/vbd heretofore/rb white/jj elementary/jj schools/nns in/in five/cd districts/nns ./.
The/at Third/od-tl Circuit/nn-tl Court/nn-tl of/in-tl Appeals/nns-tl is/bez reviewing/vbg an/at appeal/nn from/in the/at plan/nn ./.


	In/in Virginia/np court/nn orders/nns led/vbd to/in desegregation/nn in/in Charlottesville/np-tl and/cc Floyd/np-tl Counties/nns-tl ./.
Desegregation/nn in/in Pulaski/np-tl County/nn-tl is/bez pending/in because/rb of/in court/nn order/nn ,/, although/cs date/nn of/in admission/nn is/bez not/* yet/rb determined/vbn ./.
Negro/np parents/nns have/hv filed/vbn application/nn for/in admission/nn of/in additional/jj children/nns to/in schools/nns in/in Alexandria/np ,/, Arlington/np ,/, Fairfax/np ,/, and/cc Warren/np-tl Counties/nns-tl ./.
Desegregation/nn can/md also/rb result/vb from/in additional/jj suits/nns brought/vbn by/in Negro/np plaintiffs/nns against/in school/nn boards/nns in/in Newport/np News/np ,/, Fairfax/np-tl County/nn-tl ,/, Arlington/np-tl County/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Norfolk/np ./.


	As/cs a/at school/nn district/nn ,/, the/at District/nn-tl of/in-tl Columbia/np-tl has/hvz had/hvn desegregated/vbn schools/nns since/in 1954/cd ,/, shortly/rb after/in the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl decision/nn ./.


	This/dt recapitulation/nn makes/vbz it/ppo clear/jj that/cs school/nn desegregation/nn continues/vbz ,/, including/in the/at Old/jj-tl Dominion/nn-tl State/nn-tl ,/, in/in spite/nn of/in its/pp$ stern/jj resistance/nn ./.
The/at record/nn is/bez clear/jj that/cs increase/nn in/in school/nn desegregation/nn last/ap year/nn came/vbd largely/rb as/cs a/at result/nn of/in a/at court/nn order/nn ;/. ;/.
that/cs on/in the/at immediate/jj horizon/nn ,/, if/cs further/ap large-scale/nn (/( relatively/rb speaking/vbg )/) desegregation/nn comes/vbz ,/, it/pps will/md result/vb from/in court/nn orders/nns on/in suits/nns filed/vbn in/in several/ap Middle-South/jj states/nns ./.
Knowledge/nn that/cs thousands/nns of/in school/nn districts/nns are/ber involved/vbn and/cc observation/nn that/cs school/nn desegregation/nn has/hvz occurred/vbn in/in only/rb a/at handful/nn in/in 1959-1960/cd leads/vbz to/in a/at conclusion/nn that/dt desegregation-from-court-order/nn is/bez slow/jj ./.


	Before/cs turning/vbg to/in my/pp$ views/nns as/in to/in the/at problems/nns and/cc issues/nns before/in us/ppo at/in this/dt Regional/jj-tl Conference/nn-tl ,/, I/ppss wish/vb to/to note/vb a/at small/jj item/nn in/in the/at Summary/nn-tl Report/nn-tl as/cs it/pps refers/vbz to/in the/at District/nn-tl of/in-tl Columbia/np-tl ./.
That/dt reference/nn in/in the/at Report/nn-tl is/bez ``/`` continuation/nn of/in the/at trend/nn toward/in an/at all-Negro/jj school/nn system/nn ''/'' ,/, a/at remark/nn apparently/rb occasioned/vbn by/in the/at increase/nn of/in Negro/np school/nn population/nn from/in 74.1/cd per/in cent/nn to/in 76.7/cd per/in cent/nn ./.
I/ppss see/vb no/at real/jj prospects/nns for/in an/at all-Negro/jj school/nn population/nn ./.
West/nr of/in Rock/nn-tl Creek/nn-tl Park/nn-tl is/bez still/rb monolithically/rb white/jj and/cc is/bez in/in fact/nn increasingly/rb white/jj as/cs a/at result/nn of/in Georgetown's/np$ conversion-by-renovation/nn housing/vbg program/nn ./.
Nearby/jj Foggy/jj-tl Bottom/nn-tl is/bez ousting/vbg Negroes/nps ./.
The/at large/jj acreage/nn in/in the/at Southwest/jj-tl Redevelopment/nn-tl area/nn beckons/vbz white/jj people/nns --/-- what/wdt with/in high-priced/jj town/nn houses/nns and/cc elevator/nn apartments/nns ./.
The/at Capitol/nn-tl Hill/nn-tl rehabilitation/nn ,/, like/cs Foggy/jj-tl Bottom/nn-tl ,/, replaces/vbz Negroes/nps with/in whites/nns (/( but/cc also/rb replaces/vbz some/dti whites/nns with/in other/ap whites/nns )/) ./.


	The/at sharpest/jjt break/nn with/in tradition/nn ,/, the/at past/nn and/cc present/nn of/in ``/`` White/jj Ring/nn Around/in a/at Black/jj Core/nn ''/'' ,/, may/md come/vb with/in the/at opening/nn of/in nearby/jj Montgomery/np-tl County/nn-tl suburbs/nns to/in Negro/np residents/nns and/cc ,/, presumably/rb ,/, the/at consequent/jj conclusion/nn of/in some/dti whites/nns that/cs they/ppss cannot/md* escape/vb the/at Negro/np by/in fleeing/vbg to/in the/at suburbs/nns ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, short/jj of/in fleeing/vbg to/in Warrenton/np ,/, Virginia/np ,/, or/cc Rockville/np ,/, Maryland/np ,/, white/jj people/nns may/md have/hv to/to live/vb with/in Negroes/nps ./.
All/abn of/in this/dt must/md be/be taken/vbn into/in account/nn before/cs the/at image/nn of/in an/at ``/`` all-Negro/jj ''/'' D.C./np public/jj school/nn system/nn is/bez conjured/vbn up/rp ./.



Problems/nns-hl to/to-hl solve/vb-hl 
From/in the/at Summary/nn-tl Report/nn-tl before/in us/ppo at/in this/dt Conference/nn-tl ,/, a/at number/nn of/in problems/nns are/ber apparent/jj ./.
They/ppss vex/vb us/ppo and/cc perplex/vb us/ppo but/cc generally/rb do/do not/* divide/vb us/ppo like/cs the/at issues/nns which/wdt follow/vb the/at problems/nns ./.


	First/rb ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss step/vb up/rp the/at desegregation/nn movement/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps is/bez slow/jj ./.
I/ppss believe/vb we/ppss all/abn want/vb more/ap schools/nns where/wrb white/jj and/cc Negro/np together/rb can/md and/cc do/do attend/vb ./.
I/ppss believe/vb we/ppss all/abn want/vb no/at child/nn denied/vbn admission/nn to/in a/at school/nn on/in account/nn of/in his/pp$ color/nn ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, members/nns of/in NAIRO/nn would/md certainly/rb want/vb a/at child/nn admitted/vbn to/in a/at school/nn nearest/in his/pp$ residence/nn or/cc within/in his/pp$ residence/nn zone/nn ./.
How/wrb to/to achieve/vb this/dt objective/nn is/bez a/at problem/nn ,/, but/cc we/ppss are/ber not/* divided/vbn on/in what/wdt we/ppss want/vb ./.


	Second/rb ,/, as/cs we/ppss increase/vb the/at number/nn of/in desegregated/vbn school/nn districts/nns and/cc schools/nns themselves/ppls ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss achieve/vb this/dt action/nn through/in school/nn board/nn action/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps may/md be/be county/nn school/nn board/nn or/cc state/nn school/nn board/nn action/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs that/dt of/in municipal/jj school/nn boards/nns ./.
Correlatively/rb ,/, can/md we/ppss reduce/vb the/at role/nn of/in the/at district/nn courts/nns ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at action/nn is/bez that/dt of/in the/at people/nns of/in the/at community/nn or/cc other/ap school/nn district/nn and/cc not/* that/dt of/in the/at law/nn court/nn ?/. ?/.
This/dt is/bez a/at problem/nn ,/, and/cc I/ppss believe/vb there/ex is/bez little/ap difference/nn of/in opinion/nn that/cs wherever/wrb possible/jj a/at local/jj school/nn board/nn should/md devise/vb and/cc effect/vb a/at plan/nn of/in desegregation/nn ./.


	Third/rb ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss insure/vb a/at systematic/jj and/cc continuing/vbg group/nn relations/nns education/nn in/in the/at schools/nns ?/. ?/.
Not/* simply/rb a/at brief/jj program/nn when/wrb the/at schools/nns are/ber actually/rb desegregated/vbn but/cc a/at continuing/vbg program/nn that/wps also/rb promotes/vbz integration/nn ,/, that/wps encourages/vbz the/at children/nns and/cc teachers/nns not/* to/to look/vb at/in each/dt other/ap as/cs white/jj or/cc Negro/np ,/, but/cc as/cs human/jj beings/nns ./.
Again/rb the/at problem/nn is/bez how/wrb to/to get/vb it/ppo done/vbn and/cc in/in what/wdt form/nn to/to offer/vb the/at group/nn relations/nns education/nn ;/. ;/.
not/* whether/cs it/pps should/md be/be done/vbn ./.


	Fourth/rb ,/, in/in the/at segregated/vbn school/nn system/nn ,/, during/in the/at period/nn before/in desegregation/nn ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss assure/vb equal/jj opportunity/nn ?/. ?/.
In/in fact/nn ,/, in/in the/at desegregated/vbn school/nn system/nn which/wdt may/md have/hv a/at good/jj many/ap schools/nns with/in all-Negro/jj population/nn ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss assure/vb equal/jj opportunity/nn ?/. ?/.
This/dt is/bez a/at problem/nn ,/, but/cc we/ppss are/ber not/* divided/vbn over/in its/pp$ importance/nn or/cc by/in its/pp$ existence/nn ./.


	Fifth/rb ,/, in/in the/at segregated/vbn school/nn system/nn or/cc in/in the/at all-Negro/jj or/cc all-white/jj schools/nns ,/, how/wrb can/md we/ppss encourage/vb better/jjr group/nn relations/nns or/cc an/at improved/vbn attitude/nn toward/in people/nns who/wps do/do not/* belong/vb to/in the/at group/nn ?/. ?/.
Can/md we/ppss help/vb children/nns adjust/vb to/in ``/`` images/nns of/in other/ap children/nns ''/'' when/wrb the/at latter/ap are/ber not/* actually/rb present/rb ./.



Now/rb-hl ,/,-hl the/at-hl issues/nns-hl 
If/cs we/ppss have/hv five/cd problems/nns whose/wp$ solution/nn we/ppss seek/vb in/in relatively/ql united/vbn fashion/nn ,/, then/rb there/ex are/ber twice/rb as/cs many/ap issues/nns which/wdt ,/, I/ppss judge/vb ,/, sharply/rb divide/vb us/ppo ,/, intergroup/jj relations/nns practitioners/nns and/cc lay/jj people/nns ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 1/cd-hl ./.-hl
Pupil/nn-hl assignment/nn-hl ./.-hl

Since/cs on/in the/at one/cd hand/nn school/nn desegregation/nn has/hvz come/vbn in/in Virginia/np hand-in-glove/rb with/in pupil/nn assignment/nn ,/, shall/md we/ppss support/vb the/at plan/nn ?/. ?/.
On/in the/at basis/nn of/in pupil/nn assignment/nn criteria/nns ,/, Judge/nn-tl Albert/np Bryan/np has/hvz assigned/vbn Negro/np children/nns to/in formerly/rb white/jj schools/nns in/in Arlington/np and/cc Alexandria/np ,/, Virginia/np ./.
Shall/md we/ppss support/vb pupil/nn assignment/nn ?/. ?/.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, looking/vbg at/in the/at larger/jjr picture/nn ,/, is/bez it/pps true/jj that/cs pupil/nn assignment/nn has/hvz effectively/rb cut/vbn off/rp ,/, blocked/vbn ,/, or/cc reduced/vbn school/nn desegregation/nn to/in a/at ``/`` trickle/nn ''/'' ?/. ?/.
Shall/md we/ppss therefore/rb oppose/vb the/at plan/nn ?/. ?/.
This/dt question/nn is/bez an/at issue/nn because/cs it/pps likely/rb divides/vbz us/ppo into/in two/cd camps/nns --/-- those/dts for/in or/cc against/in pupil/nn assignment/nn ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 2/cd-hl ./.-hl
Teacher/nn-hl assignment/nn-hl in/in-hl order/nn-hl to/to-hl desegregate/vb-hl ./.-hl

In/in large/jj cities/nns like/cs Baltimore/np ,/, Louisville/np ,/, and/cc Washington/np ,/, D.C./np ,/, should/md school/vb desegregation/nn be/be extended/vbn to/in all-Negro/jj and/cc all-white/jj schools/nns by/in assigning/vbg white/jj and/cc Negro/np teachers/nns ,/, respectively/rb ?/. ?/.
On/in the/at one/cd hand/nn do/do we/ppss argue/vb the/at Supreme/jj-tl Court/nn-tl decision/nn required/vbd only/rb that/cs a/at child/nn not/* be/be denied/vbn admission/nn to/in a/at school/nn on/in account/nn of/in his/pp$ race/nn ?/. ?/.
Or/cc should/md we/ppss argue/vb that/cs if/cs we/ppss want/vb adjustment/nn of/in children/nns to/in children/nns of/in different/jj races/nns and/cc that/cs that/dt is/bez impossible/jj in/in an/at all-something-or-the-other/jj school/nn ,/, we/ppss must/md at/in least/ap provide/vb him/ppo some/dti opportunity/nn to/to adjust/vb to/in people/nns of/in another/dt race/nn within/in the/at school/nn --/-- namely/rb ,/, to/in a/at teacher/nn of/in another/dt race/nn ./.
We/ppss can/md argue/vb that/cs where/wrb residence/nn makes/vbz pupil/nn desegregation/nn impossible/jj teacher/nn assignment/nn can/md create/vb a/at partially/rb desegregated/vbn situation/nn ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 3/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl plaintiff/nn-hl in/in-hl school/nn-hl desegregation/nn-hl cases/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at earlier/jjr part/nn of/in my/pp$ statement/nn deals/vbz with/in the/at court/nn orders/nns that/wps resulted/vbd in/in desegregation/nn ./.
In/in each/dt instance/nn the/at plaintiff/nn was/bedz a/at private/jj citizen/nn ./.
In/in thousands/nns of/in school/nn districts/nns ,/, indeed/rb ,/, in/in the/at entire/jj State/nn-tl of/in-tl Mississippi/np-tl ,/, no/at plaintiff/nn has/hvz come/vbn forth/rb ./.
And/cc I/ppss have/hv established/vbn that/cs the/at action/nn of/in municipal/jj ,/, county/nn ,/, or/cc state/nn school/nn boards/nns or/cc boards/nns of/in education/nn is/bez small/jj ,/, infinitesimally/ql small/jj in/in comparison/nn with/in the/at number/nn of/in districts/nns ./.
Is/bez the/at requirement/nn that/cs the/at plaintiff/nn be/be a/at person/nn actually/rb denied/vbn admission/nn to/in a/at school/nn a/at sound/jj requirement/nn ?/. ?/.
Should/md Congress/np authorize/vb the/at Attorney/nn-tl General/jj-tl to/to file/vb suit/nn to/to accomplish/vb admission/nn of/in a/at child/nn to/in a/at school/nn to/in which/wdt he/pps is/bez denied/vbn entrance/nn ?/. ?/.
Even/rb though/cs in/in civil/jj rights/nns legislation/nn in/in 1957/cd and/cc 1960/cd the/at provision/nn for/in the/at Attorney/nn-tl General/jj-tl to/in act/nn was/bedz eliminated/vbn ,/, should/md we/ppss nevertheless/rb support/vb such/abl a/at clause/nn ?/. ?/.
This/dt is/bez an/at issue/nn ,/, for/cs it/pps divides/vbz people/nns rather/ql sharply/rb ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Withholding/vbg-hl of/in-hl funds/nns-hl to/in-hl schools/nns-hl that/wps-hl deny/vb-hl children/nns-hl on/in-hl account/nn-hl of/in-hl race/nn-hl ./.-hl

This/dt is/bez the/at Powell/np-tl Amendment/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt in/in 1957/cd divided/vbd even/rb a/at ``/`` liberal/jj ''/'' group/nn like/cs the/at American/jj-tl Veterans/nns-tl Committee/nn-tl (/( AVC/np )/) ./.
Should/md we/ppss support/vb a/at clause/nn in/in Federal/jj-tl school/nn construction/nn or/cc school/nn assistance/nn legislation/nn that/wps would/md deny/vb Federal/jj-tl funds/nns to/in a/at school/nn district/nn that/wps denies/vbz admission/nn to/in a/at child/nn on/in account/nn of/in his/pp$ race/nn ?/. ?/.
This/dt is/bez softer/jjr than/cs earlier/jjr Powell/np amendments/nns which/wdt would/md have/hv denied/vbn funds/nns to/in all/abn segregated/vbn school/nn districts/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez nonetheless/rb considerable/jj argument/nn against/in the/at clause/nn ,/, softened/vbn though/cs it/pps be/be ,/, on/in the/at grounds/nns that/cs Federal/jj-tl aid/nn is/bez so/ql necessary/jj to/in the/at public/jj schools/nns ./.
The/at Federal/jj-tl funds/nns limitation/nn enlists/vbz the/at support/nn of/in many/ap ,/, the/at opposition/nn of/in quite/abl a/at few/ap ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 5/cd-hl ./.-hl
Required/vbn-hl public/jj-hl education/nn-hl ./.-hl

Should/md a/at political/jj subdivision/nn ,/, state/nn or/cc county/nn or/cc municipality/nn ,/, be/be required/vbn to/to furnish/vb public/jj education/nn ?/. ?/.
For/in the/at school/nn year/nn ,/, 1959-1960/cd ,/, the/at Prince/nn-tl Edward/np-tl County/nn-tl (/( Virginia/np )/) Board/nn-tl of/in-tl Supervisors/nns-tl voted/vbd not/* to/to provide/vb funds/nns for/in public/jj education/nn ,/, and/cc the/at school/nn board/nn therefore/rb could/md provide/vb no/at public/jj education/nn --/-- for/in white/jj or/cc Negro/np children/nns ./.
Is/bez public/jj education/nn in/in this/dt American/jj democracy/nn of/in such/jj importance/nn that/cs no/at child/nn should/md be/be denied/vbn public/jj education/nn ?/. ?/.
Or/cc is/bez this/dt subject/nn a/at matter/nn of/in self-determination/nn ,/, a/at matter/nn of/in states/nns rights/nns or/cc county/nn rights/nns ?/. ?/.
If/cs people/nns don't/do* want/vb to/to provide/vb public/jj education/nn ,/, should/md they/ppss be/be forced/vbn to/to do/do so/rb ?/. ?/.
Even/rb if/cs we/ppss marshal/vb substantial/jj agreement/nn behind/in mandatory/jj public/jj education/nn ,/, we/ppss likely/rb cannot/md* expect/vb that/cs all/abn the/at states/nns will/md enact/vb the/at legislation/nn ./.
Should/md the/at requirement/nn ,/, which/wdt must/md therefore/rb be/be Federal/jj-tl in/in nature/nn ,/, be/be legislated/vbn by/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Congress/np-tl ?/. ?/.
Or/cc must/md it/ppo become/vb law/nn by/in amendment/nn of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl Constitution/nn-tl ?/. ?/.
We/ppss actually/rb have/hv two/cd issues/nns in/in this/dt question/nn --/-- goal/nn and/cc method/nn ./.
Issue/nn-hl no./nn-hl 6/cd-hl ./.-hl
Federal/jj-tl-hl responsibility/nn-hl for/in-hl education/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl citizens/nns-hl ./.-hl

If/cs the/at above/jj issue/nn is/bez settled/vbn by/in requiring/vbg public/jj education/nn for/in all/abn citizens/nns ,/, Issue/nn-tl No./nn-tl 6/cd-tl may/md be/be moot/jj ./.
If/cs ,/, on/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* settled/vbn ,/, or/cc while/cs it/pps is/bez being/beg debated/vbn and/cc resolved/vbn ,/, does/doz the/at Federal/jj-tl government/nn have/hv a/at responsibility/nn in/in situations/nns like/cs that/dt in/in Prince/nn-tl Edward/np-tl County/nn-tl ?/. ?/.
Nearly/rb half/abn the/at children/nns still/rb receive/vb no/at education/nn ./.
Must/md or/cc should/md the/at Federal/jj-tl government/nn help/vb ?/. ?/.
Should/md the/at government/nn directly/rb provide/vb education/nn for/in the/at children/nns who/wps want/vb public/jj education/nn ?/. ?/.



	The/at next/ap question/nn is/bez whether/cs board/nn members/nns favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns in/in their/pp$ roles/nns as/cs educational/jj policy-makers/nns ./.
On/in the/at whole/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs they/ppss do/do not/* favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns in/in an/at explicit/jj way/nn ./.
Seldom/rb is/bez there/ex an/at issue/nn in/in which/wdt class/nn lines/nns can/md be/be clearly/rb drawn/vbn ./.
A/at hypothetical/jj issue/nn of/in this/dt sort/nn might/md deal/vb with/in the/at establishment/nn of/in a/at free/jj public/jj junior/jj college/nn in/in a/at community/nn where/wrb there/ex already/rb was/bedz a/at good/jj private/jj college/nn which/wdt served/vbd the/at middle-class/nn youth/nn adequately/rb but/cc was/bedz too/ql expensive/jj for/in working-class/nn youth/nn ./.
In/in situations/nns of/in this/dt sort/nn the/at board/nn generally/rb favors/vbz the/at expansion/nn of/in free/jj education/nn ./.
Campbell/np studied/vbd the/at records/nns of/in 172/cd school/nn board/nn members/nns in/in twelve/cd western/jj cities/nns over/in the/at period/nn of/in 1931/cd -/in 40/cd and/cc found/vbd ``/`` little/ap or/cc no/at relationship/nn between/in certain/ap social/jj and/cc economic/jj factors/nns and/cc school/nn board/nn competence/nn ''/'' ,/, as/cs judged/vbn by/in a/at panel/nn of/in professional/jj educators/nns who/wps studied/vbd the/at voting/vbg records/nns on/in educational/jj issues/nns ./.


	The/at few/ap cases/nns of/in clear/jj favoritism/nn along/in social-class/nn lines/nns are/ber as/ql likely/jj as/cs not/* to/to involve/vb representatives/nns of/in the/at working/vbg class/nn on/in the/at school/nn board/nn who/wps favor/vb some/dti such/jj practice/nn as/cs higher/jjr wages/nns for/in janitors/nns rather/rb than/cs pay/nn increases/nns for/in teachers/nns ,/, and/cc such/jj issues/nns are/ber not/* issues/nns of/in educational/jj policy/nn ./.


	In/in general/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs trustees/nns and/cc board/nn members/nns attempt/vb to/to represent/vb the/at public/jj interest/nn in/in their/pp$ administration/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt is/bez made/vbn easier/jjr by/in the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at dominant/jj values/nns of/in the/at society/nn are/ber middle-class/nn values/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber generally/rb thought/vbn to/to be/be valid/jj for/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.
There/ex have/hv been/ben very/ql few/ap cases/nns of/in explicit/jj conflict/nn of/in interest/nn between/in the/at middle/jj class/nn and/cc any/dti other/ap class/nn in/in the/at field/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ./.
If/cs there/ex were/bed more/ap such/jj cases/nns ,/, it/pps would/md be/be easier/jjr to/to answer/vb the/at question/nn whether/cs the/at policy-makers/nns favor/vb their/pp$ own/jj social/jj classes/nns ./.


	There/ex is/bez currently/rb a/at major/jj controversy/nn of/in public/jj education/nn in/in which/wdt group/nn interests/nns and/cc values/nns are/ber heavily/rb engaged/vbn ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at issue/nn of/in segregated/vbn schools/nns in/in the/at South/nr-tl ./.
In/in this/dt case/nn it/pps is/bez primarily/rb a/at matter/nn of/in conflict/nn of/in racial/jj groups/nns rather/rb than/cs social-class/nn groups/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at white/jj middle/jj and/cc lower/jjr classes/nns are/ber arrayed/vbn against/in the/at Negro/np middle/jj and/cc lower/jjr classes/nns ./.
This/dt conflict/nn may/md be/be resolved/vbn in/in a/at way/nn which/wdt will/md suit/vb white/jj middle-class/nn people/nns better/rbr than/cs it/pps suits/vbz white/jj lower-class/nn people/nns ./.
If/cs this/dt happens/vbz ,/, there/ex may/md be/be some/dti class/nn conflict/nn in/in the/at South/nr-tl ,/, with/in school/nn boards/nns and/cc school/nn teachers/nns taking/vbg the/at middle-class/nn position/nn ./.



The/at-hl educational/jj-hl profession/nn-hl 
The/at members/nns of/in the/at educational/jj profession/nn have/hv a/at major/jj voice/nn in/in the/at determination/nn of/in educational/jj policy/nn ,/, their/pp$ position/nn being/beg strongest/jjt in/in the/at universities/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber mostly/rb upper-middle-/jj and/cc lower-middle-class/nn people/nns ,/, with/in a/at few/ap in/in the/at upper/jj class/nn ./.
Do/do they/ppss make/vb class-biased/jj decisions/nns ?/. ?/.


	In/in a/at society/nn dominated/vbn by/in middle-class/nn values/nns and/cc working/vbg in/in an/at institution/nn which/wdt transmits/vbz and/cc strengthens/vbz these/dts social/jj values/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs the/at educational/jj profession/nn must/md work/vb for/in the/at values/nns which/wdt are/ber characteristic/jj of/in the/at society/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez no/at problem/nn here/rb ./.
The/at problem/nn arises/vbz ,/, if/cs it/pps does/doz arise/vb ,/, when/wrb the/at educator/nn has/hvz to/to make/vb a/at choice/nn or/cc a/at decision/nn within/in the/at area/nn of/in his/pp$ professional/jj competence/nn ,/, but/cc which/wdt bears/vbz some/dti relation/nn to/in the/at social/jj structure/nn ./.
For/in instance/nn ,/, in/in giving/vbg school/nn grades/nns or/cc in/in making/vbg recommendations/nns for/in the/at award/nn of/in a/at college/nn scholarship/nn ,/, does/doz he/pps consciously/rb or/cc unconsciously/rb favor/vb students/nns of/in one/cd or/cc another/dt social/jj class/nn ?/. ?/.
Again/rb ,/, in/in deciding/vbg on/in the/at content/nn and/cc method/nn of/in his/pp$ teaching/nn ,/, does/doz he/pps favor/vb a/at curriculum/nn which/wdt will/md make/vb his/pp$ students/nns stronger/jjr competitors/nns in/in the/at race/nn for/in higher/jjr economic/jj status/nn ,/, or/cc does/doz he/pps favor/vb a/at curriculum/nn which/wdt strengthens/vbz students/nns in/in other/ap ways/nns ?/. ?/.


	The/at answers/nns to/in questions/nns such/jj as/cs these/dts certainly/rb depend/vb to/in some/dti extent/nn upon/in the/at educator's/nn$ own/jj social-class/nn position/nn and/cc also/rb upon/in his/pp$ social/jj history/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs upon/in his/pp$ personality/nn and/cc what/wdt he/pps conceives/vbz his/pp$ mission/nn to/to be/be as/cs an/at educator/nn ./.
In/in a/at set/nn of/in case/nn studies/nns of/in teachers/nns with/in various/ap social-class/nn backgrounds/nns ,/, Wattenberg/np illustrates/vbz a/at variety/nn of/in approaches/nns to/in students/nns and/cc to/in teaching/vbg which/wdt depend/vb upon/in the/at teacher's/nn$ personality/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs on/in his/pp$ social-class/nn background/nn ./.
One/cd upward-mobile/jj teacher/nn may/md be/be a/at hard/jj taskmaster/nn for/in lower-class/nn pupils/nns because/cs she/pps wants/vbz them/ppo to/to develop/vb the/at attitudes/nns and/cc skills/nns that/wps will/md enable/vb them/ppo to/to climb/vb ,/, while/cs another/dt upward-mobile/jj teacher/nn may/md be/be a/at very/ql permissive/jj person/nn with/in lower-class/nn pupils/nns because/cs he/pps knows/vbz their/pp$ disadvantages/nns and/cc deprivations/nns at/in home/nn ,/, and/cc he/pps hopes/vbz to/to encourage/vb them/ppo by/in friendly/jj treatment/nn ./.


	One/cd social-class/nn factor/nn which/wdt plays/vbz a/at large/jj part/nn in/in educational/jj policy/nn today/nr is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs a/at great/ql many/ap school/nn and/cc college/nn teachers/nns are/ber upward/rb mobile/jj from/in urban/jj lower-class/nn and/cc lower-middle-class/nn families/nns ./.
Their/pp$ own/jj experience/nn in/in the/at social/jj system/nn influences/vbz their/pp$ work/nn and/cc attitudes/nns as/cs teachers/nns ./.
While/cs this/dt influence/nn is/bez a/at complex/jj matter/nn ,/, depending/in upon/in personality/nn factors/nns in/in the/at individual/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs upon/in his/pp$ social-class/nn experience/nn ,/, there/ex probably/rb are/ber some/dti general/jj statements/nns about/in social-class/nn background/nn and/cc educational/jj policy/nn that/wps can/md be/be made/vbn with/in a/at fair/jj degree/nn of/in truth/nn ./.


	Teachers/nns who/wps have/hv been/ben upward/rb mobile/jj probably/rb see/vb education/nn as/cs most/ql valuable/jj for/in their/pp$ students/nns if/cs it/pps serves/vbz students/nns as/cs it/pps has/hvz served/vbn them/ppo ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, they/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to favor/vb a/at kind/nn of/in education/nn that/wps has/hvz vocational-advancement/nn value/nn ./.
This/dt does/doz not/* necessarily/rb mean/vb that/cs such/jj teachers/nns will/md favor/vb vocational/jj education/nn ,/, as/cs contrasted/vbn with/in liberal/jj education/nn ,/, but/cc they/ppss are/ber likely/jj to/to favor/vb an/at approach/nn to/in liberal/jj education/nn which/wdt has/hvz a/at maximal/jj vocational-advancement/nn value/nn ,/, as/cs against/in a/at kind/nn of/in ``/`` pure/jj ''/'' liberal/jj education/nn that/wps is/bez not/* designed/vbn to/to help/vb people/nns get/vb better/jjr jobs/nns ./.


	There/ex is/bez no/at doubt/nn that/cs higher/jjr education/nn since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, has/hvz moved/vbn away/rb from/in ``/`` pure/jj ''/'' liberal/jj education/nn toward/in greater/jjr emphasis/nn on/in technology/nn and/cc specialization/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber several/ap causes/nns for/in this/dt ,/, one/cd being/beg rapid/jj economic/jj development/nn with/in increasing/vbg numbers/nns of/in of/in middle-class/nn positions/nns requiring/vbg engineering/vbg or/cc scientific/jj training/nn ./.
But/cc another/dt cause/nn may/md lie/vb in/in the/at experience/nn of/in so/ql many/ap new/jj postwar/jj faculty/nn members/nns with/in their/pp$ own/jj use/nn of/in education/nn as/cs a/at means/nn of/in social/jj advancement/nn ./.


	Compared/vbn with/in the/at college/nn and/cc university/nn faculty/nn members/nns of/in the/at period/nn from/in 1900/cd to/in 1930/cd ,/, the/at new/jj postwar/jj faculty/nn members/nns consist/vb of/in more/ap children/nns of/in immigrants/nns and/cc more/ap children/nns of/in urban/jj working-class/nn fathers/nns ./.
Their/pp$ experience/nn is/bez quite/rb in/in contrast/nn with/in that/dt of/in children/nns of/in upper-/jj and/cc upper-middle-class/nn native-born/jj parents/nns ,/, who/wps are/ber more/ql likely/jj to/to regard/vb education/nn as/cs good/jj for/in its/pp$ own/jj sake/nn and/cc to/to discount/vb the/at vocational/jj emphases/nns in/in the/at curriculum/nn ./.



The/at ``/`` public/jj interest/nn ''/'' groups/nns 
Educational/jj policies/nns are/ber formed/vbn by/in several/ap groups/nns who/wps are/ber officially/rb or/cc unofficially/rb appointed/vbn to/to act/vb in/in the/at public/jj interest/nn ./.
Legislators/nns are/ber one/cd such/jj group/nn ,/, and/cc state/nn legislators/nns have/hv major/jj responsibility/nn for/in educational/jj legislation/nn ./.
They/ppss generally/rb vote/vb so/cs as/cs to/to serve/vb their/pp$ own/jj constituency/nn ,/, and/cc if/cs the/at constituency/nn should/md be/be solidly/rb middle/jj class/nn or/cc solidly/rb lower/jjr class/nn ,/, they/ppss might/md be/be expected/vbn to/to vote/vb and/cc work/vb for/in middle-/jj or/cc for/in lower-class/nn interests/nns in/in education/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber relatively/ql few/ap such/jj political/jj constituencies/nns ,/, and/cc ,/, as/cs has/hvz been/ben pointed/vbn out/rp ,/, there/ex is/bez seldom/rb a/at clear-cut/jj distinction/nn between/in the/at educational/jj interests/nns of/in one/cd social/jj class/nn and/cc those/dts of/in another/dt ./.


	Another/dt public/jj interest/nn group/nn is/bez the/at commission/nn of/in laymen/nns or/cc educators/nns which/wdt is/bez appointed/vbn to/to study/vb an/at educational/jj problem/nn and/cc to/to make/vb recommendations/nns ./.
Generally/rb these/dts commissions/nns work/vb earnestly/rb to/to represent/vb the/at interest/nn of/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss conceive/vb it/ppo ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, their/pp$ conclusions/nns and/cc recommendations/nns cannot/md* please/vb everybody/pn ,/, and/cc they/ppss often/rb represent/vb a/at particular/ap economic/jj or/cc political/jj point/nn of/in view/nn ./.
For/in instance/nn ,/, there/ex have/hv been/ben two/cd Presidential/jj-tl Commissions/nns-tl on/in higher/jjr education/nn since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd ./.
President/nn-tl Truman's/np$ Commission/nn-tl on/in-tl Higher/jjr-tl Education/nn-tl tended/vbd to/to take/vb a/at liberal/jj ,/, expansionist/nn position/nn ,/, while/cs President/nn-tl Eisenhower's/np$ Committee/nn-tl on/in-tl Education/nn-tl Beyond/rb-tl the/at-tl High/jj-tl School/nn-tl was/bedz slightly/ql more/ql conservative/jj ./.
Both/abx Commissions/nns-tl consisted/vbd of/in upper-middle-/jj and/cc upper-class/nn people/nns ,/, who/wps attempted/vbd to/to act/vb in/in the/at public/jj interest/nn ./.


	An/at example/nn of/in a/at more/ql definite/jj class/nn bias/nn is/bez noted/vbn in/in proceedings/nns of/in the/at Commission/nn-tl on/in-tl the/at-tl Financing/nn-tl of/in-tl Higher/jjr-tl Education/nn-tl sponsored/vbn by/in the/at Association/nn-tl of/in-tl American/jj Universities/nns-tl and/cc supported/vbn by/in the/at Rockefeller/np-tl Foundation/nn-tl and/cc the/at Carnegie/np-tl Corporation/nn-tl ./.
This/dt Commission/nn-tl recommended/vbd against/in the/at use/nn of/in federal/jj government/nn funds/nns for/in the/at assistance/nn of/in private/jj universities/nns and/cc against/in a/at broad/jj program/nn of/in government-supported/jj scholarships/nns ./.
This/dt might/nn be/be said/vbn to/to be/be an/at upper-/jj or/cc an/at upper-middle-class/nn bias/nn ,/, but/cc the/at Commission/nn-tl published/vbd as/cs one/cd of/in its/pp$ staff/nn studies/nns a/at book/nn by/in Byron/np S./np Hollingshead/np entitled/vbn Who/wps-tl Should/md-tl Go/vb-tl To/in-tl College/nn-tl ?/. ?/.
Which/wdt recommended/vbd a/at federal/jj government/nn scholarship/nn program/nn ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at Commission/nn-tl set/vbd up/rp the/at Council/nn-tl for/in-tl Financial/jj-tl Aid/nn-tl to/in-tl Education/nn-tl as/cs a/at means/nn of/in encouraging/vbg private/jj business/nn to/to increase/vb its/pp$ support/nn of/in private/jj higher/jjr education/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at Commission/nn-tl acted/vbd with/in a/at sense/nn of/in social/jj responsibility/nn within/in the/at area/nn of/in its/pp$ own/jj convictions/nns about/in the/at problem/nn of/in government/nn support/nn to/in private/jj education/nn ./.


	Then/rb there/ex are/ber the/at trustees/nns and/cc officers/nns of/in the/at great/jj educational/jj foundations/nns ,/, who/wps inevitably/rb exert/vb an/at influence/nn on/in educational/jj decisions/nns by/in their/pp$ support/nn or/cc refusal/nn to/to support/vb various/ap educational/jj programs/nns ,/, experiments/nns ,/, and/cc demonstrations/nns ./.
These/dts people/nns are/ber practically/ql always/rb upper-/jj or/cc upper-middle-class/nn persons/nns ,/, who/wps attempt/vb to/to act/vb in/in what/wdt they/ppss regard/vb as/cs the/at interest/nn of/in the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.


	Finally/rb there/ex are/ber the/at parent/nn organizations/nns and/cc the/at laymen's/nns$ organizations/nns such/jj as/cs the/at National/jj-tl Association/nn-tl of/in-tl Parents/nns-tl and/cc-tl Teachers/nns-tl ,/, and/cc the/at Citizens/nns-tl Committee/nn-tl on/in-tl Public/jj-tl Schools/nns-tl ./.
These/dts have/hv an/at upper-middle-class/nn leadership/nn and/cc a/at middle-class/nn membership/nn ,/, with/in rare/jj exceptions/nns ,/, where/wrb working-class/nn parents/nns are/ber active/jj in/in local/jj P.-T.A./np matters/nns ./.
Like/cs the/at other/ap policy-making/jj groups/nns ,/, these/dts are/ber middle/jj class/nn in/in their/pp$ educational/jj attitudes/nns ,/, and/cc they/ppss attempt/vb to/to act/vb in/in the/at general/jj public/jj interest/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss see/vb it/ppo ./.


	In/in general/jj ,/, it/pps appears/vbz that/cs educational/jj decisions/nns and/cc educational/jj policies/nns are/ber made/vbn by/in people/nns who/wps intend/vb to/to act/vb in/in the/at interests/nns of/in the/at society/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber predominantly/rb middle-/jj and/cc upper-class/nn people/nns ,/, and/cc undoubtedly/rb share/vb the/at values/nns and/cc attitudes/nns of/in those/dts classes/nns ./.
They/ppss may/md be/be unaware/jj of/in the/at existence/nn of/in lower-class/nn values/nns and/cc consequently/rb fail/vb to/to take/vb them/ppo into/in account/nn ./.
But/cc there/ex is/bez very/ql little/ap frank/jj and/cc conscious/jj espousal/nn of/in the/at interests/nns of/in any/dti one/cd social/jj class/nn by/in the/at people/nns who/wps have/hv the/at power/nn to/to make/vb decisions/nns in/in education/nn ./.
They/ppss think/vb of/in themselves/ppls as/cs trustees/nns for/in the/at entire/jj society/nn and/cc try/vb to/to serve/vb the/at entire/jj society/nn ./.



Attempts/nns-hl to/to-hl influence/vb-hl social/jj-hl structure/nn-hl through/in-hl education/nn-hl 
Educational/jj policy/nn in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl has/hvz as/cs an/at explicit/jj goal/nn the/at maximization/nn of/in economic/jj and/cc cultural/jj opportunity/nn ./.
In/in so/ql far/rb as/cs this/dt goal/nn is/bez achieved/vbn ,/, the/at society/nn becomes/vbz more/ql fluid/jj ,/, artificial/jj barriers/nns to/in social/jj mobility/nn are/ber reduced/vbn ,/, and/cc people/nns at/in the/at lower/jjr end/nn of/in the/at social/jj hierarchy/nn share/vb more/ql fully/rb in/in the/at material/nn and/cc cultural/jj goods/nns of/in society/nn ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez a/at counterbalancing/vbg purpose/nn in/in education/nn which/wdt is/bez to/to pass/vb on/rp the/at advantages/nns of/in the/at parents/nns to/in their/pp$ children/nns ./.
This/dt leads/vbz to/in efforts/nns at/in exclusiveness/nn through/in private/jj schools/nns and/cc to/in the/at maintenance/nn of/in social/jj stratification/nn in/in the/at schools/nns ./.
Both/abx of/in these/dts purposes/nns exist/vb side/nn by/in side/nn without/in much/ap overt/jj conflict/nn under/in present/jj conditions/nns ./.



Maximizing/vbg-hl economic/jj-hl and/cc-hl cultural/jj-hl opportunity/nn-hl 
The/at broad/jj expansion/nn of/in free/jj education/nn results/vbz both/abx in/in raising/vbg the/at average/jj economic/jj and/cc cultural/jj level/nn of/in the/at society/nn and/cc in/in promoting/vbg fluidity/nn within/in the/at social/jj structure/nn ./.
Fifty/cd years/nns ago/rb the/at general/jj raising/nn of/in the/at school-leaving/jj age/nn to/in sixteen/cd was/bedz an/at example/nn of/in this/dt movement/nn ./.
During/in the/at past/ap decade/nn the/at program/nn has/hvz been/ben carried/vbn on/rp through/in expansion/nn of/in free/jj higher/jjr education/nn in/in state/nn universities/nns ,/, state/nn colleges/nns ,/, and/cc community/nn colleges/nns ./.
The/at reaffirmation/nn of/in American/jj faith/nn in/in the/at comprehensive/jj high/jj school/nn ,/, as/cs expressed/vbn in/in the/at Conant/np study/nn ,/, is/bez another/dt indication/nn of/in the/at liveliness/nn of/in the/at ideal/nn of/in maximizing/vbg opportunity/nn through/in the/at equalizing/nn of/in educational/jj opportunity/nn ./.


	The/at recent/jj federal/jj government's/nn$ student-loan/nn program/nn is/bez another/dt step/nn in/in the/at direction/nn of/in making/vbg higher/jjr education/nn more/ql available/jj to/in lower-status/nn youth/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez probably/rb more/ql effective/jj than/cs the/at expanded/vbn scholarship/nn programs/nns of/in the/at past/ap decade/nn ,/, because/cs the/at scholarship/nn programs/nns mainly/rb aided/vbd the/at students/nns with/in the/at best/jjt academic/jj records/nns (/( who/wps were/bed usually/rb middle-class/nn )/) ,/, and/cc these/dts students/nns tended/vbd to/to use/vb the/at scholarship/nn funds/nns to/to go/vb to/in more/ql expensive/jj colleges/nns ./.
Meanwhile/rb ,/, the/at private/jj colleges/nns have/hv increased/vbn their/pp$ tuition/nn rates/nns so/ql much/rb that/cs they/ppss have/hv raised/vbn an/at economic/jj barrier/nn which/wdt dwarfs/vbz their/pp$ scholarship/nn funds/nns ./.
The/at gains/nns in/in educational/jj opportunity/nn during/in the/at past/ap decade/nn have/hv taken/vbn place/nn largely/rb in/in the/at publicly/rb supported/vbn institutions/nns ./.



	Unfortunately/rb ,/, however/rb ,/, and/cc for/in reasons/nns to/to be/be discussed/vbn in/in the/at following/vbg chapter/nn ,/, no/at rate/nn relationships/nns can/md be/be made/vbn completely/ql nondiscriminatory/jj as/ql long/rb as/cs all/abn or/cc some/dti of/in the/at rates/nns must/md be/be set/vbn above/in marginal/jj costs/nns in/in order/nn to/to yield/vb adequate/jj revenues/nns ./.
And/cc this/dt fact/nn may/md explain/vb some/dti of/in the/at disagreements/nns among/in the/at experts/nns as/in to/in the/at more/ql rational/jj formulas/nns for/in the/at apportionment/nn of/in total/jj costs/nns among/in different/jj units/nns of/in service/nn ./.
One/cd such/jj disagreement/nn ,/, which/wdt will/md receive/vb attention/nn in/in this/dt next/ap chapter/nn ,/, concerns/vbz the/at question/nn whether/cs rates/nns for/in different/jj kinds/nns of/in service/nn ,/, in/in order/nn to/to avoid/vb the/at attribute/nn of/in discrimination/nn ,/, must/md be/be made/vbn directly/rb proportional/jj to/in marginal/jj costs/nns ,/, or/cc whether/cs they/ppss should/md be/be based/vbn instead/rb on/in differences/nns in/in marginal/jj costs/nns ./.
Here/rb ,/, the/at choice/nn is/bez that/dt between/in the/at horns/nns of/in a/at dilemma/nn ./.



Two/cd-hl major/jj-hl types/nns-hl of/in-hl fully/rb-hl distributed/vbn-hl cost/nn-hl analysis/nn-hl 
1/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl double-step/nn-hl type/nn-hl 
Despite/in an/at ambiguity/nn due/jj to/in its/pp$ failure/nn clearly/rb to/to define/vb ``/`` relative/jj costs/nns ''/'' ,/, the/at above/jj exposition/nn of/in fully/rb distributed/vbn costing/nn goes/vbz about/rb as/ql far/rb as/cs one/pn can/md go/vb toward/in expressing/vbg the/at basic/jj philosophy/nn of/in the/at practice/nn ./.
For/in more/ql explicit/jj expositions/nns ,/, one/pn must/md distinguish/vb different/jj types/nns of/in analyses/nns ./.
By/in all/abn means/nns the/at most/ql important/jj distinction/nn is/bez that/dt between/in those/dts total-cost/nn apportionments/nns which/wdt superimpose/vb a/at distribution/nn of/in admittedly/rb unallocable/jj cost/nn residues/nns on/in estimates/nns of/in incremental/jj or/cc marginal/jj costs/nns ,/, and/cc those/dts other/ap apportionments/nns which/wdt recognize/vb no/at difference/nn between/in true/jj cost/nn allocation/nn and/cc mere/jj total-cost/nn distribution/nn ./.


	The/at first/od ,/, or/cc double-step/nn ,/, type/nn might/md also/rb be/be called/vbn the/at ``/`` railroad/nn type/nn ''/'' because/rb of/in its/pp$ application/nn to/in railroads/nns (/( and/cc other/ap transportation/nn agencies/nns )/) by/in the/at Cost/nn-tl Section/nn-tl of/in the/at Interstate/jj-tl Commerce/nn-tl Commission/nn-tl ./.
The/at Cost/nn-tl Section/nn-tl distinguishes/vbz between/in (/( directly/rb )/) variable/jj costs/nns and/cc constant/jj costs/nns in/in a/at manner/nn noted/vbn in/in the/at preceding/vbg chapter/nn ./.
The/at variable/jj costs/nns alone/rb are/ber assigned/vbn to/in the/at different/jj units/nns of/in freight/nn traffic/nn as/cs representing/vbg ``/`` long-run/nn out-of-pocket/jj costs/nns ''/'' --/-- a/at term/nn with/in a/at meaning/nn here/rb not/* distinctly/rb different/jj from/in that/dt of/in the/at economist's/nn$ ``/`` long-run/nn marginal/jj costs/nns ''/'' ./.
There/ex remains/vbz a/at residue/nn of/in total/jj costs/nns ,/, or/cc total/jj ``/`` revenue/nn requirements/nns ''/'' which/wdt ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez found/vbn to/to behave/vb as/cs if/cs it/pps were/bed constant/jj over/in substantial/jj variations/nns in/in traffic/nn density/nn ,/, is/bez strictly/rb unallocable/jj on/in a/at cost-finding/jj basis/nn ./.
Nevertheless/rb ,/, because/cs the/at Cost/nn-tl Section/nn-tl has/hvz felt/vbn impelled/vbn to/to make/vb some/dti kind/nn of/in a/at distribution/nn of/in total/jj costs/nns ,/, it/pps has/hvz apportioned/vbn this/dt residue/nn ,/, which/wdt it/pps sometimes/rb calls/vbz ``/`` burden/nn ''/'' ,/, among/in the/at units/nns of/in carload/nn traffic/nn on/in a/at basis/nn (/( partly/rb ton/nn ,/, partly/rb ton-mile/nn )/) which/wdt is/bez concededly/rb quite/ql arbitrary/jj from/in the/at standpoint/nn of/in cost/nn determination/nn ./.
In/in recent/jj years/nns ,/, this/dt burden/nn (/( which/wdt includes/vbz allowances/nns for/in revenue/nn deficiencies/nns in/in the/at passenger/nn business/nn and/cc in/in less-than-carload/jj freight/nn traffic/nn !/. !/.
)/) has/hvz amounted/vbn to/in about/rb one/cd third/nn of/in those/dts total/jj revenue/nn requirements/nns which/wdt the/at carload/nn freight/nn business/nn is/bez supposed/vbn to/to be/be called/vbn upon/rb to/to meet/vb ./.


	Since/cs this/dt book/nn is/bez concerned/vbn only/rb incidentally/rb with/in railroad/nn rates/nns ,/, it/pps will/md not/* attempt/vb to/to analyze/vb the/at methods/nns by/in which/wdt the/at staff/nn of/in the/at Interstate/jj-tl Commerce/nn-tl Commission/nn-tl has/hvz estimated/vbn out-of-pocket/jj costs/nns and/cc apportioned/vbn residue/nn costs/nns ./.
Suffice/vb it/ppo to/to say/vb that/cs the/at usefulness/nn of/in the/at latter/ap apportionment/nn is/bez questionable/jj ./.
But/cc in/in any/dti event/nn ,/, full/jj credit/nn should/md be/be given/vbn to/in the/at Cost/nn-tl Section/nn-tl for/in its/pp$ express/jj and/cc overt/jj recognition/nn of/in a/at vital/jj distinction/nn too/ql often/rb ignored/vbn in/in utility-cost/nn analyses/nns :/: namely/rb ,/, that/dt between/in a/at cost/nn allocation/nn designed/vbn to/to reflect/vb the/at actual/jj behavior/nn of/in costs/nns in/in response/nn to/in changes/nns in/in rates/nns of/in output/nn of/in different/jj classes/nns of/in utility/nn service/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc a/at mere/jj cost/nn apportionment/nn which/wdt somehow/rb spreads/vbz among/in the/at classes/nns and/cc units/nns of/in service/nn even/rb those/dts costs/nns that/wps are/ber strictly/rb unallocable/jj from/in the/at standpoint/nn of/in specific/jj cost/nn determination/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl single-step/nn-hl type/nn-hl 
We/ppss turn/vb now/rb to/in a/at type/nn of/in fully/rb distributed/vbn cost/nn analysis/nn which/wdt ,/, unlike/in the/at ``/`` railroad/nn type/nn ''/'' ,/, draws/vbz no/at distinction/nn between/in cost/nn allocation/nn and/cc cost/nn apportionment/nn :/: the/at single-step/nn type/nn ./.
It/pps might/md be/be called/vbn the/at ``/`` public/jj utility/nn ''/'' type/nn because/rb of/in the/at considerable/jj use/nn to/in which/wdt it/pps has/hvz been/ben put/vbn in/in gas/nn and/cc electric/nn utility/nn rate/nn cases/nns ./.
Here/rb no/at attempt/nn is/bez made/vbn ,/, first/rb to/to determine/vb out-of-pocket/jj or/cc marginal/jj costs/nns and/cc then/rb to/to superimpose/vb on/in these/dts costs/nns ``/`` reasonably/rb distributed/vbn ''/'' residues/nns of/in total/jj costs/nns ./.
Instead/rb ,/, all/abn of/in the/at total/jj costs/nns are/ber treated/vbn as/cs variable/jj costs/nns ,/, although/cs these/dts costs/nns are/ber divided/vbn into/in costs/nns that/wps are/ber deemed/vbn to/to be/be functions/nns of/in different/jj variables/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, whereas/cs in/in Interstate/jj-tl Commerce/nn-tl Commission/nn-tl parlance/nn ``/`` variable/jj cost/nn ''/'' means/nns a/at cost/nn deemed/vbn to/to vary/vb in/in direct/jj proportion/nn to/in changes/nns in/in rate/nn of/in output/nn ,/, in/in the/at type/nn of/in analysis/nn now/rb under/in review/nn ``/`` variable/jj cost/nn ''/'' has/hvz been/ben used/vbn more/ql broadly/rb ,/, so/cs as/cs to/to cover/vb costs/nns which/wdt ,/, while/cs a/at function/nn of/in some/dti one/cd variable/jj (/( such/jj as/cs output/nn of/in energy/nn ,/, or/cc number/nn of/in customers/nns )/) ,/, are/ber not/* necessarily/rb a/at linear/jj function/nn ./.


	As/cs already/rb noted/vbn in/in an/at earlier/jjr paragraph/nn ,/, the/at more/ql familiar/jj cost/nn analyses/nns of/in utility/nn enterprises/nns or/cc utility/nn systems/nns divide/vb the/at total/jj costs/nns among/in a/at number/nn of/in major/jj classes/nns of/in service/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs residential/jj ,/, commercial/jj ,/, industrial/jj power/nn ,/, street/nn lighting/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.
This/dt ``/`` grand/jj division/nn ''/'' permits/vbz many/ap costs/nns to/to be/be assigned/vbn in/in their/pp$ entirety/nn to/in some/dti one/cd class/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs street/nn lighting/nn ,/, or/cc at/in least/ap to/to be/be excluded/vbn completely/rb from/in some/dti important/jj class/nn or/cc classes/nns ./.
High-tension/nn industrial/jj power/nn service/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, would/md not/* be/be charged/vbn with/in any/dti share/nn of/in the/at maintenance/nn costs/nns or/cc capital/nn costs/nns of/in the/at low-tension/nn distribution/nn lines/nns ./.
But/cc the/at major/jj portions/nns of/in the/at total/jj costs/nns of/in a/at utility/nn business/nn are/ber common/jj or/cc joint/jj to/in all/abn ,/, or/cc nearly/rb all/abn ,/, classes/nns of/in customers/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc these/dts costs/nns must/md somehow/rb be/be apportioned/vbn among/in the/at various/ap classes/nns and/cc then/rb must/md somehow/rb be/be reapportioned/vbn among/in the/at units/nns of/in service/nn in/in order/nn to/to report/vb unit/nn costs/nns that/wps can/md serve/vb as/cs tentative/jj measures/nns of/in reasonable/jj rates/nns ./.


	The/at general/jj basis/nn on/in which/wdt these/dts common/jj costs/nns are/ber assigned/vbn to/in differently/rb measured/vbn units/nns of/in service/nn will/md be/be illustrated/vbn by/in the/at following/vbg highly/ql simplified/vbn problem/nn of/in an/at electric-utility/nn cost/nn analysis/nn ./.
But/cc before/cs turning/vbg to/in this/dt example/nn ,/, we/ppss must/md distinguish/vb two/cd subtypes/nns of/in analysis/nn ,/, both/abx of/in which/wdt belong/vb to/in the/at single-step/nn type/nn rather/rb than/cs to/in the/at double-step/nn type/nn ./.


	In/in the/at first/od subtype/nn ,/, the/at analyst/nn (/( following/vbg the/at practice/nn of/in railroad/nn analysis/nn in/in this/dt particular/ap respect/nn )/) distributes/vbz both/abx total/jj operating/vbg costs/nns and/cc total/jj annual/jj capital/nn costs/nns (/( including/in an/at allowance/nn for/in ``/`` cost/nn of/in capital/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` fair/jj rate/nn of/in return/nn ''/'' )/) among/in the/at different/jj classes/nns and/cc units/nns of/in service/nn ./.
Here/rb ,/, an/at apportionment/nn ,/, say/uh ,/, of/in $5,000,000/nns of/in the/at total/jj costs/nns to/in residential/jj service/nn as/cs a/at class/nn would/md include/vb an/at allowance/nn of/in perhaps/rb 6/cd per/in cent/nn as/cs the/at cost/nn of/in whatever/wdt capital/nn is/bez deemed/vbn to/to have/hv been/ben devoted/vbn to/in the/at service/nn of/in the/at residential/jj consumers/nns ./.


	But/cc in/in the/at second/od subtype/nn ,/, which/wdt I/ppss take/vb to/to be/be the/at one/cd more/ql frequently/rb applied/vbn ,/, only/rb the/at operating/vbg expenses/nns and/cc not/* the/at ``/`` cost/nn of/in capital/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` fair/jj return/nn ''/'' are/ber apportioned/vbn directly/rb among/in the/at various/ap classes/nns of/in service/nn ./.
To/to be/be sure/jj ,/, the/at capital/nn investments/nns in/in (/( or/cc ,/, alternatively/rb ,/, the/at estimated/vbn ``/`` fair/jj values/nns ''/'' of/in )/) the/at plant/nn and/cc equipment/nn are/ber apportioned/vbn among/in the/at different/jj classes/nns ,/, as/cs are/ber also/rb the/at gross/jj revenues/nns received/vbn from/in the/at sales/nns of/in the/at different/jj services/nns ./.
But/cc any/dti resulting/vbg excess/nn of/in revenues/nns received/vbn from/in a/at given/vbn class/nn of/in service/nn over/in the/at operating/vbg costs/nns imputed/vbn to/in this/dt class/nn is/bez reported/vbn as/cs a/at ``/`` return/nn ''/'' realized/vbn on/in the/at capital/nn investment/nn attributed/vbn to/in the/at same/ap service/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, during/in any/dti given/vbn year/nn (/( A/np )/) if/cs the/at revenues/nns from/in the/at residential/jj service/nn are/ber $7,000,000/nns ,/, (/( B/np )/) if/cs the/at operating/vbg expenses/nns imputed/vbn to/in this/dt class/nn of/in service/nn come/vb to/in $5,000,000/nns ,/, and/cc (/( C/np )/) if/cs the/at net/jj investment/nn in/in (/( or/cc value/nn of/in )/) the/at plant/nn and/cc equipment/nn deemed/vbn devoted/vbn to/in this/dt service/nn amounts/vbz to/in $30,000,000/nns ,/, the/at cost/nn analyst/nn will/md report/vb that/cs residential/jj service/nn ,/, in/in the/at aggregate/nn ,/, has/hvz yielded/vbn a/at return/nn of/in $2,000,000/nns or/cc 6-2/3/cd per/in cent/nn ./.
Other/ap services/nns will/md show/vb different/jj rates/nns of/in return/nn ,/, some/dti probably/rb much/ql lower/jjr and/cc some/dti higher/jjr ./.


	There/ex are/ber obvious/jj reasons/nns of/in convenience/nn for/in this/dt practice/nn of/in excluding/vbg ``/`` cost/nn of/in capital/nn ''/'' from/in the/at direct/jj apportionment/nn of/in annual/jj costs/nns among/in the/at different/jj classes/nns of/in service/nn --/-- notably/rb ,/, the/at avoidance/nn of/in the/at controversial/jj question/nn what/wdt rate/nn of/in return/nn should/md be/be held/vbn to/to constitute/vb ``/`` cost/nn of/in capital/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` fair/jj rate/nn of/in return/nn ''/'' ./.
But/cc the/at practice/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be misleading/vbg ,/, since/cs it/pps may/md seem/vb to/to support/vb a/at conclusion/nn that/cs ,/, as/ql long/rb as/cs the/at revenues/nns from/in any/dti class/nn of/in service/nn cover/vb the/at imputed/vbn operating/vbg expenses/nns plus/in some/dti return/nn on/in capital/nn investment/nn ,/, however/wql low/jj ,/, the/at rates/nns of/in charge/nn for/in this/dt service/nn are/ber compensatory/jj ./.
Needless/jj to/to say/vb ,/, any/dti such/jj inference/nn would/md be/be quite/ql unwarranted/jj ./.


	For/in the/at reason/nn just/rb suggested/vbn ,/, I/ppss shall/md assume/vb the/at use/nn of/in the/at first/od subtype/nn of/in fully/rb distributed/vbn cost/nn apportionment/nn in/in the/at following/vbg simplified/vbn example/nn ./.
That/dt is/bez to/to say/vb ,/, an/at allowance/nn for/in ``/`` cost/nn of/in capital/nn ''/'' will/md be/be assumed/vbn to/to be/be included/vbn directly/rb in/in the/at cost/nn apportionment/nn ./.



Three-part/jj-hl analysis/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl costs/nns-hl of/in-hl an/at-hl electric/nn-hl utility/nn-hl business/nn-hl 
In/in order/nn to/to simplify/vb the/at exposition/nn of/in a/at typical/jj fully/rb apportioned/vbn cost/nn analysis/nn ,/, let/vb us/ppo assume/vb the/at application/nn of/in the/at analysis/nn to/in an/at electric/nn utility/nn company/nn supplying/vbg a/at single/ap city/nn with/in power/nn generated/vbn by/in its/pp$ own/jj steam-generation/nn plant/nn ./.
Let/vb us/ppo also/rb assume/vb the/at existence/nn of/in only/rb one/cd class/nn or/cc type/nn of/in service/nn ,/, all/abn of/in which/wdt is/bez supplied/vbn at/in the/at same/ap voltage/nn ,/, phase/nn ,/, etc./rb to/in residential/jj ,/, commercial/jj ,/, and/cc industrial/jj customers/nns ./.
This/dt latter/ap assumption/nn will/md permit/vb us/ppo to/to center/vb attention/nn on/in the/at most/ql controversial/jj aspect/nn of/in modern/jj public/jj utility/nn cost/nn analysis/nn --/-- the/at distinction/nn among/in costs/nns that/wps are/ber functions/nns of/in outputs/nns of/in the/at same/ap service/nn measured/vbn along/in different/jj dimensions/nns ./.


	Since/cs the/at company/nn under/in review/nn is/bez supplying/vbg what/wdt we/ppss are/ber here/rb regarding/vbg as/cs only/rb one/cd kind/nn of/in service/nn ,/, we/ppss might/md suppose/vb that/cs the/at problem/nn of/in total/jj cost/nn apportionment/nn would/md be/be very/ql simple/jj ;/. ;/.
indeed/rb ,/, that/cs it/pps would/md be/be limited/vbn to/in a/at finding/nn of/in the/at total/jj annual/jj operating/vbg and/cc capital/nn costs/nns of/in the/at business/nn ,/, followed/vbn by/in a/at calculation/nn of/in this/dt total/nn in/in terms/nns of/in annual/jj cost/nn per/in kilowatt-hour/nn of/in consumption/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at problem/nn is/bez not/* so/ql simple/jj ./.
For/cs a/at statement/nn of/in costs/nns per/in kilowatt-hour/nn would/md ignore/vb the/at fact/nn that/cs many/ap of/in these/dts costs/nns are/ber not/* a/at function/nn of/in kilowatt-hour/nn output/nn (/( or/cc consumption/nn )/) of/in energy/nn ./.
A/at recognition/nn of/in multiple/jj cost/nn functions/nns is/bez therefore/rb required/vbn ./.


	The/at simplest/jjt division/nn ,/, and/cc the/at one/cd most/ql frequently/rb used/vbn (/( with/in subdivisions/nns )/) in/in gas/nn and/cc electric/nn rate/nn cases/nns ,/, is/bez a/at threefold/jj division/nn of/in the/at total/jj operating/vbg and/cc capital/nn costs/nns into/in ``/`` customer/nn costs/nns ''/'' ,/, ``/`` energy/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` volumetric/jj costs/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc ``/`` demand/nn ''/'' or/cc ``/`` capacity/nn ''/'' costs/nns ./.
If/cs this/dt threefold/jj division/nn of/in costs/nns were/bed to/to have/hv its/pp$ counterpart/nn in/in the/at actual/jj rates/nns of/in charge/nn for/in service/nn ,/, as/cs it/pps actually/rb does/doz have/hv in/in some/dti rates/nns ,/, there/ex would/md result/vb a/at three-part/jj rate/nn for/in any/dti one/cd class/nn of/in service/nn ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, the/at monthly/jj bill/nn of/in a/at residential/jj consumer/nn might/md be/be the/at sum/nn of/in a/at $1/nn customer/nn charge/nn ,/, a/at $5/nn charge/nn for/in 250/cd kilowatt-hours/nns of/in energy/nn at/in 


per/in kilowatt-hour/nn ,/, and/cc a/at $2/nn charge/nn for/in a/at maximum/jj demand/nn of/in 2/cd kilowatts/nns during/in the/at month/nn at/in the/at rate/nn of/in $1/nn per/in kilowatt/nn --/-- a/at total/jj bill/nn of/in $8/nns for/in that/dt month/nn ./.
But/cc our/pp$ present/jj interest/nn lies/vbz in/in the/at measurement/nn of/in costs/nns of/in service/nn ,/, and/cc only/rb indirectly/rb in/in rates/nns that/wps may/md or/cc may/md not/* be/be designed/vbn to/to cover/vb these/dts costs/nns ./.
Let/vb us/ppo therefore/rb consider/vb each/dt of/in the/at three/cd types/nns of/in cost/nn in/in turn/nn ,/, recognizing/vbg that/cs this/dt simplified/vbn classification/nn is/bez used/vbn only/rb for/in illustrative/jj purposes/nns ;/. ;/.
costs/nns actually/rb vary/vb in/in much/ql more/ql complex/jj ways/nns ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at-hl customer/nn-hl costs/nns-hl 
These/dts are/ber those/dts operating/vbg and/cc capital/nn costs/nns found/vbn to/to vary/vb with/in number/nn of/in customers/nns regardless/rb ,/, or/cc almost/rb regardless/rb ,/, of/in power/nn consumption/nn ./.
Included/vbn as/cs a/at minimum/nn are/ber the/at costs/nns of/in metering/vbg and/cc billing/nn along/rb with/in whatever/wdt other/ap expenses/nns the/at company/nn must/md incur/vb in/in taking/vbg on/rp another/dt consumer/nn ./.
These/dts minimum/jj costs/nns may/md come/vb to/in $1/nn per/in month/nn ,/, more/ap or/cc less/ap ,/, for/in residential/jj and/cc small/jj commercial/jj customers/nns ,/, although/cs they/ppss are/ber substantially/ql higher/jjr for/in large/jj industrial/jj users/nns ,/, who/wps require/vb more/ql costly/jj connections/nns and/cc metering/vbg devices/nns ./.
While/cs costs/nns on/in this/dt order/nn are/ber sometimes/rb separately/rb charged/vbn for/in in/in residential/jj and/cc commercial/jj rates/nns ,/, in/in the/at form/nn of/in a/at mere/jj ``/`` service/nn charge/nn ''/'' ,/, they/ppss are/ber more/ql frequently/rb wholly/rb or/cc partly/rb covered/vbn by/in a/at minimum/jj charge/nn which/wdt entitles/vbz the/at consumer/nn to/in a/at very/ql small/jj amount/nn of/in gas/nn or/cc electricity/nn with/in no/at further/ap payment/nn ./.


	But/cc the/at really/ql controversial/jj aspect/nn of/in customer-cost/nn imputation/nn arises/vbz because/rb of/in the/at cost/nn analyst's/nn$ frequent/jj practice/nn of/in including/vbg ,/, not/* just/rb those/dts costs/nns that/wps can/md be/be definitely/rb earmarked/vbn as/cs incurred/vbn for/in the/at benefit/nn of/in specific/jj customers/nns but/cc also/rb a/at substantial/jj fraction/nn of/in the/at annual/jj maintenance/nn and/cc capital/nn costs/nns of/in the/at secondary/jj (/( low-voltage/nn )/) distribution/nn system/nn --/-- a/at fraction/nn equal/jj to/in the/at estimated/vbn annual/jj costs/nns of/in a/at hypothetical/jj system/nn of/in minimum/jj capacity/nn ./.



	The/at preconditions/nns of/in sociology/nn have/hv remained/vbn largely/rb unexamined/jj by/in the/at sociologist/nn ./.
Like/cs primitive/jj numbers/nns in/in mathematics/nn ,/, the/at entire/jj axiological/jj framework/nn is/bez taken/vbn to/to rest/vb upon/in its/pp$ operational/jj worth/nn ./.
But/cc what/wdt is/bez the/at operational/jj worth/nn of/in a/at sociology/nn which/wdt mimetically/rb reproduces/vbz the/at idea/nn of/in physical/jj models/nns ?/. ?/.
Is/bez it/pps not/* the/at task/nn of/in philosophy/nn to/to see/vb what/wdt intelligible/jj meaning/nn can/md be/be assigned/vbn to/in the/at most/ql sacred/jj canons/nns in/in social/jj science/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps has/hvz become/vbn painfully/ql clear/jj that/cs the/at very/ap attempt/nn to/to make/vb the/at language/nn of/in social/jj research/nn free/jj of/in values/nns by/in erecting/vbg mathematical/jj and/cc physical/jj models/nns ,/, is/bez itself/ppl a/at conditioned/vbn response/nn to/in a/at world/nn which/wdt pays/vbz a/at premium/nn price/nn for/in technological/jj manipulation/nn ./.


	This/dt push/nn to/to confine/vb the/at study/nn of/in mass/nn behaviour/nn to/in the/at measurements/nns of/in parameters/nns involved/vbn in/in differential/jj equations/nns has/hvz led/vbn sociology/nn perilously/ql close/rb to/in the/at reduction/nn of/in the/at word/nn ``/`` mass/nn-nc ''/'' to/to mean/vb a/at small/jj group/nn in/in which/wdt certain/ap relations/nns between/in all/abn pairs/nns of/in individuals/nns in/in such/abl a/at group/nn can/md be/be studied/vbn ./.
(/( cf./vb Rapoport/np ,/, 1959/cd :/. :/.
Ch./nn 11/cd ./.
)/) Here/rb I/ppss think/vb the/at role/nn of/in the/at philosopher/nn becomes/vbz apparent/jj ./.
The/at simple/jj pragmatic/jj success/nn of/in the/at sociology/nn of/in small/jj groups/nns needs/vbz to/to be/be questioned/vbn ./.
For/cs if/cs the/at small/jj group/nn notion/nn involves/vbz the/at implicit/jj claim/nn that/cs the/at phenomena/nns of/in sociological/jj investigations/nns are/ber of/in atomic/jj or/cc subatomic/jj proportions/nns ,/, the/at philosopher/nn needs/vbz to/to know/vb the/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt such/jj entities/nns are/ber valid/jj ./.
The/at mere/jj exploration/nn of/in the/at unconscious/jj ground/nn of/in present-day/jj sociology/nn offers/vbz a/at rich/jj vein/nn of/in philosophical/jj and/cc logical/jj investigation/nn ./.
(/( cf./vb Brodbeck/np ,/, 1959/cd :/. :/.
Ch./nn-tl 12/cd-tl ./.
)/) 

	A/at parallel/jj function/nn for/in philosophy/nn is/bez the/at study/nn of/in the/at relation/nn between/in perceptions/nns experientially/rb received/vbn and/cc conceptions/nns logically/rb formed/vbn ./.
Philosophy/nn can/md supply/vb adequate/jj criteria/nns of/in meaning/nn in/in the/at selection/nn of/in socially/rb viable/jj categories/nns ./.
This/dt involves/vbz a/at sifting/nn of/in the/at empirical/jj and/cc rational/jj elements/nns entering/vbg into/in each/dt social/jj science/nn statement/nn ./.
Merton's/np$ functional/jj sociology/nn may/md have/hv great/jj practical/jj use/nn in/in the/at study/nn of/in different/jj cultures/nns ,/, yet/cc it/pps is/bez perfectly/ql clear/jj ,/, as/cs Nagel/np (/( 1957/cd :/. :/.
247/cd -/in 83/cd )/) and/cc Hempel/np (/( 1959/cd :/. :/.
271/cd -/in 307/cd )/) indicate/vb ,/, that/cs the/at concept/nn of/in function/nn in/in sociology/nn has/hvz been/ben built/vbn up/rp from/in physiological/jj and/cc biological/jj models/nns ,/, in/in which/wdt the/at notions/nns of/in teleology/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, metaphysical/jj purpose/nn ,/, are/ber central/jj ./.
(/( cf./vb Chapter/nn-tl 9/cd-tl ./.
)/) Functionalism/nn as/cs a/at sociological/jj credo/nn is/bez ,/, therefore/rb ,/, not/* a/at direct/jj consequence/nn of/in observations/nns ,/, but/cc rather/rb an/at indirect/jj consequence/nn of/in philosophical/jj inference/nn and/cc judgment/nn ./.


	The/at purpose/nn of/in this/dt sort/nn of/in philosophical/jj study/nn of/in sociology/nn is/bez not/* to/to tyrannize/vb but/cc to/to clarify/vb the/at principles/nns of/in social/jj science/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez absurd/jj to/to speak/vb of/in philosophy/nn as/cs a/at superior/jj enterprise/nn to/in sociology/nn ,/, since/cs the/at former/ap is/bez a/at logical/jj ,/, rational/jj discipline/nn ,/, where/wrb sociology/nn is/bez essentially/rb descriptive/jj and/cc empirical/jj ./.
Such/abl a/at position/nn entails/vbz the/at negation/nn of/in philosophy/nn in/in its/pp$ Platonic/jj form/nn as/cs something/pn soaring/vbg above/in and/cc embracing/vbg the/at empirical/jj and/cc mathematical/jj sciences/nns ./.
But/cc contrary/jj to/in Whitehead/np ,/, philosophy/nn is/bez not/* a/at synonym/nn for/in Plato/np ./.
The/at uses/nns of/in philosophy/nn as/cs a/at logical/jj clearing/vbg house/nn are/ber manifest/jj to/in any/dti approach/nn that/wps does/doz not/* descend/vb to/in pure/jj sensationalism/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, when/wrb philosophy/nn attempts/vbz to/to stand/vb above/in the/at sciences/nns ,/, to/to dictate/vb the/at conditions/nns of/in empirical/jj research/nn ,/, it/pps becomes/vbz formal/jj metaphysics/nn ;/. ;/.
shaping/vbg the/at contours/nns of/in life/nn to/to fit/vb the/at needs/nns of/in legends/nns ./.
The/at notion/nn of/in philosophy/nn as/cs Queen/nn-tl Bee/nn-tl may/md fit/vb well/rb with/in authoritarian/jj modes/nns of/in political/jj ideology/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps has/hvz been/ben noted/vbn that/cs the/at price/nn of/in such/abl an/at imperial/jj notion/nn of/in philosophy/nn is/bez the/at frustration/nn and/cc flagellation/nn of/in the/at social/jj sciences/nns ./.
(/( cf./vb Wetter/np ,/, 1952/cd :/. :/.
Pt./nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, Ch./nn-tl 5/cd-tl ;/. ;/.
Horowitz/np 1957b/cd ./.
)/) 

	Metaphysics/nn is/bez no/ql longer/rbr a/at direct/jj grappling/nn with/in nature/nn as/cs it/pps was/bedz in/in antiquity/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz surrendered/vbn any/dti claims/nns of/in description/nn in/in favor/nn of/in psychological/jj accounts/nns of/in nothingness/nn ,/, as/cs in/in Heidegger's/np$ system/nn (/( 1929/cd )/) ./.
Science/nn is/bez mocked/vbn for/in wishing/vbg to/to know/vb nothing/pn of/in Nothing/pn-tl ,/, in/in a/at last/ap ditch/nn effort/nn to/to save/vb the/at gods/nns at/in the/at expense/nn of/in men/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* positivism/nn which/wdt has/hvz isolated/vbn metaphysics/nn from/in reality/nn by/in distinguishing/vbg between/in description/nn and/cc prescription/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez simply/rb revealing/vbg the/at state/nn to/in which/wdt metaphysical/jj thinking/nn has/hvz fallen/vbn during/in this/dt century/nn ./.


	Consider/vb the/at traditional/jj ``/`` four/cd fields/nns ''/'' of/in philosophy/nn :/: logic/nn ,/, ethics/nn ,/, epistemology/nn and/cc esthetics/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at commonplace/nn that/cs to/in the/at degree/nn these/dts special/jj preserves/nns of/in past/ap philosophic/jj hunting/vbg grounds/nns establish/vb an/at empirical/jj content/nn and/cc suitable/jj methodological/jj criteria/nns ,/, they/ppss move/vb away/rb from/in philosophy/nn as/cs such/jj ./.
What/wdt is/bez left/vbn to/in traditional/jj systems/nns of/in philosophy/nn is/bez ,/, in/in effect/nn ,/, only/rb the/at history/nn of/in these/dts fields/nns prior/rb to/in their/pp$ becoming/vbg rigorous/jj enough/qlp to/to abide/vb by/in the/at canons/nns of/in scientific/jj method/nn ./.
In/in this/dt situation/nn ,/, philosophy/nn has/hvz survived/vbn by/in separating/vbg itself/ppl from/in metaphysics/nn ,/, by/in showing/vbg the/at ultimate/jj questions/nns to/to be/be the/at meaningless/jj questions/nns ./.


	The/at relinquishing/nn by/in philosophy/nn of/in pretentious/jj claims/nns to/in empirical/jj priority/nn gives/vbz it/ppo an/at ability/nn to/to treat/vb problems/nns of/in meaning/nn and/cc truth/nn which/wdt in/in the/at past/nn it/pps was/bedz unable/jj to/to examine/vb because/rb of/in its/pp$ missionary/jj attitude/nn to/in knowledge/nn of/in more/ql humble/jj sorts/nns ./.
In/in the/at new/jj situation/nn ,/, philosophy/nn is/bez able/jj to/to provide/vb the/at social/jj sciences/nns with/in the/at same/ap guidance/nn that/wpo mathematics/nn offers/vbz the/at physical/jj sciences/nns ,/, a/at reservoir/nn of/in logical/jj relations/nns that/wps can/md be/be used/vbn in/in framing/vbg hypotheses/nns having/hvg explanatory/jj and/cc predictive/jj value/nn ./.
Beyond/in this/dt ,/, philosophy/nn may/md urge/vb the/at social/jj sciences/nns forward/rb by/in asking/vbg the/at type/nn of/in question/nn that/wps falls/vbz outside/in the/at present/jj scope/nn of/in social/jj inquiry/nn ,/, but/cc within/in its/pp$ potential/jj domain/nn of/in relevance/nn ./.
In/in this/dt connection/nn ,/, it/pps might/md be/be noted/vbn that/cs the/at theory/nn of/in games/nns was/bedz a/at mathematical/jj discovery/nn long/rb before/in its/pp$ uses/nns in/in political/jj science/nn were/bed exploited/vbn ./.
Likewise/rb ,/, Kant/np formulated/vbd the/at nebular/jj hypothesis/nn ,/, according/in to/in which/wdt the/at solar/jj system/nn was/bedz evolved/vbn from/in a/at rotating/vbg mass/nn of/in incandescent/jj gas/nn ,/, nearly/rb a/at half/abn century/nn before/in its/pp$ scientific/jj value/nn was/bedz made/vbn plain/jj by/in Laplace/np in/in his/pp$ Systeme/fw-nn-tl Du/fw-in+at-tl Monde/fw-nn-tl ./.
This/dt does/doz not/* mean/vb that/cs philosophy/nn resolves/vbz the/at problems/nns it/pps generates/vbz ,/, any/ql more/rbr so/rb than/cs Riemann's/np$ geometry/nn settled/vbd the/at physical/jj status/nn of/in the/at space-time/nn continuum/nn ./.
But/cc the/at forceful/jj presentation/nn of/in new/jj issues/nns for/in the/at sciences/nns to/to work/vb on/in is/bez itself/ppl a/at monumental/jj task/nn ./.


	To/in those/dts raised/vbn on/in Marcel's/np$ Homo/fw-nn-tl Viator/fw-nn-tl and/cc Heidegger's/np$ das/fw-at-tl Nichtige/fw-nn-tl ,/, this/dt may/md seem/vb a/at modest/jj role/nn for/in philosophy/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, modesty/nn and/cc triviality/nn are/ber different/jj qualities/nns ./.
Philosophy/nn conceived/vbn of/in as/cs servant/nn to/in the/at sciences/nns might/md appear/vb as/cs less/ql dramatic/jj than/cs philosophy/nn which/wdt jeers/vbz as/cs the/at sciences/nns evolve/vb ./.
The/at ceaseless/jj effort/nn to/to understand/vb and/cc measure/vb the/at distance/nn mankind/nn has/hvz traversed/vbn since/in its/pp$ primitive/jj anthropological/jj status/nn offers/vbz a/at more/ql durable/jj sort/nn of/in drama/nn ./.
By/in clarifying/vbg fundamental/jj premises/nns in/in the/at social/jj sciences/nns ,/, and/cc defining/vbg the/at logical/jj problems/nns emergent/jj at/in the/at borderlands/nns of/in each/dt new/jj scientific/jj discipline/nn ,/, philosophy/nn can/md offer/vb the/at sort/nn of/in distinction/nn that/wps can/md accelerate/vb growth/nn in/in human/jj understanding/vbg ./.
Philosophy/nn can/md prevent/vb the/at working/vbg scientist/nn from/in becoming/vbg slothful/jj and/cc self-content/jj by/in noting/vbg the/at assumptions/nns and/cc level/nn at/in which/wdt a/at hypothesis/nn or/cc theory/nn is/bez framed/vbn ./.
The/at dissection/nn of/in scientific/jj theory/nn ,/, the/at examination/nn of/in a/at theory/nn from/in the/at vantage-points/nns of/in language/nn ,/, epistemology/nn ,/, and/cc ethics/nn ,/, is/bez itself/ppl a/at distinct/jj contribution/nn to/in knowledge/nn ,/, no/ql less/ap so/rb because/rb of/in its/pp$ removal/nn from/in empirical/jj research/nn ./.


	The/at realm/nn of/in science/nn ,/, whatever/wdt the/at degree/nn of/in precision/nn in/in formulations/nns ,/, covers/vbz the/at range/nn of/in prediction/nn and/cc explanation/nn ./.
(/( cf./vb Hempel/np and/cc Oppenheim/np ,/, 1948/cd :/. :/.
135/cd -/in 75/cd ./.
)/) Whatever/wdt philosophy/nn is/bez conceived/vbn to/to be/be ,/, its/pp$ rationalist/nn ,/, logistic/jj attitude/nn to/in evidence/nn should/md make/vb it/ppo clear/jj that/cs it/pps is/bez something/pn other/ap than/cs science/nn ./.
For/in some/dti forms/nns of/in philosophy/nn ,/, this/dt very/ap division/nn between/in the/at empirical/jj and/cc the/at rational/jj becomes/vbz a/at sign/nn of/in the/at metaphysical/jj superiority/nn of/in the/at latter/ap ./.
Bergson/np and/cc Leroy/np announce/vb that/cs ``/`` the/at secret/nn is/bez the/at center/nn of/in a/at philosophy/nn ''/'' and/cc thereafter/rb a/at hundred/cd followers/nns declare/vb secrecy/nn a/at higher/jjr verity/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez simply/rb a/at confession/nn of/in intellectual/jj sterility/nn spruced/vbn up/rp to/to look/vb virtuous/jj ./.
For/cs as/cs Merleau-Ponty/np indicated/vbd (/( 1953/cd )/) ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* the/at secret/nn which/wdt is/bez important/jj ,/, but/cc the/at removal/nn of/in secrecy/nn ./.
In/in this/dt ,/, philosophy/nn and/cc science/nn share/vb a/at common/jj goal/nn ./.
The/at hypostatization/nn of/in the/at secret/nn nonetheless/rb guarantees/vbz that/cs the/at division/nn of/in analytical/jj and/cc synthetic/jj philosophies/nns shall/md not/* be/be overcome/vbn by/in even/rb the/at most/ql persuasive/jj argument/nn ;/. ;/.
for/cs this/dt division/nn is/bez but/rb an/at abstract/jj representation/nn of/in the/at social/jj struggle/nn between/in mysticism/nn and/cc science/nn ./.


	The/at mystification/nn of/in metaphysical/jj systems/nns does/doz not/* imply/vb the/at demise/nn of/in philosophy/nn ,/, only/rb the/at close/nn of/in a/at philosophic/jj age/nn which/wdt demanded/vbd metaphysics/nn to/to be/be rational/jj and/cc logical/jj ./.
The/at tenacity/nn with/in which/wdt present/jj metaphysical/jj attitudes/nns fetishize/vb private/jj intuition/nn offers/vbz the/at strongest/jjt evidence/nn that/cs the/at gulf/nn between/in scientific/jj and/cc delphic/jj ways/nns of/in philosophizing/vbg is/bez built/vbn into/in the/at present/jj conflict/nn over/in the/at limits/nns and/cc purpose/nn of/in science/nn ,/, religion/nn and/cc ideology/nn ./.
(/( cf./vb McGlynn/np :/: 1958/cd ./.
)/) Scientific/jj systems/nns ,/, and/cc this/dt includes/vbz even/rb the/at relation/nn of/in mechanist/nn to/in relativist/nn physics/nn ,/, are/ber built/vbn upon/in ,/, refined/vbn and/cc corrected/vbn ./.
Philosophic/jj systems/nns ,/, by/in the/at very/ap nature/nn of/in their/pp$ completeness/nn ,/, are/ber overthrown/vbn by/in rival/nn systems/nns ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in the/at incompleteness/nn of/in science/nn and/cc the/at completeness/nn of/in metaphysics/nn ,/, they/ppss differ/vb in/in that/cs science/nn is/bez essentially/ql descriptive/jj ,/, while/cs philosophy/nn in/in its/pp$ inherited/vbn forms/nns ,/, tends/vbz to/to be/be goal-oriented/jj ,/, teleological/jj and/cc prescriptive/jj ./.
The/at threadbare/jj notion/nn that/cs belief/nn ,/, unlike/in behaviour/nn ,/, is/bez not/* subject/jj to/in objective/jj analysis/nn ,/, has/hvz placed/vbn intuitive/jj metaphysics/nn squarely/rb against/in the/at sociology/nn of/in knowledge/nn ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez precisely/rb the/at job/nn of/in the/at sociology/nn of/in knowledge/nn to/to treat/vb beliefs/nns as/cs social/jj facts/nns no/ql less/ql viable/jj than/cs social/jj behaviour/nn ./.


	When/wrb dealing/vbg with/in the/at actual/jj relation/nn of/in philosophy/nn to/in the/at sociology/nn of/in knowledge/nn ,/, or/cc better/rbr the/at role/nn of/in philosophy/nn in/in assisting/vbg research/nn on/in the/at social/jj sources/nns of/in ideas/nns ,/, one/pn has/hvz to/to become/vb necessarily/rb selective/jj ./.
Certain/ap features/nns we/ppss have/hv touched/vbn upon/in :/: philosophy/nn as/cs a/at logical/jj ,/, deductive/jj system/nn from/in which/wdt a/at social/jj science/nn methodology/nn can/md be/be built/vbn up/rp ;/. ;/.
philosophic/jj analysis/nn of/in the/at assumptions/nns and/cc presumptions/nns of/in the/at social/jj sciences/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc philosophy/nn as/cs a/at guide/nn to/in possible/jj integration/nn of/in supposedly/rb disparate/jj sociological/jj investigations/nns ./.


	The/at objection/nn will/md be/be raised/vbn that/cs the/at most/ql important/jj role/nn of/in philosophy/nn in/in relation/nn to/in social/jj science/nn has/hvz been/ben omitted/vbn ,/, namely/rb the/at status/nn of/in ultimate/jj value/nn questions/nns and/cc norms/nns operative/jj in/in the/at social/jj sciences/nns ./.
Specifically/rb ,/, it/pps will/md be/be asked/vbn whether/cs the/at ``/`` real/jj ''/'' questions/nns people/nns ask/vb are/ber not/* the/at ``/`` ultimate/jj ''/'' questions/nns that/wpo social/jj science/nn finds/vbz itself/ppl impotent/jj in/in the/at face/nn of/in ./.
What/wdt then/rb is/bez the/at status/nn of/in such/jj questions/nns as/cs :/: is/bez society/nn the/at ground/nn of/in human/jj existence/nn or/cc a/at means/nn to/in an/at individual/jj goal/nn ?/. ?/.
Do/do societies/nns develop/vb according/in to/in cosmic/jj patterns/nns or/cc are/ber they/ppss subject/jj only/rb to/in the/at free/jj choice/nn of/in individuals/nns ?/. ?/.
Does/doz society/nn really/rb exist/vb as/cs an/at entity/nn over/in and/cc above/in the/at agglomeration/nn of/in men/nns ?/. ?/.
I/ppss think/vb it/pps must/md be/be said/vbn that/cs ,/, contrary/jj to/in metaphysical/jj insistence/nn ,/, these/dts are/ber questions/nns so/rb framed/vbn as/cs to/to defy/vb either/cc empirical/jj exploration/nn or/cc rational/jj solutions/nns ./.
As/cs Simmel/np (/( 1908/cd )/) and/cc Dilthey/np (/( 1922/cd )/) indicated/vbd ,/, questions/nns of/in whether/cs the/at value/nn of/in life/nn is/bez individual/jj or/cc social/jj are/ber not/* questions/nns ,/, but/cc assertions/nns of/in faith/nn made/vbn to/to appear/vb as/cs legitimate/jj questions/nns ./.
Such/jj pseudo-questions/nns assume/vb that/cs answers/nns of/in concrete/jj significance/nn can/md be/be supplied/vbn to/in statements/nns involving/vbg undefined/jj universals/nns ./.
Social/jj theory/nn has/hvz no/ql more/ap right/nn to/to expect/vb results/nns from/in meaningless/jj questions/nns ,/, than/cs physics/nn has/hvz the/at right/nn to/to expect/vb a/at theological/jj solution/nn to/in the/at wave-particle/nn controversy/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez not/* that/cs such/jj questions/nns are/ber not/* asked/vbn ./.
It/pps is/bez rather/rb that/cs introducing/vbg them/ppo into/in social/jj analysis/nn reflects/vbz not/* so/ql much/ap a/at search/nn for/in truth/nn as/cs for/in certainty/nn ./.
An/at operational/jj approach/nn to/in sociology/nn can/md never/rb expect/vb abstract/jj certainty/nn ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez certainty/nn which/wdt every/at new/jj discovery/nn in/in science/nn either/cc replaces/vbz or/cc reshapes/vbz ./.
To/to raise/vb the/at added/vbn objection/nn that/cs men/nns require/vb certainty/nn on/in psychological/jj grounds/nns ,/, answers/vbz to/in ultimate/jj questions/nns having/hvg an/at irrational/jj rather/rb than/cs scientific/jj basis/nn ,/, is/bez in/in a/at real/jj sense/nn to/to undermine/vb the/at objection/nn itself/ppl ./.
For/cs what/wdt concerns/vbz all/abn scientific/jj disciplines/nns is/bez precisely/rb that/dt which/wdt can/md be/be captured/vbn for/in the/at rational/jj ,/, i.e./rb ,/, for/in the/at scientific/jj determination/nn of/in what/wdt in/in past/ap ages/nns was/bedz considered/vbn ultimate/jj and/cc irrational/jj ./.


	A/at philosophy/nn which/wdt attempts/vbz to/to supply/vb ultimate/jj answers/nns in/in an/at ultimate/jj way/nn reveals/vbz its/pp$ acquiescence/nn in/in the/at shortcomings/nns of/in men/nns ,/, an/at impatience/nn with/in partial/jj ,/, tentative/jj solutions/nns ./.
Men/nns have/hv always/rb lived/vbn in/in a/at tentative/jj world/nn ,/, and/cc in/in suspension/nn of/in ultimate/jj judgments/nns where/wrb and/cc when/wrb necessary/jj ./.
Uncertainty/nn overcoming/vbg itself/ppl is/bez the/at precondition/nn of/in the/at quest/nn for/in new/jj and/cc more/ql precise/jj information/nn about/in the/at world/nn ./.
Without/in such/jj uncertainty/nn we/ppss are/ber left/vbn with/in a/at set/nn of/in dogmas/nns and/cc myths/nns ./.
The/at functional/jj interplay/nn of/in philosophy/nn and/cc science/nn should/md ,/, as/cs a/at minimum/jj ,/, guarantee/nn a/at meaningful/jj option/nn to/in myth-making/nn ./.


	A/at degree/nn of/in indefiniteness/nn is/bez a/at salutary/jj condition/nn for/in the/at growth/nn of/in science/nn ./.

But/cc neither/cc was/bedz the/at statement/nn empirical/jj ,/, for/cs goodness/nn was/bedz not/* a/at quality/nn like/cs red/jj or/cc squeaky/jj that/wps could/md be/be seen/vbn or/cc heard/vbn ./.
What/wdt were/bed they/ppss to/to do/do ,/, then/rb ,/, with/in these/dts awkward/jj judgments/nns of/in value/nn ?/. ?/.
To/to find/vb a/at place/nn for/in them/ppo in/in their/pp$ theory/nn of/in knowledge/nn would/md require/vb them/ppo to/to revise/vb the/at theory/nn radically/rb ,/, and/cc yet/rb that/dt theory/nn was/bedz what/wdt they/ppss regarded/vbd as/cs their/pp$ most/ql important/jj discovery/nn ./.
It/pps appeared/vbd that/cs the/at theory/nn could/md be/be saved/vbn in/in one/cd way/nn only/rb ./.
If/cs it/pps could/md be/be shown/vbn that/cs judgments/nns of/in good/nn and/cc bad/nn were/bed not/* judgments/nns at/in all/abn ,/, that/cs they/ppss asserted/vbd nothing/pn true/jj or/cc false/jj ,/, but/cc merely/rb expressed/vbd emotions/nns like/cs ``/`` Hurrah/uh-nc ''/'' or/cc ``/`` Fiddlesticks/uh-nc ''/'' ,/, then/rb these/dts wayward/jj judgments/nns would/md cease/vb from/in troubling/vbg and/cc weary/jj heads/nns could/md be/be at/in rest/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at course/nn the/at positivists/nns took/vbd ./.
They/ppss explained/vbd value/nn judgments/nns by/in explaining/vbg them/ppo away/rb ./.


	Now/rb I/ppss do/do not/* think/vb their/pp$ view/nn will/md do/do ./.
But/cc before/cs discussing/vbg it/ppo ,/, I/ppss should/md like/vb to/to record/vb one/cd vote/nn of/in thanks/nns to/in them/ppo for/in the/at clarity/nn with/in which/wdt they/ppss have/hv stated/vbn their/pp$ case/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben said/vbn of/in John/np Stuart/np Mill/np that/cs he/pps wrote/vbd so/ql clearly/rb that/cs he/pps could/md be/be found/vbn out/rp ./.
This/dt theory/nn has/hvz been/ben put/vbn so/ql clearly/rb and/cc precisely/rb that/cs it/pps deserves/vbz criticism/nn of/in the/at same/ap kind/nn ,/, and/cc this/dt I/ppss will/md do/do my/pp$ best/jjt to/to supply/vb ./.
The/at theory/nn claims/vbz to/to show/vb by/in analysis/nn that/cs when/wrb we/ppss say/vb ,/, ``/`` That/dt is/bez good/jj ''/'' ,/, we/ppss do/do not/* mean/vb to/to assert/vb a/at character/nn of/in the/at subject/nn of/in which/wdt we/ppss are/ber thinking/vbg ./.
I/ppss shall/md argue/vb that/cs we/ppss do/do mean/vb to/to do/do just/rb that/dt ./.


	Let/vb us/ppo work/vb through/in an/at example/nn ,/, and/cc the/at simpler/jjr and/cc commoner/jjr the/at better/jjr ./.
There/ex is/bez perhaps/rb no/at value/nn statement/nn on/in which/wdt people/nns would/md more/ql universally/rb agree/vb than/cs the/at statement/nn that/cs intense/jj pain/nn is/bez bad/jj ./.
Let/vb us/ppo take/vb a/at set/nn of/in circumstances/nns in/in which/wdt I/ppss happen/vb to/to be/be interested/vbn on/in the/at legislative/jj side/nn and/cc in/in which/wdt I/ppss think/vb every/at one/cd of/in us/ppo might/md naturally/rb make/vb such/abl a/at statement/nn ./.
We/ppss come/vb upon/in a/at rabbit/nn that/wps has/hvz been/ben caught/vbn in/in one/cd of/in the/at brutal/jj traps/nns in/in common/jj use/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber signs/nns that/cs it/pps has/hvz struggled/vbn for/in days/nns to/to escape/vb and/cc that/cs in/in a/at frenzy/nn of/in hunger/nn ,/, pain/nn ,/, and/cc fear/nn ,/, it/pps has/hvz all/abn but/in eaten/vbn off/rp its/pp$ own/jj leg/nn ./.
The/at attempt/nn failed/vbd :/: the/at animal/nn is/bez now/rb dead/jj ./.
As/cs we/ppss think/vb of/in the/at long/jj and/cc excruciating/jj pain/nn it/pps must/md have/hv suffered/vbn ,/, we/ppss are/ber very/ql likely/jj to/to say/vb :/: ``/`` It/pps was/bedz a/at bad/jj thing/nn that/cs the/at little/jj animal/nn should/md suffer/vb so/rb ''/'' ./.
The/at positivist/nn tells/vbz us/ppo that/cs when/wrb we/ppss say/vb this/dt we/ppss are/ber only/rb expressing/vbg our/pp$ present/jj emotion/nn ./.
I/ppss hold/vb ,/, on/in the/at contrary/jj ,/, that/cs we/ppss mean/vb to/to assert/vb something/pn of/in the/at pain/nn itself/ppl ,/, namely/rb ,/, that/cs it/pps was/bedz bad/jj --/-- bad/jj when/wrb and/cc as/cs it/pps occurred/vbd ./.


	Consider/vb what/wdt follows/vbz from/in the/at positivist/nn view/nn ./.
On/in that/dt view/nn ,/, nothing/pn good/jj or/cc bad/jj happened/vbd in/in the/at case/nn until/cs I/ppss came/vbd on/in the/at scene/nn and/cc made/vbd my/pp$ remark/nn ./.
For/cs what/wdt I/ppss express/vb in/in my/pp$ remark/nn is/bez something/pn going/vbg on/rp in/in me/ppo at/in the/at time/nn ,/, and/cc that/dt of/in course/nn did/dod not/* exist/vb until/cs I/ppss did/dod come/vb on/in the/at scene/nn ./.
The/at pain/nn of/in the/at rabbit/nn was/bedz not/* itself/ppl bad/jj ;/. ;/.
nothing/pn evil/nn was/bedz happening/vbg when/wrb that/dt pain/nn was/bedz being/beg endured/vbn ;/. ;/.
badness/nn ,/, in/in the/at only/ap sense/nn in/in which/wdt it/pps is/bez involved/vbn at/in all/abn ,/, waited/vbd for/in its/pp$ appearance/nn till/cs I/ppss came/vbd and/cc looked/vbd and/cc felt/vbd ./.
Now/rb that/cs this/dt is/bez at/in odds/nns with/in our/pp$ meaning/nn may/md be/be shown/vbn as/cs follows/vbz ./.
Let/vb us/ppo put/vb to/in ourselves/ppls the/at hypothesis/nn that/cs we/ppss had/hvd not/* come/vbn on/in the/at scene/nn and/cc that/cs the/at rabbit/nn never/rb was/bedz discovered/vbn ./.
Are/ber we/ppss prepared/vbd to/to say/vb that/cs in/in that/dt case/nn nothing/pn bad/jj occurred/vbd in/in the/at sense/nn in/in which/wdt we/ppss said/vbd it/pps did/dod ?/. ?/.
Clearly/rb not/* ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, we/ppss should/md say/vb ,/, on/in the/at contrary/jj ,/, that/cs the/at accident/nn of/in our/pp$ later/jjr discovery/nn made/vbd no/at difference/nn whatever/wdt to/in the/at badness/nn of/in the/at animal's/nn$ pain/nn ,/, that/cs it/pps would/md have/hv been/ben every/at whit/nn as/ql bad/jj whether/cs a/at chance/nn passer-by/nn happened/vbd later/rbr to/to discover/vb the/at body/nn and/cc feel/vb repugnance/nn or/cc not/* ./.
If/cs so/rb ,/, then/rb it/pps is/bez clear/jj that/cs in/in saying/vbg the/at suffering/nn was/bedz bad/jj we/ppss are/ber not/* expressing/vbg our/pp$ feelings/nns only/rb ./.
We/ppss are/ber saying/vbg that/cs the/at pain/nn was/bedz bad/jj when/wrb and/cc as/cs it/pps occurred/vbd and/cc before/cs anyone/pn took/vbd an/at attitude/nn toward/in it/ppo ./.


	The/at first/od argument/nn is/bez thus/rb an/at ideal/jj experiment/nn in/in which/wdt we/ppss use/vb the/at method/nn of/in difference/nn ./.
It/pps removes/vbz our/pp$ present/jj expression/nn and/cc shows/vbz that/cs the/at badness/nn we/ppss meant/vbd would/md not/* be/be affected/vbn by/in this/dt ,/, whereas/cs on/in positivist/nn grounds/nns it/pps should/md be/be ./.
The/at second/od argument/nn applies/vbz the/at method/nn in/in the/at reverse/jj way/nn ./.
It/pps ideally/rb removes/vbz the/at past/ap event/nn ,/, and/cc shows/vbz that/cs this/dt would/md render/vb false/jj what/wdt we/ppss mean/vb to/to say/vb ,/, whereas/cs on/in positivist/nn grounds/nns it/pps should/md not/* ./.
Let/vb us/ppo suppose/vb that/cs the/at animal/nn did/dod not/* in/in fact/nn fall/vb into/in the/at trap/nn and/cc did/dod not/* suffer/vb at/in all/abn ,/, but/cc that/cs we/ppss mistakenly/rb believe/vb it/pps did/dod ,/, and/cc say/vb as/cs before/rb that/cs its/pp$ suffering/nn was/bedz an/at evil/jj thing/nn ./.
On/in the/at positivist/nn theory/nn ,/, everything/pn I/ppss sought/vbd to/to express/vb by/in calling/vbg it/ppo evil/jj in/in the/at first/od case/nn is/bez still/rb present/rb in/in the/at second/od ./.
In/in the/at only/ap sense/nn in/in which/wdt badness/nn is/bez involved/vbn at/in all/abn ,/, whatever/wdt was/bedz bad/jj in/in the/at first/od case/nn is/bez still/rb present/rb in/in its/pp$ entirety/nn ,/, since/cs all/abn that/wps is/bez expressed/vbn in/in either/dtx case/nn is/bez a/at state/nn of/in feeling/nn ,/, and/cc that/dt feeling/nn is/bez still/rb there/rb ./.
And/cc our/pp$ question/nn is/bez ,/, is/bez such/abl an/at implication/nn consistent/jj with/in what/wdt we/ppss meant/vbd ?/. ?/.
Clearly/rb it/pps is/bez not/* ./.
If/cs anyone/pn asked/vbd us/ppo ,/, after/cs we/ppss made/vbd the/at remark/nn that/cs the/at suffering/nn was/bedz a/at bad/jj thing/nn ,/, whether/cs we/ppss should/md think/vb it/ppo relevant/jj to/in what/wdt we/ppss said/vbd to/to learn/vb that/cs the/at incident/nn had/hvd never/rb occurred/vbn and/cc no/at pain/nn had/hvd been/ben suffered/vbn at/in all/abn ,/, we/ppss should/md say/vb that/cs it/pps made/vbd all/abn the/at difference/nn in/in the/at world/nn ,/, that/cs what/wdt we/ppss were/bed asserting/vbg to/to be/be bad/jj was/bedz precisely/rb the/at suffering/nn we/ppss thought/vbd had/hvd occurred/vbn back/rb there/rb ,/, that/cs if/cs this/dt had/hvd not/* occurred/vbn ,/, there/ex was/bedz nothing/pn left/vbn to/to be/be bad/jj ,/, and/cc that/cs our/pp$ assertion/nn was/bedz in/in that/dt case/nn mistaken/vbn ./.
The/at suggestion/nn that/cs in/in saying/vbg something/pn evil/jj had/hvd occurred/vbn we/ppss were/bed after/in all/abn making/vbg no/at mistake/nn ,/, because/cs we/ppss had/hvd never/rb meant/vbn anyhow/rb to/to say/vb anything/pn about/in the/at past/ap suffering/nn ,/, seems/vbz to/in me/ppo merely/rb frivolous/jj ./.
If/cs we/ppss did/dod not/* mean/vb to/to say/vb this/dt ,/, why/wrb should/md we/ppss be/be so/ql relieved/vbn on/in finding/vbg that/cs the/at suffering/nn had/hvd not/* occurred/vbn ?/. ?/.
On/in the/at theory/nn before/in us/ppo ,/, such/jj relief/nn would/md be/be groundless/jj ,/, for/cs in/in that/dt suffering/nn itself/ppl there/ex was/bedz nothing/pn bad/jj at/in all/abn ,/, and/cc hence/rb in/in its/pp$ nonoccurrence/nn there/ex would/md be/be nothing/pn to/to be/be relieved/vbn about/in ./.
The/at positivist/nn theory/nn would/md here/rb distort/vb our/pp$ meaning/nn beyond/in recognition/nn ./.


	So/ql far/rb as/cs I/ppss can/md see/vb ,/, there/ex is/bez only/rb one/cd way/nn out/rp for/in the/at positivist/nn ./.
He/pps holds/vbz that/cs goodness/nn and/cc badness/nn lie/vb in/in feelings/nns of/in approval/nn or/cc disapproval/nn ./.
And/cc there/ex is/bez a/at way/nn in/in which/wdt he/pps might/md hold/vb that/cs badness/nn did/dod in/in this/dt case/nn precede/vb our/pp$ own/jj feeling/nn of/in disapproval/nn without/in belonging/vbg to/in the/at pain/nn itself/ppl ./.
The/at pain/nn in/in itself/ppl was/bedz neutral/jj ;/. ;/.
but/cc unfortunately/rb the/at rabbit/nn ,/, on/in no/at grounds/nns at/in all/abn ,/, took/vbd up/rp toward/in this/dt neutral/jj object/nn an/at attitude/nn of/in disapproval/nn and/cc that/dt made/vbd it/ppo for/in the/at first/od time/nn ,/, and/cc in/in the/at only/ap intelligible/jj sense/nn ,/, bad/jj ./.
This/dt way/nn of/in escape/nn is/bez theoretically/rb possible/jj ,/, but/cc since/cs it/pps has/hvz grave/jj difficulties/nns of/in its/pp$ own/jj and/cc has/hvz not/* ,/, so/ql far/rb as/cs I/ppss know/vb ,/, been/ben urged/vbn by/in positivists/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez perhaps/rb best/jjt not/* to/to spend/vb time/nn over/in it/ppo ./.


	I/ppss come/vb now/rb to/in a/at third/od argument/nn ,/, which/wdt again/rb is/bez very/ql simple/jj ./.
When/wrb we/ppss come/vb upon/in the/at rabbit/nn and/cc make/vb our/pp$ remark/nn about/in its/pp$ suffering/vbg being/beg a/at bad/jj thing/nn ,/, we/ppss presumably/rb make/vb it/ppo with/in some/dti feeling/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at positivists/nns are/ber plainly/ql right/jj in/in saying/vbg that/cs such/jj remarks/nns do/do usually/rb express/vb feeling/vbg ./.
But/cc suppose/vb that/cs a/at week/nn later/rbr we/ppss revert/vb to/in the/at incident/nn in/in thought/nn and/cc make/vb our/pp$ statement/nn again/rb ./.
And/cc suppose/vb that/cs the/at circumstances/nns have/hv now/rb so/ql changed/vbn that/cs the/at feeling/nn with/in which/wdt we/ppss made/vbd the/at remark/nn in/in the/at first/od place/nn has/hvz faded/vbn ./.
The/at pathetic/jj evidence/nn is/bez no/ql longer/rbr before/in us/ppo ;/. ;/.
and/cc we/ppss are/ber now/rb so/ql fatigued/vbn in/in body/nn and/cc mind/nn that/cs feeling/vbg is/bez ,/, as/cs we/ppss say/vb ,/, quite/ql dead/jj ./.
In/in these/dts circumstances/nns ,/, since/cs what/wdt was/bedz expressed/vbn by/in the/at remark/nn when/wrb first/rb made/vbn is/bez ,/, on/in the/at theory/nn before/in us/ppo ,/, simply/rb absent/jj ,/, the/at remark/nn now/rb expresses/vbz nothing/pn ./.
It/pps is/bez as/ql empty/jj as/cs the/at word/nn ``/`` Hurrah/uh-nc ''/'' would/md be/be when/wrb there/ex was/bedz no/at enthusiasm/nn behind/in it/ppo ./.
And/cc this/dt seems/vbz to/in me/ppo untrue/jj ./.
When/wrb we/ppss repeat/vb the/at remark/nn that/cs such/jj suffering/nn was/bedz a/at bad/jj thing/nn ,/, the/at feeling/nn with/in which/wdt we/ppss made/vbd it/ppo last/ap week/nn may/md be/be at/in or/cc near/in the/at vanishing/vbg point/nn ,/, but/cc if/cs we/ppss were/bed asked/vbn whether/cs we/ppss meant/vbd to/to say/vb what/wdt we/ppss did/dod before/rb ,/, we/ppss should/md certainly/rb answer/vb Yes/rb ./.
We/ppss should/md say/vb that/cs we/ppss made/vbd our/pp$ point/nn with/in feeling/vbg the/at first/od time/nn and/cc little/ap or/cc no/at feeling/nn the/at second/od time/nn ,/, but/cc that/cs it/pps was/bedz the/at same/ap point/nn we/ppss were/bed making/vbg ./.
And/cc if/cs we/ppss can/md see/vb that/cs what/wdt we/ppss meant/vbd to/to say/vb remains/vbz the/at same/ap ,/, while/cs the/at feeling/nn varies/vbz from/in intensity/nn to/in near/in zero/cd ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* the/at feeling/nn that/wpo we/ppss primarily/rb meant/vbd to/to express/vb ./.


	I/ppss come/vb now/rb to/in a/at fourth/od consideration/nn ./.
We/ppss all/abn believe/vb that/cs toward/in acts/nns or/cc effects/nns of/in a/at certain/ap kind/nn one/cd attitude/nn is/bez fitting/vbg and/cc another/dt not/* ;/. ;/.
but/cc on/in the/at theory/nn before/in us/ppo such/abl a/at belief/nn would/md not/* make/vb sense/nn ./.
Broad/np and/cc Ross/np have/hv lately/rb contended/vbn that/cs this/dt fitness/nn is/bez one/cd of/in the/at main/jjs facts/nns of/in ethics/nn ,/, and/cc I/ppss suspect/vb they/ppss are/ber right/jj ./.
But/cc that/dt is/bez not/* exactly/rb my/pp$ point/nn ./.
My/pp$ point/nn is/bez this/dt :/: whether/cs there/ex is/bez such/jj fitness/nn or/cc not/* ,/, we/ppss all/abn assume/vb that/cs there/ex is/bez ,/, and/cc if/cs we/ppss do/do ,/, we/ppss express/vb in/in moral/jj judgments/nns more/ap than/cs the/at subjectivists/nns say/vb we/ppss do/do ./.
Let/vb me/ppo illustrate/vb ./.


	In/in his/pp$ novel/nn The/at-tl House/nn-tl Of/in-tl The/at-tl Dead/nn-tl ,/, Dostoevsky/np tells/vbz of/in his/pp$ experiences/nns in/in a/at Siberian/jj prison/nn camp/nn ./.
Whatever/wdt the/at unhappy/jj inmates/nns of/in such/jj camps/nns are/ber like/cs today/nr ,/, Dostoevsky's/np$ companions/nns were/bed about/rb as/ql grim/jj a/at lot/nn as/cs can/md be/be imagined/vbn ./.
``/`` I/ppss have/hv heard/vbn stories/nns ''/'' ,/, he/pps writes/vbz ,/, ``/`` of/in the/at most/ql terrible/jj ,/, the/at most/ql unnatural/jj actions/nns ,/, of/in the/at most/ql monstrous/jj murders/nns ,/, told/vbn with/in the/at most/ql spontaneous/jj ,/, childishly/rb merry/jj laughter/nn ''/'' ./.
Most/ap of/in us/ppo would/md say/vb that/cs in/in this/dt delight/nn at/in the/at killing/nn of/in others/nns or/cc the/at causing/nn of/in suffering/vbg there/ex is/bez something/pn very/ql unfitting/jj ./.
If/cs we/ppss were/bed asked/vbn why/wrb we/ppss thought/vbd so/rb ,/, we/ppss should/md say/vb that/cs these/dts things/nns involve/vb great/jj evil/nn and/cc are/ber wrong/jj ,/, and/cc that/cs to/to take/vb delight/nn in/in what/wdt is/bez evil/jj or/cc wrong/jj is/bez plainly/rb unfitting/jj ./.
Now/rb on/in the/at subjectivist/nn view/nn ,/, this/dt answer/nn is/bez ruled/vbn out/rp ./.
For/cs before/cs someone/pn takes/vbz up/rp an/at attitude/nn toward/in death/nn ,/, suffering/vbg ,/, or/cc their/pp$ infliction/nn ,/, they/ppss have/hv no/at moral/jj quality/nn at/in all/abn ./.
There/ex is/bez therefore/rb nothing/pn about/in them/ppo to/in which/wdt an/at attitude/nn of/in approval/nn or/cc condemnation/nn could/md be/be fitting/vbg ./.
They/ppss are/ber in/in themselves/ppls neutral/jj ,/, and/cc ,/, so/ql far/rb as/cs they/ppss get/vb a/at moral/jj quality/nn ,/, they/ppss get/vb it/ppo only/rb through/in being/beg invested/vbn with/in it/ppo by/in the/at attitude/nn of/in the/at onlooker/nn ./.
But/cc if/cs that/dt is/bez true/jj ,/, why/wrb is/bez any/dti attitude/nn more/ql fitting/jj than/cs any/dti other/ap ?/. ?/.
Would/md applause/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, be/be fitting/jj if/cs ,/, apart/rb from/in the/at applause/nn ,/, there/ex were/bed nothing/pn good/jj to/to applaud/vb ?/. ?/.
Would/md condemnation/nn be/be fitting/jj if/cs ,/, independently/rb of/in the/at condemnation/nn ,/, there/ex were/bed nothing/pn bad/jj to/to condemn/vb ?/. ?/.
In/in such/abl a/at case/nn ,/, any/dti attitude/nn would/md be/be as/ql fitting/jj or/cc unfitting/jj as/cs any/dti other/ap ,/, which/wdt means/vbz that/cs the/at notion/nn of/in fitness/nn has/hvz lost/vbn all/abn point/nn ./.


	Indeed/rb ,/, we/ppss are/ber forced/vbn to/to go/vb much/ql farther/rbr ./.
If/cs goodness/nn and/cc badness/nn lie/vb in/in attitudes/nns only/rb and/cc hence/rb are/ber brought/vbn into/in being/beg by/in them/ppo ,/, those/dts men/nns who/wps greeted/vbd death/nn and/cc misery/nn with/in childishly/rb merry/jj laughter/nn are/ber taking/vbg the/at only/ap sensible/jj line/nn ./.
If/cs there/ex is/bez nothing/pn evil/jj in/in these/dts things/nns ,/, if/cs they/ppss get/vb their/pp$ moral/jj complexion/nn only/rb from/in our/pp$ feeling/nn about/in them/ppo ,/, why/wrb shouldn't/md* they/ppss be/be greeted/vbn with/in a/at cheer/nn ?/. ?/.
To/to greet/vb them/ppo with/in repulsion/nn would/md turn/vb what/wdt before/rb was/bedz neutral/jj into/in something/pn bad/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps would/md needlessly/rb bring/vb badness/nn into/in the/at world/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc even/rb on/in subjectivist/nn assumptions/nns that/dt does/doz not/* seem/vb very/ql bright/jj ./.
On/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, to/to greet/vb them/ppo with/in delight/nn would/md convert/vb what/wdt before/rb was/bedz neutral/jj into/in something/pn good/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps would/md bring/vb goodness/nn into/in the/at world/nn ./.



	The/at injured/vbn German/jj veteran/nn was/bedz a/at former/ap miner/nn ,/, twenty-four/cd years/nns old/jj ,/, who/wps had/hvd been/ben wounded/vbn by/in shrapnel/nn in/in the/at back/nn of/in the/at head/nn ./.
This/dt resulted/vbd in/in damage/nn to/in the/at occipital/jj lobe/nn and/cc very/ql probably/rb to/in the/at left/jj side/nn of/in the/at cerebellum/nn also/rb ./.
In/in any/dti event/nn ,/, the/at extraordinary/jj result/nn of/in this/dt injury/nn was/bedz that/cs he/pps became/vbd ``/`` psychically/rb blind/jj ''/'' ,/, while/cs at/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, apparently/rb ,/, the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn remained/vbd essentially/rb intact/jj ./.
Psychical/jj blindness/nn is/bez a/at condition/nn in/in which/wdt there/ex is/bez a/at total/jj absence/nn of/in visual/jj memory-images/nns ,/, a/at condition/nn in/in which/wdt ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, one/pn is/bez unable/jj to/to remember/vb something/pn just/rb seen/vbn or/cc to/to conjure/vb up/rp a/at memory-picture/nn of/in the/at visible/jj appearance/nn of/in a/at well-known/jj friend/nn in/in his/pp$ absence/nn ./.
This/dt circumstance/nn in/in the/at patient's/nn$ case/nn plus/in the/at fact/nn that/cs his/pp$ tactual/jj capacity/nn remained/vbd basically/rb in/in sound/jj working/vbg order/nn constitutes/vbz its/pp$ exceptional/jj value/nn for/in the/at problem/nn at/in hand/nn since/cs the/at evidence/nn presented/vbn by/in the/at authors/nns is/bez overwhelming/jj that/cs ,/, when/wrb the/at patient/nn closed/vbd his/pp$ eyes/nns ,/, he/pps had/hvd absolutely/rb no/at spatial/jj (/( that/dt is/bez ,/, third-dimensional/jj )/) awareness/nn whatsoever/rb ./.
The/at necessary/jj inference/nn ,/, as/cs the/at authors/nns themselves/ppls interpret/vb it/ppo ,/, would/md seem/vb to/to be/be this/dt :/: ``/`` (/( (/( 1/cd )/) Spatial/jj qualities/nns are/ber not/* among/in those/dts grasped/vbn by/in the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn ,/, as/cs such/jj ./.
We/ppss do/do not/* arrive/vb at/in spatial/jj images/nns by/in means/nn of/in the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn by/in itself/ppl ./.
(/( 2/cd )/) Spatiality/nn becomes/vbz part/nn of/in the/at tactual/jj sensation/nn only/rb by/in way/nn of/in visual/jj representations/nns ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, there/ex is/bez ,/, in/in the/at true/jj sense/nn ,/, only/rb a/at visual/jj space/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at underlying/vbg assumption/nn ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, is/bez that/cs only/ap sight/nn and/cc touch/vb enable/vb us/ppo ,/, in/in any/dti precise/jj and/cc fully/ql dependable/jj way/nn ,/, to/to locate/vb objects/nns in/in space/nn beyond/in us/ppo ,/, the/at other/ap senses/nns being/beg decidedly/rb inferior/jj ,/, if/cs not/* totally/rb inadequate/jj ,/, in/in this/dt regard/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez an/at assumption/nn with/in which/wdt few/ap would/md be/be disposed/vbn to/to quarrel/vb ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, if/cs the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn is/bez functioning/vbg normally/rb and/cc there/ex is/bez a/at complete/jj absence/nn of/in spatial/jj awareness/nn in/in a/at psychically-blind/jj person/nn when/wrb the/at eyes/nns are/ber closed/vbn and/cc an/at object/nn is/bez handled/vbn ,/, the/at conclusion/nn seems/vbz unavoidable/jj that/cs touch/nn by/in itself/ppl cannot/md* focus/vb and/cc take/vb possession/nn of/in the/at third-dimensionality/nn of/in things/nns and/cc that/cs actual/jj sight/nn or/cc visual/jj representations/nns are/ber necessary/jj ./.


	The/at force/nn of/in the/at authors'/nns$ analysis/nn (/( if/cs indeed/rb it/pps has/hvz any/dti force/nn )/) can/md be/be felt/vbn by/in the/at reader/nn ,/, I/ppss believe/vb ,/, only/rb after/cs three/cd questions/nns have/hv been/ben successfully/rb answered/vbn ./.
(/( 1/cd )/) What/wdt allows/vbz us/ppo to/to think/vb that/cs the/at patient/nn had/hvd no/at third-dimensional/jj representations/nns when/wrb his/pp$ eyes/nns were/bed closed/vbn ?/. ?/.
(/( 2/cd )/) What/wdt evidence/nn is/bez there/ex that/cs he/pps was/bedz psychically/rb blind/jj ?/. ?/.
(/( 3/cd )/) How/wrb can/md we/ppss be/be sure/jj that/cs his/pp$ sense/nn of/in touch/nn was/bedz not/* profoundly/rb disturbed/vbn by/in his/pp$ head/nn injury/nn ?/. ?/.
We/ppss shall/md consider/vb these/dts in/in the/at inverse/jj order/nn of/in their/pp$ presentation/nn ./.


	Obviously/rb ,/, a/at satisfactory/jj answer/nn to/in the/at third/od question/nn is/bez imperative/jj ,/, if/cs the/at argument/nn is/bez to/to get/vb under/in way/nn at/in all/abn ,/, for/cs if/cs there/ex is/bez any/dti possibility/nn of/in doubt/nn whether/cs the/at patient's/nn$ tactual/jj sensitivity/nn had/hvd been/ben impaired/vbn by/in the/at occipital/jj lesion/nn ,/, any/dti findings/nns whatsoever/rb in/in regard/nn to/in the/at first/od question/nn become/vb completely/ql ambiguous/jj and/cc fail/vb altogether/rb ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, as/cs evidence/nn to/to establish/vb the/at desired/vbn conclusion/nn ./.
The/at answer/nn the/at authors/nns give/vb to/in it/ppo ,/, therefore/rb ,/, is/bez of/in supreme/jj importance/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez as/cs follows/vbz :/: ``/`` The/at usual/jj sensitivity/nn tests/nns showed/vbd that/cs the/at specific/jj qualities/nns of/in skin-perceptiveness/nn (/( pressure/nn ,/, pain/nn ,/, temperature/nn )/) ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at kinesthetic/jj sensations/nns (/( muscular/jj feelings/nns ,/, feelings/nns in/in the/at tendons/nns and/cc joints/nns )/) ,/, were/bed ,/, as/cs such/jj ,/, essentially/rb intact/jj ,/, although/cs they/ppss seemed/vbd ,/, in/in comparison/nn with/in normal/jj reactions/nns ,/, to/to be/be somewhat/ql diminished/vbn over/in the/at entire/jj body/nn ./.
The/at supposed/vbn tactual/jj sense/nn of/in spatial/jj location/nn and/cc orientation/nn in/in the/at patient/nn and/cc his/pp$ ability/nn to/to specify/vb the/at location/nn of/in a/at member/nn ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at direction/nn and/cc scope/nn of/in a/at movement/nn ,/, passively/rb executed/vbn (/( with/in one/cd of/in his/pp$ members/nns )/) ,/, proved/vbd to/to have/hv been/ben ,/, on/in the/at contrary/jj ,/, very/ql considerably/rb affected/vbn ''/'' ./.
The/at authors/nns insist/vb ,/, however/rb ,/, that/cs these/dts abnormalities/nns in/in the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn were/bed due/jj absolutely/rb to/in no/at organic/jj disorders/nns in/in that/dt sense/nn faculty/nn but/cc rather/rb to/in the/at injuries/nns which/wdt the/at patient/nn had/hvd sustained/vbn to/in the/at sense/nn of/in sight/nn ./.


	First/od of/in all/abn ,/, what/wdt is/bez their/pp$ evidence/nn that/cs the/at tactual/jj apparatus/nn was/bedz fundamentally/rb undamaged/jj ?/. ?/.
(/( 1/cd )/) When/wrb an/at object/nn was/bedz placed/vbn in/in the/at patient's/nn$ hand/nn ,/, he/pps had/hvd no/at difficulty/nn determining/vbg whether/cs it/pps was/bedz warm/jj or/cc cold/jj ,/, sharp/jj or/cc blunt/jj ,/, rough/jj or/cc smooth/jj ,/, flexible/jj ,/, soft/jj ,/, or/cc hard/jj ;/. ;/.
and/cc he/pps could/md tell/vb ,/, simply/rb by/in the/at feel/nn of/in it/ppo ,/, whether/cs it/pps was/bedz made/vbn of/in wood/nn ,/, iron/nn ,/, cloth/nn ,/, rubber/nn ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ./.
And/cc he/pps could/md recognize/vb ,/, by/in touch/nn alone/rb ,/, articles/nns which/wdt he/pps had/hvd handled/vbn immediately/rb before/rb ,/, even/rb though/cs they/ppss were/bed altogether/rb unfamiliar/jj to/in him/ppo and/cc could/md not/* be/be identified/vbn by/in him/ppo ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, he/pps was/bedz unaware/jj what/wdt kind/nn of/in objects/nns they/ppss were/bed or/cc what/wdt their/pp$ use/nn was/bedz ./.
(/( 2/cd )/) The/at patient/nn attained/vbd an/at astonishing/jj efficiency/nn in/in a/at new/jj trade/nn ./.
Because/rb of/in his/pp$ brain/nn injury/nn and/cc the/at extreme/jj damage/nn suffered/vbn to/in his/pp$ sight/nn ,/, the/at patient/nn had/hvd to/to train/vb himself/ppl for/in a/at new/jj line/nn of/in work/nn ,/, that/dt of/in a/at portfolio-maker/nn ,/, an/at occupation/nn requiring/vbg a/at great/jj deal/nn of/in precision/nn in/in the/at making/nn of/in measurements/nns and/cc a/at fairly/ql well-developed/jj sense/nn of/in form/nn and/cc contour/nn ./.
It/pps seems/vbz clear/jj ,/, when/wrb one/pn takes/vbz into/in consideration/nn the/at exceedingly/ql defective/jj eyesight/nn of/in the/at patient/nn (/( we/ppss shall/md describe/vb it/ppo in/in detail/nn in/in connection/nn with/in our/pp$ second/od question/nn ,/, the/at one/cd concerning/in the/at psychical/jj blindness/nn of/in the/at patient/nn )/) ,/, that/cs he/pps had/hvd to/to rely/vb on/in his/pp$ sense/nn of/in touch/nn much/ql more/rbr than/cs the/at usual/jj portfolio-maker/nn and/cc that/cs consequently/rb that/dt faculty/nn was/bedz most/ql probably/rb more/ql sensitive/jj to/in shape/nn and/cc size/nn than/cs that/dt of/in a/at person/nn with/in normal/jj vision/nn ./.
And/cc so/rb the/at authors/nns conclude/vb :/: ``/`` The/at conduct/nn of/in the/at patient/nn in/in his/pp$ every-day/jj life/nn and/cc in/in his/pp$ work/nn ,/, even/rb more/ap than/cs the/at foregoing/vbg facts/nns (/( mentioned/vbn above/rb under/in 1/cd )/) ,/, leave/vb positively/rb no/at room/nn for/in doubt/nn that/cs the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn ,/, in/in the/at ordinary/jj sense/nn of/in the/at word/nn ,/, was/bedz unaffected/jj ;/. ;/.
or/cc ,/, to/to put/vb the/at same/ap thing/nn in/in physiological/jj terms/nns ,/, that/cs the/at performance-capacity/nn of/in the/at tactual/jj apparatus/nn ,/, from/in the/at periphery/nn up/rp to/in the/at tactual/jj centers/nns in/in the/at brain/nn ,/, --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, from/in one/cd end/nn to/in the/at other/ap --/-- was/bedz unimpaired/jj ''/'' ./.


	If/cs the/at argument/nn is/bez accepted/vbn as/cs essentially/ql sound/jj up/rp to/in this/dt point/nn ,/, it/pps remains/vbz for/cs us/ppo to/to consider/vb whether/cs the/at patient's/nn$ difficulties/nns in/in orienting/vbg himself/ppl spatially/rb and/cc in/in locating/vbg objects/nns in/in space/nn with/in the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn can/md be/be explained/vbn by/in his/pp$ defective/jj visual/jj condition/nn ./.
But/cc before/cs we/ppss can/md do/do this/dt ,/, we/ppss must/md first/rb find/vb answers/nns to/in our/pp$ original/jj questions/nns 1/cd and/cc 2/cd ;/. ;/.
then/rb we/ppss shall/md perhaps/rb be/be in/in a/at position/nn to/to provide/vb something/pn like/cs a/at complete/jj answer/nn to/in the/at question/nn at/in hand/nn ./.


	In/in what/wdt ways/nns ,/, then/rb ,/, did/dod the/at patient's/nn$ psychical/jj blindness/nn manifest/vb itself/ppl ?/. ?/.
He/pps could/md not/* see/vb objects/nns as/cs unified/vbn ,/, self-contained/jj ,/, and/cc organized/vbn figures/nns ,/, as/cs a/at person/nn does/doz with/in normal/jj vision/nn ./.
The/at meaning/nn of/in this/dt ,/, as/cs we/ppss shall/md see/vb ,/, is/bez that/cs he/pps had/hvd no/at fund/nn of/in visual/jj memory-images/nns of/in objects/nns as/cs objects/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc ,/, therefore/rb ,/, he/pps could/md not/* recognize/vb even/rb long-familiar/jj things/nns upon/in seeing/vbg them/ppo again/rb ./.
Instead/rb ,/, he/pps constantly/rb became/vbd lost/vbn in/in parts/nns and/cc components/nns of/in them/ppo ,/, confused/vbd some/dti of/in their/pp$ details/nns with/in those/dts of/in neighboring/vbg objects/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ,/, unless/cs he/pps allowed/vbd time/nn to/to ``/`` trace/vb ''/'' the/at object/nn in/in question/nn through/in minute/jj movements/nns of/in the/at head/nn and/cc hands/nns and/cc in/in this/dt way/nn to/to discover/vb its/pp$ contours/nns ./.
According/in to/in his/pp$ own/jj testimony/nn ,/, he/pps never/rb actually/rb saw/vbd things/nns as/cs shaped/vbn but/cc only/rb as/cs generally/rb amorphous/jj ``/`` blots/nns ''/'' of/in color/nn of/in a/at more/ql or/cc less/ql indefinite/jj size/nn ;/. ;/.
at/in their/pp$ edges/nns they/ppss slipped/vbd pretty/ql much/rb out/rp of/in focus/nn altogether/rb ./.
But/cc by/in the/at tracing/vbg procedure/nn ,/, he/pps could/md ,/, in/in a/at strange/jj obviously/rb kinesthetic/jj manner/nn ,/, find/vb the/at unseen/jj form/nn ;/. ;/.
could/md piece/vb ,/, as/cs it/pps were/bed ,/, the/at jumbled/vbn mass/nn together/rb into/in an/at organized/vbn whole/nn and/cc then/rb recognize/vb it/ppo as/cs a/at man/nn or/cc a/at triangle/nn or/cc whatever/wdt it/pps turned/vbd out/rp to/to be/be ./.
If/cs ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at figure/nn to/to be/be discerned/vbn were/bed complicated/vbn ,/, composed/vbn of/in several/ap interlocking/vbg subfigures/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp ,/, even/rb the/at tracing/vbg process/nn failed/vbd him/ppo ,/, and/cc he/pps could/md not/* focus/vb even/rb relatively/ql simple/jj shapes/nns among/in its/pp$ parts/nns ./.
This/dt meant/vbd ,/, concretely/rb ,/, that/cs the/at patient/nn could/md not/* read/vb at/in all/abn without/in making/vbg writing-like/jj movements/nns of/in the/at head/nn or/cc body/nn ,/, became/vbd easily/rb confused/vbn by/in ``/`` hasher/nn marks/nns ''/'' inserted/vbn between/in hand-written/jj words/nns and/cc thus/rb confused/vbd the/at mark/nn for/in one/cd of/in the/at letters/nns ,/, and/cc could/md recognize/vb a/at simple/jj straight/jj line/nn or/cc a/at curved/vbn one/cd only/rb by/in tracing/vbg it/ppo ./.


	The/at patient/nn himself/ppl denied/vbd that/cs he/pps had/hvd any/dti visual/jj imagery/nn at/in all/abn ;/. ;/.
and/cc there/ex was/bedz ample/jj evidence/nn of/in the/at following/vbg sort/nn to/to corroborate/vb him/ppo ./.
After/in a/at conversation/nn with/in another/dt man/nn ,/, he/pps was/bedz able/jj to/to recount/vb practically/rb everything/pn that/wps had/hvd been/ben said/vbn but/cc could/md not/* describe/vb at/in all/abn what/wdt the/at other/ap man/nn looked/vbd like/cs ./.
Nor/cc could/md he/pps call/vb up/rp memory-pictures/nns of/in close/jj friends/nns or/cc relatives/nns ./.
In/in short/jj ,/, both/abx his/pp$ own/jj declarations/nns and/cc his/pp$ figural/jj blindness/nn ,/, when/wrb he/pps looked/vbd at/in objects/nns ,/, seem/vb to/to present/vb undeniable/jj evidence/nn that/cs he/pps had/hvd simply/rb no/at visual/jj memory/nn at/in all/abn ./.
He/pps was/bedz oblivious/jj of/in the/at form/nn of/in the/at object/nn actually/rb being/beg viewed/vbn ,/, precisely/rb because/cs he/pps could/md not/* assign/vb it/ppo to/in a/at visual/jj shape/nn ,/, already/rb learned/vbn and/cc held/vbn in/in visual/jj memory/nn ,/, as/cs persons/nns of/in normal/jj vision/nn do/do ./.
He/pps could/md not/* recognize/vb it/ppo ;/. ;/.
he/pps was/bedz absolutely/ql unfamiliar/jj with/in it/ppo because/cs he/pps had/hvd no/at visual/jj memory/nn at/in all/abn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, his/pp$ only/ap recourse/nn was/bedz to/to learn/vb the/at shape/nn all/ql over/rp again/rb for/in each/dt new/jj visual/jj experience/nn of/in the/at same/ap individual/ap object/nn or/cc type/nn of/in object/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc this/dt he/pps could/md do/do only/rb by/in going/vbg over/in its/pp$ mass/nn with/in the/at tracing/vbg procedure/nn ./.
Then/rb he/pps might/md finally/rb recognize/vb it/ppo ,/, apparently/rb by/in combining/vbg the/at visual/jj blot/nn ,/, actually/rb being/beg seen/vbn ,/, with/in tactual/jj feelings/nns in/in the/at head/nn or/cc body/nn accompanying/vbg the/at tracing/vbg movements/nns ./.
This/dt would/md mean/vb ,/, it/pps can/md readily/rb be/be seen/vbn ,/, that/cs ,/, again/rb ,/, for/in each/dt new/jj visual/jj experience/nn ,/, the/at tracing/vbg motions/nns would/md have/hv to/to be/be repeated/vbn because/rb of/in the/at absence/nn of/in visual/jj imagery/nn ./.


	As/cs one/pn would/md surmise/vb ,/, the/at procedure/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, could/md be/be repeated/vbn with/in the/at same/ap object/nn or/cc with/in the/at same/ap type/nn of/in object/nn often/rb enough/qlp ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at corresponding/jj visual/jj blots/nns and/cc the/at merest/jjt beginning/nn of/in the/at tracing/vbg movement/nn would/md provide/vb clues/nns as/in to/in the/at actual/jj shape/nn ,/, which/wdt the/at patient/nn then/rb immediately/rb could/md determine/vb by/in a/at kind/nn of/in inference/nn ./.
Men/nns ,/, trees/nns ,/, automobiles/nns ,/, houses/nns ,/, and/cc so/rb on/rp --/-- objects/nns continually/rb confronted/vbn in/in everyday/jj life/nn --/-- had/hvd each/dt its/pp$ characteristic/jj blot-appearance/nn and/cc became/vbd easily/rb recognizable/jj ,/, at/in the/at very/ap beginning/nn of/in tracing/vbg ,/, by/in an/at inference/nn as/in to/in what/wdt each/dt was/bedz ./.
Dice/nns ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, he/pps inferred/vbd from/in black/jj dots/nns on/in a/at white/jj surface/nn ./.
He/pps evidently/rb could/md not/* actually/rb see/vb the/at corners/nns of/in these/dts objects/nns ,/, but/cc their/pp$ size/nn and/cc the/at dots/nns gave/vbd them/ppo away/rb ./.
And/cc the/at authors/nns give/vb numerous/jj instances/nns of/in calculated/vbn guessing/vbg on/in the/at patient's/nn$ part/nn to/to show/vb how/wql large/jj a/at role/nn it/pps played/vbd in/in his/pp$ process/nn of/in readapting/vbg himself/ppl and/cc how/wql proficient/jj he/pps became/vbd at/in it/ppo ./.
Often/rb he/pps seems/vbz even/rb to/to have/hv been/ben able/jj to/to guess/vb correctly/rb ,/, without/in the/at tracing/vbg motions/nns ,/, solely/rb on/in the/at basis/nn of/in qualitative/jj differences/nns among/in the/at blot-like/jj things/nns which/wdt appeared/vbd in/in his/pp$ visual/jj experience/nn ./.


	Perhaps/rb the/at very/ql important/jj question/nn --/-- What/wdt is/bez ,/, then/rb ,/, exactly/rb the/at role/nn of/in kinesthetic/jj sensations/nns in/in the/at patient's/nn$ ability/nn to/to recognize/vb forms/nns and/cc shapes/nns by/in means/nn of/in the/at tracing/vbg movements/nns when/wrb he/pps is/bez actually/rb looking/vbg at/in things/nns ?/. ?/.
--/-- has/hvz now/rb been/ben raised/vbn in/in the/at reader's/nn$ mind/nn and/cc in/in the/at following/vbg form/nn ./.
If/cs the/at patient/nn can/md perceive/vb figure/nn kinesthetically/rb when/wrb he/pps cannot/md* perceive/vb it/ppo visually/rb ,/, then/rb ,/, it/pps would/md seem/vb ,/, the/at sense/nn of/in touch/nn has/hvz immediate/jj contact/nn with/in the/at spatial/jj aspects/nns of/in things/nns in/in independence/nn of/in visual/jj representations/nns ,/, at/in least/ap in/in regard/nn to/in two/cd dimensions/nns ,/, and/cc ,/, as/cs we/ppss shall/md see/vb ,/, even/rb this/dt much/ap spatial/jj awareness/nn on/in the/at part/nn of/in unaided/jj touch/nn is/bez denied/vbn by/in the/at authors/nns ./.
How/wrb ,/, then/rb ,/, do/do the/at kinesthetic/jj sensations/nns function/vb in/in all/abn this/dt ?/. ?/.
The/at authors/nns set/vbd about/rb answering/vbg this/dt fundamental/jj question/nn through/in a/at detailed/vbn investigation/nn of/in the/at patient's/nn$ ability/nn ,/, tactually/rb ,/, (/( 1/cd )/) to/to perceive/vb figure/nn and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) to/to locate/vb objects/nns in/in space/nn ,/, with/in his/pp$ eyes/nns closed/vbn (/( or/cc turned/vbn away/rb from/in the/at object/nn concerned/vbn )/) ./.
Quite/ql naturally/rb ,/, they/ppss make/vb the/at investigation/nn ,/, first/rb ,/, by/in prohibiting/vbg the/at patient/nn from/in making/vbg any/dti movements/nns at/in all/abn and/cc then/rb ,/, later/rbr ,/, by/in repeating/vbg it/ppo and/cc allowing/vbg the/at patient/nn to/to move/vb in/in any/dti way/nn he/pps wanted/vbd to/to ./.


	When/wrb the/at patient/nn was/bedz not/* allowed/vbn to/to move/vb his/pp$ body/nn in/in any/dti way/nn at/in all/abn ,/, the/at following/vbg striking/jj results/nns occurred/vbd ./.

Whenever/wrb artists/nns ,/, indeed/rb ,/, turned/vbd to/in actual/jj representations/nns or/cc molded/vbd three-dimensional/jj figures/nns ,/, which/wdt were/bed rare/jj down/rp to/in 800/cd B.C./np ,/, they/ppss tended/vbd to/to reflect/vb reality/nn (/( see/vb Plate/nn-tl 6a/cd-tl ,/, 9b/cd-tl )/) ;/. ;/.
a/at schematic/jj ,/, abstract/jj treatment/nn of/in men/nns and/cc animals/nns ,/, by/in intent/nn ,/, rose/vbd only/rb in/in the/at late/jj eighth/od century/nn ./.


	To/to speak/vb of/in this/dt underlying/vbg view/nn of/in the/at world/nn is/bez to/to embark/vb upon/in matters/nns of/in subjective/jj judgment/nn ./.
At/in the/at least/ap ,/, however/rb ,/, one/pn may/md conclude/vb that/cs Geometric/jj-tl potters/nns sensed/vbd a/at logical/jj order/nn ;/. ;/.
their/pp$ principles/nns of/in composition/nn stand/vb very/ql close/rb to/in those/dts which/wdt appear/vb in/in the/at Homeric/jj epics/nns and/cc the/at hexameter/nn line/nn ./.
Their/pp$ world/nn ,/, again/rb ,/, was/bedz a/at still/rb simple/jj ,/, traditional/jj age/nn which/wdt was/bedz only/rb slowly/rb beginning/vbg to/to appreciate/vb the/at complexity/nn of/in life/nn ./.
And/cc perhaps/rb an/at observer/nn of/in the/at vases/nns will/md not/* go/vb too/ql far/rb in/in deducing/vbg that/cs the/at outlook/nn of/in their/pp$ makers/nns and/cc users/nns was/bedz basically/rb stable/jj and/cc secure/jj ./.
The/at storms/nns of/in the/at past/nn had/hvd died/vbn away/rb ,/, and/cc the/at great/jj upheaval/nn which/wdt was/bedz to/to mark/vb the/at following/vbg century/nn had/hvd not/* yet/rb begun/vbn to/to disturb/vb men's/nns$ minds/nns ./.


	Throughout/in the/at work/nn of/in the/at later/jjr ninth/od century/nn a/at calm/jj ,/, severe/jj serenity/nn displays/vbz itself/ppl ./.
In/in the/at vases/nns this/dt spirit/nn may/md perhaps/rb at/in times/nns bore/vb or/cc repel/vb one/pn in/in its/pp$ internal/jj self-satisfaction/nn ,/, but/cc the/at best/jjt of/in the/at Geometric/jj-tl pins/nns have/hv rightly/rb been/ben considered/vbn among/in the/at most/ql beautiful/jj ever/rb made/vbn in/in the/at Greek/jj world/nn ./.
The/at ninth/od century/nn was/bedz in/in its/pp$ artistic/jj work/nn ``/`` the/at spiritually/rb freest/jjt and/cc most/ql self-sufficient/jj between/in past/nn and/cc future/nn ''/'' ,/, and/cc the/at loving/vbg skill/nn spent/vbn by/in its/pp$ artists/nns upon/in their/pp$ products/nns is/bez a/at testimonial/nn to/in their/pp$ sense/nn that/cs what/wdt they/ppss were/bed doing/vbg was/bedz important/jj and/cc was/bedz appreciated/vbn ./.
The/at-hl Aegean/np-hl in/in-hl 800/cd-hl B.C./np-tl 
Geometric/jj-tl pottery/nn has/hvz not/* yet/rb received/vbn the/at thorough/jj ,/, detailed/vbn study/nn which/wdt it/pps deserves/vbz ,/, partly/rb because/cs the/at task/nn is/bez a/at mammoth/jj one/cd and/cc partly/rb because/cs some/dti of/in its/pp$ local/jj manifestations/nns ,/, as/cs at/in Argos/np ,/, are/ber only/rb now/rb coming/vbg to/in light/nn ./.
From/in even/rb a/at cursory/jj inspection/nn of/in its/pp$ many/ap aspects/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at historian/nn can/md deduce/vb several/ap fundamental/jj conclusions/nns about/in the/at progress/nn of/in the/at Aegean/jj world/nn down/rp to/in 800/cd B.C./np 

	./.
The/at general/jj intellectual/jj outlook/nn which/wdt had/hvd appeared/vbn in/in the/at eleventh/od century/nn was/bedz now/rb consolidated/vbn to/in a/at significant/jj degree/nn ./.
Much/ap which/wdt was/bedz in/in embryo/nn in/in 1000/cd had/hvd become/vbn reasonably/ql well/rb developed/vbn by/in 800/cd ./.
In/in this/dt process/nn the/at Minoan-Mycenaean/jj inheritance/nn had/hvd been/ben transmuted/vbn or/cc finally/rb rejected/vbn ;/. ;/.
the/at Aegean/jj world/nn which/wdt had/hvd existed/vbn before/in 1000/cd differed/vbd from/in that/dt which/wdt rises/vbz more/ql clearly/rb in/in our/pp$ vision/nn after/in 800/cd ./.
Those/dts modern/jj scholars/nns who/wps urge/vb that/cs we/ppss must/md keep/vb in/in mind/nn the/at fundamental/jj continuity/nn of/in Aegean/jj development/nn from/in earliest/jjt times/nns --/-- granted/vbn occasional/jj irruptions/nns of/in peoples/nns and/cc ideas/nns from/in outside/rb --/-- are/ber correct/jj ;/. ;/.
but/cc all/ql too/ql many/ap observers/nns have/hv been/ben misled/vbn by/in this/dt fact/nn into/in minimizing/vbg the/at degree/nn of/in change/nn which/wdt took/vbd place/nn in/in the/at early/jj first/od millennium/nn ./.


	The/at focus/nn of/in novelty/nn in/in this/dt world/nn now/rb lay/vbd in/in the/at south-eastern/jj districts/nns of/in the/at Greek/jj mainland/nn ,/, and/cc by/in 800/cd virtually/rb the/at entire/jj Aegean/np ,/, always/rb excepting/in its/pp$ northern/jj shores/nns ,/, had/hvd accepted/vbn the/at Geometric/jj-tl style/nn of/in pottery/nn ./.
While/cs Protogeometric/jj vases/nns usually/rb turn/vb up/rp ,/, especially/rb outside/in Greece/np proper/jj ,/, together/rb with/in as/ql many/ap or/cc more/ap examples/nns of/in local/jj stamp/nn ,/, these/dts ``/`` non-Greek/jj ''/'' patterns/nns had/hvd mostly/rb vanished/vbn by/in the/at later/jjr ninth/od century/nn ./.
In/in their/pp$ place/nn came/vbd local/jj variations/nns within/in the/at common/jj style/nn --/-- tentative/jj ,/, as/cs it/pps were/bed ,/, in/in Protogeometric/jj products/nns but/cc truly/ql distinct/jj and/cc sharply/rb defined/vbn as/cs the/at Geometric/jj-tl spirit/nn developed/vbd ./.
Attica/np ,/, though/cs important/jj ,/, was/bedz not/* the/at only/ap teacher/nn of/in this/dt age/nn ./.
One/pn can/md take/vb a/at vase/nn of/in about/rb 800/cd B.C./np and/cc ,/, without/in any/dti knowledge/nn of/in its/pp$ place/nn of/in origin/nn ,/, venture/vb to/to assign/vb it/ppo to/in a/at specific/jj area/nn ;/. ;/.
imitation/nn and/cc borrowing/vbg of/in motifs/nns now/rb become/vb ascertainable/jj ./.
The/at potters/nns of/in the/at Aegean/jj islands/nns thus/rb stood/vbd apart/rb from/in those/dts of/in the/at mainland/nn ,/, and/cc in/in Greece/np itself/ppl Argive/jj ,/, Corinthian/jj ,/, Attic/jj ,/, Boeotian/jj ,/, and/cc other/ap Geometric/jj-tl sequences/nns have/hv each/dt their/pp$ own/jj hallmarks/nns ./.
These/dts local/jj variations/nns were/bed to/to become/vb ever/rb sharper/jjr in/in the/at next/ap century/nn and/cc a/at half/abn ./.


	The/at same/ap conclusions/nns can/md be/be drawn/vbn from/in the/at other/ap physical/jj evidence/nn of/in the/at Dark/jj-tl ages/nns ,/, from/in linguistic/jj distribution/nn ,/, and/cc from/in the/at survivals/nns of/in early/jj social/jj ,/, political/jj ,/, and/cc religious/jj patterns/nns into/in later/jjr ages/nns ./.
By/in 800/cd B.C./np the/at Aegean/np was/bedz an/at area/nn of/in common/jj tongue/nn and/cc of/in common/jj culture/nn ./.
On/in these/dts pillars/nns rested/vbd that/dt solid/jj basis/nn for/in life/nn and/cc thought/nn which/wdt was/bedz soon/rb to/to be/be manifested/vbn in/in the/at remarkably/rb unlimited/jj ken/nn of/in the/at Iliad/np ./.
Everywhere/rb within/in the/at common/jj pattern/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, one/pn finds/vbz local/jj diversity/nn ;/. ;/.
Greek/jj history/nn and/cc culture/nn were/bed enduringly/rb fertilized/vbn ,/, and/cc plagued/vbn ,/, by/in the/at interplay/nn of/in these/dts conjoined/vbn yet/cc opposed/vbn factors/nns ./.


	Further/rbr we/ppss cannot/md* go/vb ,/, for/cs the/at Dark/jj-tl ages/nns deserve/vb their/pp$ name/nn ./.
Many/ap aspects/nns of/in civilization/nn were/bed not/* yet/rb sufficiently/rb crystallized/vbn to/to find/vb expression/nn ,/, nor/cc could/md the/at simple/jj economic/jj and/cc social/jj foundations/nns of/in this/dt world/nn support/vb a/at lofty/jj structure/nn ./.
The/at epic/jj poems/nns ,/, the/at consolidation/nn of/in the/at Greek/jj pantheon/nn ,/, the/at rise/nn of/in firm/jj political/jj units/nns ,/, the/at self-awareness/nn which/wdt could/md permit/vb painted/vbn and/cc sculptured/vbn representations/nns of/in men/nns --/-- all/abn these/dts had/hvd to/to await/vb the/at progress/nn of/in following/vbg decades/nns ./.
What/wdt we/ppss have/hv seen/vbn in/in this/dt chapter/nn ,/, we/ppss have/hv seen/vbn only/rb dimly/rb ,/, and/cc yet/rb the/at results/nns ,/, however/wql general/jj ,/, are/ber worth/jj the/at search/nn ./.
These/dts are/ber the/at centuries/nns in/in which/wdt the/at inhabitants/nns of/in the/at Aegean/jj world/nn settled/vbd firmly/rb into/in their/pp$ minds/nns and/cc into/in their/pp$ institutions/nns the/at foundations/nns of/in the/at Hellenic/jj outlook/nn ,/, independent/jj of/in outside/jj forces/nns ./.


	To/to interpret/vb ,/, indeed/rb ,/, the/at era/nn from/in 1000/cd to/in 800/cd as/cs a/at period/nn mainly/rb of/in consolidation/nn may/md be/be a/at necessary/jj but/cc unfortunate/jj defect/nn born/vbn of/in our/pp$ lack/nn of/in detailed/vbn information/nn ;/. ;/.
if/cs we/ppss could/md see/vb more/ql deeply/rb ,/, we/ppss probably/rb would/md find/vb many/ap side/nn issues/nns and/cc wrong/jj turnings/nns which/wdt came/vbd to/in an/at end/nn within/in the/at period/nn ./.
The/at historian/nn can/md only/rb point/vb out/rp those/dts lines/nns which/wdt were/bed major/jj enough/qlp to/to find/vb reflection/nn in/in our/pp$ limited/vbn evidence/nn ,/, and/cc must/md hope/vb that/cs future/jj excavations/nns will/md enrich/vb our/pp$ understanding/nn ./.
Throughout/in the/at Dark/jj-tl ages/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez clear/jj ,/, the/at Greek/jj world/nn had/hvd been/ben developing/vbg slowly/rb but/cc consistently/rb ./.
The/at pace/nn could/md now/rb be/be accelerated/vbn ,/, for/cs the/at inhabitants/nns of/in the/at Aegean/np stood/vbd on/in firm/jj ground/nn ./.



Chapter/nn-hl 5/cd-hl the/at-hl early/jj-hl eighth/od-hl century/nn-hl 
the/at landscape/nn of/in Greek/jj history/nn broadens/vbz widely/rb ,/, and/cc rather/ql abruptly/rb ,/, in/in the/at eighth/od century/nn B.C./np ,/, the/at age/nn of/in Homer's/np$ ``/`` rosy-fingered/jj Dawn/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
The/at first/od slanting/vbg rays/nns of/in the/at new/jj day/nn cannot/md* yet/rb dispel/vb all/abn the/at dark/jj shadows/nns which/wdt lie/vb across/in the/at Aegean/np world/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc our/pp$ evidence/nn grows/vbz considerably/rb in/in variety/nn and/cc shows/vbz more/ql unmistakably/rb some/dti of/in the/at lines/nns of/in change/nn ./.
For/in this/dt period/nn ,/, as/cs for/in earlier/jjr centuries/nns ,/, pottery/nn remains/vbz the/at most/ql secure/jj source/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at ceramic/jj material/nn of/in the/at age/nn is/bez more/ql abundant/jj ,/, more/ql diversified/vbn ,/, and/cc more/ql indicative/jj of/in the/at hopes/nns and/cc fears/nns of/in its/pp$ makers/nns ,/, who/wps begin/vb to/to show/vb scenes/nns of/in human/jj life/nn and/cc death/nn ./.
Figurines/nns and/cc simple/jj chapels/nns presage/vb the/at emergence/nn of/in sculpture/nn and/cc architecture/nn in/in Greece/np ;/. ;/.
objects/nns in/in gold/nn ,/, ivory/nn ,/, and/cc bronze/nn grow/vb more/ql numerous/jj ./.
Since/cs writing/vbg was/bedz practiced/vbn in/in the/at Aegean/np before/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at century/nn ,/, we/ppss may/md hope/vb that/cs the/at details/nns of/in tradition/nn will/md now/rb be/be occasionally/rb useful/jj ./.
Though/cs it/pps is/bez not/* easy/jj to/to apply/vb the/at evidence/nn of/in the/at Iliad/np to/in any/dti specific/jj era/nn ,/, this/dt marvelous/jj product/nn of/in the/at epic/nn tradition/nn had/hvd certainly/rb taken/vbn definitive/jj shape/nn by/in 750/cd ./.


	The/at Dipylon/np-tl Geometric/jj-tl pottery/nn of/in Athens/np and/cc the/at Iliad/np are/ber amazing/jj manifestations/nns of/in the/at inherent/jj potentialities/nns of/in Greek/jj civilization/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc both/abx were/bed among/in the/at last/ap products/nns of/in a/at phase/nn which/wdt was/bedz ending/vbg ./.
Greek/jj civilization/nn was/bedz swirling/vbg toward/in its/pp$ great/jj revolution/nn ,/, in/in which/wdt the/at developed/vbn qualities/nns of/in the/at Hellenic/jj outlook/nn were/bed suddenly/rb to/to break/vb forth/rb ./.
The/at revolution/nn was/bedz well/rb under/in way/nn before/in 700/cd B.C./np ,/, and/cc premonitory/jj signs/nns go/vb back/rb virtually/rb across/in the/at century/nn ./.
The/at era/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez Janus-faced/jj ./.
While/cs many/ap tokens/nns point/vb forward/rb ,/, the/at main/jjs achievements/nns stand/vb as/cs a/at culmination/nn of/in the/at simple/jj patterns/nns of/in the/at Dark/jj-tl ages/nns ./.
The/at dominant/jj pottery/nn of/in the/at century/nn was/bedz Geometric/jj-tl ;/. ;/.
political/jj organization/nn revolved/vbd about/in the/at basileis/fw-nn ;/. ;/.
trade/nn was/bedz just/rb beginning/vbg to/to expand/vb ;/. ;/.
the/at gods/nns who/wps protected/vbd the/at Greek/jj countryside/nn were/bed only/rb now/rb putting/vbg on/rp their/pp$ sharply/rb anthropomorphic/jj dress/nn ./.


	The/at modern/jj student/nn ,/, who/wps knows/vbz what/wdt was/bedz to/to come/vb next/rb ,/, is/bez likely/jj to/to place/vb first/rb the/at factors/nns of/in change/nn which/wdt are/ber visible/jj in/in the/at eighth/od century/nn ./.
Not/* all/abn men/nns of/in the/at period/nn would/md have/hv accepted/vbn this/dt emphasis/nn ./.
Many/ap potters/nns clung/vbd to/in the/at past/nn the/at more/ql determinedly/rb as/cs they/ppss were/bed confronted/vbn with/in radically/rb new/jj ideas/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at poet/nn of/in the/at Iliad/np deliberately/rb archaized/vbd ./.
Although/cs it/pps is/bez not/* possible/jj to/to sunder/vb old/jj and/cc new/jj in/in this/dt era/nn ,/, I/ppss shall/md consider/vb in/in the/at present/jj chapter/nn primarily/rb the/at first/od decades/nns of/in the/at eighth/od century/nn and/cc shall/md interpret/vb them/ppo as/cs an/at apogee/nn of/in the/at first/od stage/nn of/in Greek/jj civilization/nn ./.


	On/in this/dt principle/nn of/in division/nn I/ppss must/md postpone/vb the/at evolution/nn of/in sculpture/nn ,/, architecture/nn ,/, society/nn ,/, and/cc politics/nn ;/. ;/.
for/cs the/at developments/nns in/in these/dts areas/nns make/vb sense/nn only/rb if/cs they/ppss are/ber connected/vbn to/in the/at age/nn of/in revolution/nn itself/ppl ./.
The/at growing/vbg contacts/nns between/in Aegean/np and/cc Orient/np are/ber also/rb a/at phase/nn which/wdt should/md be/be linked/vbn primarily/rb to/in the/at remarkable/jj broadening/nn of/in Hellenic/jj culture/nn after/in 750/cd ./.
We/ppss shall/md not/* be/be able/jj entirely/rb to/to pass/vb over/in these/dts connections/nns to/in the/at East/nr-tl as/cs we/ppss consider/vb Ripe/jj-tl Geometric/jj-tl pottery/nn ,/, the/at epic/nn and/cc the/at myth/nn ,/, and/cc the/at religious/jj evolution/nn of/in early/jj Greece/np ;/. ;/.
the/at important/jj point/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez that/cs these/dts magnificent/jj achievements/nns ,/, unlike/in those/dts of/in later/jjr decades/nns ,/, were/bed only/rb incidentally/rb influenced/vbn by/in Oriental/jj-tl models/nns ./.
The/at antecedents/nns of/in Dipylon/np vases/nns and/cc of/in the/at Iliad/np lie/vb in/in the/at Aegean/jj past/nn ./.
Dipylon/np-hl pottery/nn-hl 
the/at pottery/nn of/in the/at first/od half/nn of/in the/at eighth/od century/nn is/bez commonly/rb called/vbn Ripe/jj-tl Geometric/jj-tl ./.
The/at severe/jj yet/cc harmonious/jj vases/nns of/in the/at previous/jj fifty/cd years/nns ,/, the/at Strong/jj-tl Geometric/jj-tl style/nn of/in the/at late/jj ninth/od century/nn ,/, display/vb as/ql firm/jj a/at mastery/nn of/in the/at principles/nns underlying/vbg Geometric/jj-tl pottery/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc artists/nns now/rb were/bed ready/jj to/to refine/vb and/cc elaborate/vb their/pp$ inheritance/nn ./.
The/at vases/nns which/wdt resulted/vbd had/hvd different/jj shapes/nns ,/, far/ql more/ql complex/jj decoration/nn ,/, and/cc a/at larger/jjr sense/nn of/in style/nn ./.


	Beyond/in the/at aesthetic/jj and/cc technical/jj aspects/nns of/in this/dt expansion/nn we/ppss must/md consider/vb the/at change/nn in/in pottery/nn style/nn on/in broader/jjr lines/nns ./.
In/in earlier/jjr centuries/nns men/nns had/hvd had/hvn enough/ap to/to do/do in/in rebuilding/vbg a/at fundamental/jj sense/nn of/in order/nn after/in chaos/nn ./.
They/ppss had/hvd had/hvn to/to work/vb on/in very/ql simple/jj foundations/nns and/cc had/hvd not/* dared/vbn to/to give/vb rein/nn to/in impulses/nns ./.
The/at potters/nns ,/, in/in particular/jj ,/, had/hvd virtually/rb eschewed/vbn freehand/jj drawing/vbg ,/, elaborate/jj motifs/nns ,/, and/cc the/at curving/vbg lines/nns of/in nature/nn ,/, while/cs yet/rb expressing/vbg a/at belief/nn that/cs there/ex was/bedz order/nn in/in the/at universe/nn ./.
In/in their/pp$ vases/nns were/bed embodied/vbn the/at basic/jj aesthetic/jj and/cc logical/jj characteristics/nns of/in Greek/jj civilization/nn ,/, at/in first/rb hesitantly/rb in/in Protogeometric/jj work/nn ,/, and/cc then/rb more/ql confidently/rb in/in the/at initial/jj stages/nns of/in the/at Geometric/jj-tl style/nn ./.
By/in 800/cd social/jj and/cc cultural/jj security/nn had/hvd been/ben achieved/vbn ,/, at/in least/ap on/in a/at simple/jj plane/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps was/bedz time/nn to/to take/vb bigger/jjr steps/nns ,/, to/to venture/vb on/in experiments/nns ./.


	Ripe/jj Geometric/jj-tl potters/nns continued/vbd to/to employ/vb the/at old/jj syntax/nn of/in ornaments/nns and/cc shapes/nns and/cc made/vbd use/nn of/in the/at well-defined/jj though/cs limited/vbn range/nn of/in motifs/nns which/wdt they/ppss had/hvd inherited/vbn ./.
In/in these/dts respects/nns the/at vases/nns of/in the/at early/jj eighth/od century/nn represent/vb a/at culmination/nn of/in earlier/jjr lines/nns of/in progress/nn ./.
To/in the/at ancestral/jj lore/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, new/jj materials/nns were/bed added/vbn ./.
Painters/nns left/vbd less/ap and/cc less/ap of/in a/at vase/nn in/in a/at plain/jj dark/jj color/nn ;/. ;/.
instead/rb they/ppss divided/vbd the/at surface/nn into/in many/ap bands/nns or/cc covered/vbd it/ppo by/in all-over/jj patterns/nns into/in which/wdt freehand/jj drawing/nn began/vbd to/to creep/vb ./.
Wavy/jj lines/nns ,/, feather-like/jj patterns/nns ,/, rosettes/nns of/in indefinitely/rb floral/jj nature/nn ,/, birds/nns either/cc singly/rb or/cc in/in stylized/vbn rows/nns ,/, animals/nns in/in solemn/jj frieze/nn bands/nns (/( see/vb Plates/nns-tl 11/cd-tl -/in-tl 12/cd-tl )/) --/-- all/abn these/dts turned/vbd up/rp in/in the/at more/ql developed/vbn fabrics/nns as/cs preliminary/jj signs/nns that/cs the/at potters/nns were/bed broadening/vbg their/pp$ gaze/nn ./.
The/at rows/nns of/in animals/nns and/cc birds/nns ,/, in/in particular/jj ,/, suggest/vb awareness/nn of/in Oriental/jj-tl animal/nn friezes/nns ,/, transmitted/vbn perhaps/rb via/in Syrian/jj silver/nn bowls/nns and/cc textiles/nns ,/, but/cc the/at specific/jj forms/nns of/in these/dts rows/nns on/in local/jj vases/nns and/cc metal/nn products/nns are/ber nonetheless/rb Greek/jj ./.
Though/cs the/at spread/nn of/in this/dt type/nn of/in decoration/nn in/in the/at Aegean/np has/hvz not/* yet/rb been/ben precisely/rb determined/vbn ,/, it/pps seems/vbz to/to appear/vb first/rb in/in the/at Cyclades/nps ,/, which/wdt were/bed among/in the/at leading/vbg exporters/nns of/in pottery/nn throughout/in the/at century/nn ./.


	As/cs the/at material/nn at/in the/at command/nn of/in the/at potters/nns grew/vbd and/cc the/at volume/nn of/in their/pp$ production/nn increased/vbd ,/, the/at local/jj variations/nns within/in a/at common/jj style/nn became/vbd more/ql evident/jj ./.
Plate/nn 12/cd illustrates/vbz four/cd examples/nns ,/, which/wdt are/ber Ripe/jj-tl or/cc Late/jj-tl Geometric/jj-tl work/nn of/in common/jj spirit/nn but/cc of/in different/jj schools/nns ./.

Cook/np had/hvd discovered/vbn a/at beef/nn in/in his/pp$ possession/nn a/at few/ap days/nns earlier/rbr and/cc ,/, when/wrb he/pps could/md not/* show/vb the/at hide/nn ,/, arrested/vbd him/ppo ./.
Thinking/vbg the/at evidence/nn insufficient/jj to/to get/vb a/at conviction/nn ,/, he/pps later/rbr released/vbd him/ppo ./.
Even/rb while/cs suffering/vbg the/at trip/nn to/in his/pp$ home/nn ,/, Cook/np swore/vbd to/in Moore/np and/cc Lane/np that/cs he/pps would/md kill/vb the/at Indian/jj ./.


	Three/cd weeks/nns later/rbr ,/, following/in his/pp$ recovery/nn ,/, armed/vbn with/in a/at writ/nn issued/vbn by/in the/at Catskill/np justice/nn on/in affidavits/nns prepared/vbn by/in the/at district/nn attorney/nn ,/, Cook/np and/cc Russell/np rode/vbd to/to arrest/vb Martinez/np ./.
Arriving/vbg at/in daybreak/nn ,/, they/ppss found/vbd Julio/np in/in his/pp$ corral/nn and/cc demanded/vbd that/cs he/pps surrender/vb ./.
Instead/rb ,/, he/pps whirled/vbd and/cc ran/vbd to/in his/pp$ house/nn for/in a/at gun/nn ,/, forcing/vbg them/ppo to/to kill/vb him/ppo ,/, Cook/np reported/vbd ./.


	Both/abx Cook's/nn$-tl and/cc Russell's/np$ lives/nns were/bed threatened/vbn by/in the/at Mexicans/nps following/in the/at killing/nn ,/, but/cc the/at company/nn officers/nns felt/vbd that/cs in/in the/at end/nn ,/, it/pps would/md serve/vb to/to quiet/vb them/ppo despite/in their/pp$ immediate/jj emotion/nn ./.
General/jj manager/nn Pels/np even/rb suggested/vbd that/cs it/pps might/md be/be wise/jj to/to keep/vb the/at Mexicans/nps in/in suspense/nn rather/rb than/cs accept/vb their/pp$ offers/nns to/to sell/vb out/rp and/cc move/vb away/rb ,/, and/cc try/vb to/to have/hv a/at few/ap punished/vbn ./.


	On/in February/np 17/cd ,/, Russell/np and/cc Cook/np were/bed sent/vbn to/in the/at Pena/np Flor/np community/nn on/in the/at Vermejo/np to/to see/vb about/in renting/vbg out/rp ranches/vbz the/at company/nn had/hvd purchased/vbn ./.
While/cs talking/vbg with/in Julian/np M./np Beall/np ,/, Francisco/np Archuleta/np and/cc Juan/np Marcus/np appeared/vbd ,/, both/abx heavily/rb armed/vbn ,/, and/cc after/cs watching/vbg the/at house/nn for/in a/at while/nn ,/, rode/vbd away/rb ./.
It/pps was/bedz nearly/rb sundown/nn before/cs they/ppss finished/vbd the/at business/nn with/in Beall/np and/cc began/vbd riding/vbg down/in the/at stream/nn ./.
They/ppss had/hvd traveled/vbn only/rb a/at short/jj distance/nn when/wrb they/ppss spotted/vbd five/cd Mexicans/nps riding/vbg along/in a/at horse-trail/nn across/in the/at stream/nn just/rb ahead/rb of/in them/ppo ./.
Suspecting/vbg an/at ambush/nn ,/, the/at two/cd deputies/nns decided/vbd to/to ride/vb up/in a/at side/nn canyon/nn taking/vbg a/at short/jj cut/nn into/in Catskill/np ./.


	After/cs spending/vbg two/cd nights/nns (/( Wednesday/nr and/cc Thursday/nr )/) in/in Catskill/np ,/, the/at deputies/nns again/rb headed/vbd for/in the/at Vermejo/np to/to finish/vb their/pp$ business/nn ./.
They/ppss stayed/vbd with/in a/at rancher/nn Friday/nr night/nn and/cc by/in eleven/cd o'clock/rb Saturday/nr morning/nn passed/vbd the/at old/jj Garnett/np Lee/np ranch/nn ./.
Half/abn a/at mile/nn below/rb at/in the/at mouth/nn of/in Salyer's/np$-tl Canyon/nn-tl was/bedz an/at old/jj ranch/nn that/wpo the/at company/nn had/hvd purchased/vbn from/in A./np J./np Armstrong/np ,/, occupied/vbn by/in a/at Mexican/jj ,/, his/pp$ wife/nn ,/, and/cc an/at old/jj trapper/nn ./.
There/ex were/bed three/cd houses/nns in/in Salyer's/np$-tl Canyon/nn-tl just/rb at/in the/at foot/nn of/in a/at low/jj bluff/nn ,/, the/at road/nn winding/vbg along/in the/at top/nn ,/, entering/vbg above/rb ,/, and/cc then/rb passing/vbg down/rp in/in front/nn of/in the/at houses/nns ,/, thence/rb to/in the/at Vermejo/np ./.
To/in the/at west/nr of/in this/dt road/nn was/bedz another/dt low/jj bluff/nn ,/, forty/cd or/cc fifty/cd feet/nns high/jj ,/, covered/vbn with/in scrub/jj oak/nn and/cc other/ap brush/nn ./.
As/cs they/ppss were/bed riding/vbg along/in this/dt winding/vbg road/nn on/in the/at bench/nn of/in land/nn between/in the/at two/cd bluffs/nns ,/, a/at volley/nn of/in rifle/nn fire/nn suddenly/rb crashed/vbd around/in the/at two/cd officers/nns ./.
Not/* a/at bullet/nn touched/vbd Cook/np who/wps was/bedz nearer/jjr the/at ambush/nn ,/, but/cc one/cd hit/vbd Russell/np in/in the/at leg/nn and/cc another/dt broke/vbd his/pp$ arm/nn ,/, passing/vbg on/rp through/in his/pp$ body/nn ./.


	With/in the/at first/od reports/nns ,/, Russell's/np$ horse/nn wheeled/vbd to/in the/at right/nr and/cc ran/vbd towards/in the/at buildings/nns while/cs Cook/np ,/, followed/vbn by/in a/at hail/nn of/in bullets/nns ,/, raced/vbd towards/in the/at arroyo/nn of/in Salyer's/np$-tl Canyon/nn-tl immediately/rb in/in front/nn of/in him/ppo ,/, just/rb reaching/vbg it/ppo as/cs his/pp$ horse/nn fell/vbd ./.
Grabbing/vbg his/pp$ Winchester/np from/in its/pp$ sheath/nn ,/, Cook/np prepared/vbd to/to fight/vb from/in behind/in the/at arroyo/nn bank/nn ./.
Bullets/nns were/bed so/ql thick/jj ,/, throwing/vbg sand/nn in/in his/pp$ face/nn ,/, that/cs he/pps found/vbd it/ppo difficult/jj to/to return/vb the/at fire/nn ./.
Noticing/vbg Russell's/np$ horse/nn in/in front/nn of/in the/at long/jj log/nn building/nn ,/, he/pps assumed/vbd his/pp$ friend/nn had/hvd slipped/vbn inside/rb and/cc would/md be/be able/jj to/to put/vb up/rp a/at good/jj fight/nn ,/, so/rb he/pps began/vbd working/vbg his/pp$ way/nn down/in the/at ditch/nn to/to join/vb him/ppo ./.
At/in a/at very/ql shallow/jj place/nn ,/, two/cd Mexicans/nps rushed/vbd into/in the/at open/jj for/in a/at shot/nn ./.
Dropping/vbg to/in one/cd knee/nn ,/, Cook/np felled/vbd one/cd ,/, and/cc the/at other/ap struggled/vbd off/rp with/in his/pp$ comrade/nn ,/, sending/vbg no/at further/ap fire/nn in/in his/pp$ direction/nn ./.
Just/rb before/cs leaving/vbg the/at arroyo/nn where/wrb he/pps was/bedz partially/rb concealed/vbn ,/, he/pps did/dod hear/vb shots/nns down/rp at/in the/at house/nn ./.


	Russell/np had/hvd reached/vbn the/at house/nn as/cs Cook/np surmised/vbd ,/, dismounted/vbn ,/, but/cc just/rb as/cs the/at old/jj trapper/nn opened/vbd the/at door/nn to/to receive/vb him/ppo ,/, he/pps fell/vbd into/in the/at trapper's/nn$ arms/nns --/-- dead/jj ./.
A/at bullet/nn fired/vbn by/in one/cd of/in the/at Mexicans/nps hiding/vbg in/in a/at little/jj chicken/nn house/nn had/hvd passed/vbn through/in his/pp$ head/nn ,/, tearing/vbg a/at hole/nn two-inches/nns square/jj on/in the/at outgoing/jj side/nn ./.
Finding/vbg him/ppo dead/jj ,/, Cook/np caught/vbd Russell's/np$ horse/nn and/cc rode/vbd to/in the/at cattle/nns foreman's/nn$ house/nn to/to report/vb the/at incident/nn and/cc request/vb bloodhounds/nns to/to trail/vb the/at assassins/nns ./.


	Before/in daylight/nn Sunday/nr morning/nn ,/, a/at posse/nn of/in twenty-three/cd men/nns under/in the/at leadership/nn of/in Deputy/jj-tl Sheriff/nn-tl Frank/np MacPherson/np of/in Catskill/np followed/vbd the/at trail/nn to/in the/at house/nn of/in Francisco/np Chaves/np ,/, where/wrb 100/cd to/in 150/cd Mexicans/nps had/hvd gathered/vbn ./.
MacPherson/np boldly/rb approached/vbd the/at fortified/vbn adobe/nn house/nn and/cc demanded/vbd entrance/nn ./.
The/at men/nns inside/rb informed/vbd him/ppo that/cs they/ppss had/hvd some/dti wounded/vbn men/nns among/in them/ppo but/cc he/pps would/md not/* be/be allowed/vbn to/to see/vb them/ppo even/rb though/cs he/pps offered/vbd medical/jj aid/nn ./.
The/at officer/nn demanded/vbd the/at names/nns of/in the/at injured/vbn men/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at Mexicans/nps not/* only/rb refused/vbd to/to give/vb them/ppo ,/, but/cc told/vbd the/at possemen/nns if/cs they/ppss wanted/vbd a/at fight/nn they/ppss could/md have/hv it/ppo ./.
Since/cs the/at strength/nn of/in the/at Mexicans/nps had/hvd been/ben underrated/vbn ,/, too/ql small/jj a/at posse/nn had/hvd been/ben collected/vbn ,/, and/cc since/cs the/at deputy/nn had/hvd not/* been/ben provided/vbn with/in search/nn warrants/nns ,/, MacPherson/np and/cc his/pp$ men/nns decided/vbd it/pps was/bedz much/ql wiser/jjr to/to withdraw/vb ./.


	The/at posse's/nn$ retreat/nn encouraged/vbd the/at Mexicans/nps to/to be/be overbearing/vbg and/cc impudent/jj ./.
During/in the/at following/vbg week/nn ,/, six/cd tons/nns of/in hay/nn belonging/vbg to/in one/cd rancher/nn were/bed burned/vbn ;/. ;/.
some/dti buildings/nns ,/, farm/nn tools/nns ,/, two/cd horses/nns ,/, plows/nns ,/, and/cc hay/nn owned/vbn by/in Bonito/np Lavato/np ,/, a/at friendly/jj interpreter/nn for/in the/at company/nn ,/, and/cc Pedro/np Chavez'/np$ hay/nn were/bed stolen/vbn or/cc destroyed/vbn ;/. ;/.
and/cc a/at store/nn was/bedz broken/vbn into/in and/cc robbed/vbn ./.
District/nn-tl Attorney/nn-tl M./np W./np Mills/np warned/vbd that/cs he/pps would/md vigorously/rb prosecute/vb persons/nns caught/vbn committing/vbg these/dts crimes/nns or/cc carrying/vbg arms/nns --/-- he/pps just/rb didn't/dod* catch/vb anyone/pn ./.


	Increasing/vbg threats/nns on/in his/pp$ life/nn finally/rb convinced/vbd Cook/np that/cs he/pps should/md leave/vb New/jj-tl Mexico/np-tl ./.
His/pp$ friends/nns advised/vbd that/cs it/pps would/md be/be only/rb a/at question/nn of/in time/nn until/cs either/cc the/at Mexicans/nps killed/vbd him/ppo by/in ambuscade/nn or/cc he/pps would/md be/be compelled/vbn to/to kill/vb them/ppo in/in self-defense/nn ,/, perpetuating/vbg the/at troubles/nns ./.
By/in early/jj summer/nn ,/, he/pps wrote/vbd from/in Laramie/np that/cs he/pps was/bedz suffering/vbg from/in the/at wound/nn inflicted/vbn in/in the/at ambush/nn and/cc was/bedz in/in a/at bad/jj way/nn financially/rb ,/, so/rb Pels/np sent/vbd him/ppo a/at draft/nn for/in $100/nns ,/, warning/vbg that/cs it/pps was/bedz still/rb not/* wise/jj for/cs him/ppo to/to return/vb ./.
Pels/np also/rb sent/vbd a/at check/nn for/in $100/nns to/in Russell's/np$ widow/nn and/cc had/hvd a/at white/jj marble/nn monument/nn erected/vbn on/in his/pp$ grave/nn ./.


	Cattle/nns stealing/nn and/cc killing/nn ,/, again/rb serious/jj during/in the/at spring/nn of/in 1891/cd ,/, placed/vbd the/at land/nn grant/nn company/nn officers/nns in/in a/at perplexing/jj position/nn ./.
They/ppss were/bed reluctant/jj to/to appoint/vb sheriffs/nns to/to protect/vb the/at property/nn ,/, thus/rb running/vbg the/at risk/nn of/in creating/vbg disturbances/nns such/jj as/cs that/dt on/in the/at Vermejo/np ,/, and/cc yet/rb the/at cowboys/nns protested/vbd that/cs they/ppss got/vbd no/at salary/nn for/in arresting/vbg cattle/nns thieves/nns and/cc running/vbg the/at risk/nn of/in being/beg shot/vbn ./.
And/cc the/at law/nn virtually/rb ignored/vbd the/at situation/nn ./.
The/at judge/nn became/vbd ill/jj just/rb as/cs the/at Colfax/np-tl District/nn-tl Court/nn-tl convened/vbd ,/, no/at substitute/nn was/bedz brought/vbn in/rp ,/, no/at criminal/jj cases/nns heard/vbn ,/, only/rb 5/cd out/rp of/in 122/cd cases/nns docketed/vbn were/bed tried/vbn ,/, and/cc court/nn adjourned/vbd sine/fw-in die/fw-nn after/cs sitting/vbg a/at few/ap days/nns instead/rb of/in the/at usual/jj three/cd weeks/nns ./.
Pels/np complained/vbd :/: ``/`` Litigants/nns and/cc witnesses/nns were/bed put/vbn to/in the/at expense/nn and/cc inconvenience/nn of/in going/vbg long/jj distances/nns to/to transact/vb business/nn ;/. ;/.
public/jj money/nn spent/vbn ;/. ;/.
justice/nn delayed/vbn ;/. ;/.
nothing/pn accomplished/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at whole/jj distribution/nn of/in justice/nn in/in this/dt county/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be an/at absolute/jj farce/nn ''/'' ./.


	Word/nn reached/vbd the/at company/nn that/cs the/at man/nn behind/in these/dts depredations/nns was/bedz Manuel/np Gonzales/np ,/, a/at man/nn with/in many/ap followers/nns ,/, including/in a/at number/nn who/wps were/bed kept/vbn in/in line/nn through/in fear/nn of/in him/ppo ./.
Although/cs wanted/vbn by/in the/at sheriff/nn for/in killing/vbg an/at old/jj man/nn named/vbn Asher/np Jones/np ,/, the/at warrant/nn for/in his/pp$ arrest/nn had/hvd never/rb been/ben served/vbn ./.
On/in May/np 19/cd ,/, a/at deputy/nn sheriff's/nn$ posse/nn of/in eight/cd men/nns left/vbd Maxwell/np-tl City/nn-tl and/cc rode/vbd thirty-five/cd miles/nns up/in the/at Vermejo/np where/wrb they/ppss were/bed joined/vbn by/in Juan/np Jose/np Martinez/np ./.
By/in 3:00/cd A.M./rb they/ppss reached/vbd his/pp$ house/nn and/cc found/vbd it/ppo vacant/jj ./.
When/wrb they/ppss were/bed refused/vbn entrance/nn to/in his/pp$ brother's/nn$ house/nn nearby/rb ,/, they/ppss smashed/vbd down/rp the/at door/nn ,/, broke/vbd the/at window/nn ,/, and/cc threw/vbd lighted/vbn clothes/nns wet/jj with/in kerosene/nn into/in the/at room/nn ./.
Still/rb there/ex was/bedz no/at Gonzales/np and/cc the/at family/nn would/md say/vb nothing/pn ./.


	About/rb 300/cd yards/nns up/in the/at creek/nn was/bedz a/at cluster/nn of/in Mexican/jj houses/nns containing/vbg six/cd rooms/nns in/in the/at form/nn of/in a/at square/nn ./.
While/cs prowling/vbg around/in these/dts buildings/nns ,/, two/cd of/in the/at posse/nn recognized/vbd the/at voice/nn of/in Gonzales/np speaking/vbg to/in the/at people/nns inside/rb ./.
He/pps was/bedz promised/vbn that/cs no/at harm/nn would/md befall/vb him/ppo if/cs he/pps would/md come/vb out/rp ,/, but/cc he/pps cursed/vbd and/cc replied/vbd that/cs he/pps would/md shoot/vb any/dti man/nn coming/vbg near/in the/at door/nn ./.
The/at posse/nn then/rb asked/vbd that/cs he/pps send/vb out/rp the/at women/nns and/cc children/nns as/cs the/at building/nn would/md be/be fired/vbn or/cc torn/vbn down/rp over/in his/pp$ head/nn if/cs necessary/jj to/to take/vb him/ppo dead/jj or/cc alive/jj ./.
Again/rb he/pps refused/vbd ./.
In/in deadly/jj earnest/nn ,/, the/at besiegers/nns methodically/rb stripped/vbd away/rb portions/nns of/in the/at roof/nn and/cc tossed/vbd lighted/vbn rags/nns inside/rb ,/, only/rb to/to have/hv most/ap stamped/vbn out/rp by/in the/at women/nns as/ql soon/rb as/cs they/ppss hit/vbd the/at floor/nn ./.
When/wrb it/pps became/vbd obvious/jj that/cs he/pps could/md stay/vb inside/rb no/ql longer/rbr ,/, taking/vbg a/at thousand/cd to/in one/cd chance/nn Gonzales/np rushed/vbd outside/rb ,/, square/rb against/in the/at muzzle/nn of/in a/at Winchester/np ./.
Shot/vbn near/in the/at heart/nn ,/, he/pps turned/vbd to/in one/cd side/nn and/cc plunged/vbd for/in a/at door/nn to/in another/dt room/nn several/ap feet/nns away/rb ,/, three/cd bullets/nns following/vbg him/ppo ./.
As/cs he/pps pushed/vbd open/jj the/at door/nn he/pps fell/vbd on/in his/pp$ face/nn ,/, one/cd of/in his/pp$ comrades/nns pulling/vbg him/ppo inside/rb ./.


	Not/* realizing/vbg the/at seriousness/nn of/in the/at wound/nn ,/, the/at besiegers/nns warned/vbd that/cs if/cs he/pps did/dod not/* surrender/vb the/at house/nn would/md be/be burned/vbn down/rp around/in him/ppo ./.
Receiving/vbg no/at answer/nn ,/, they/ppss set/vbd the/at fire/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at house/nn was/bedz about/rb half/ql consumed/vbn ,/, his/pp$ comrade/nn ran/vbd to/in the/at door/nn and/cc threw/vbd up/rp his/pp$ hands/nns ,/, declaring/vbg repeatedly/rb that/cs he/pps did/dod not/* know/vb the/at whereabouts/nn of/in Manuel/np ./.
Finding/vbg it/ppo true/jj that/cs he/pps was/bedz not/* inside/rb ,/, the/at deputies/nns returned/vbd to/in the/at first/od house/nn and/cc tore/vbd holes/nns through/in the/at side/nn and/cc the/at roof/nn until/cs they/ppss could/md see/vb a/at body/nn on/in the/at bed/nn covered/vbn by/in a/at blanket/nn ./.
Several/ap slugs/nns fired/vbn into/in the/at bed/nn jerked/vbd aside/rb the/at blanket/nn to/to reveal/vb an/at apparently/rb lifeless/jj hand/nn ./.
Shot/vbn six/cd or/cc eight/cd times/nns the/at body/nn was/bedz draped/vbn with/in Russell's/np$ pistol/nn ,/, belt/nn ,/, and/cc cartridges/nns ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at extra/jj horse/nn so/rb it/pps was/bedz left/vbn to/in his/pp$ comrades/nns who/wps ,/, though/cs numbering/vbg in/in the/at fifties/nns ,/, had/hvd stood/vbn around/rb on/in the/at hillside/nn nearby/rb without/in firing/vbg a/at shot/nn during/in the/at entire/jj attack/nn ./.


	Early/rb the/at next/ap morning/nn ,/, a/at Mexican/np telephoned/vbd Pels/np that/cs Celso/np Chavez/np ,/, one/cd of/in the/at posse/nn members/nns ,/, was/bedz surrounded/vbn by/in ten/cd Mexicans/nps at/in his/pp$ father's/nn$ home/nn on/in the/at upper/jj Vermejo/np ./.
The/at sheriff/nn and/cc District/nn-tl Attorney/nn-tl Mills/np hastily/rb swore/vbd out/rp a/at number/nn of/in warrants/nns against/in men/nns who/wps had/hvd been/ben riding/vbg about/rb armed/vbn ,/, according/in to/in signed/vbn statements/nns by/in Chavez/np and/cc Dr./nn-tl I./np P./np George/np ,/, and/cc ordered/vbd Deputy/nn-tl Barney/np Clark/np of/in Raton/np to/to rescue/vb the/at posseman/nn ./.
Traveling/vbg all/abn night/nn ,/, Clark/np and/cc twelve/cd men/nns arrived/vbd at/in about/rb seven/cd o'clock/rb May/np 22/cd ./.
Occasionally/rb they/ppss heard/vbd gun-shot/nn signals/nns and/cc a/at number/nn of/in horsemen/nns were/bed sighted/vbn on/in the/at hills/nns ,/, disappearing/vbg at/in the/at posse's/nn$ approach/nn ./.
A/at Mexican/jj justice/nn of/in the/at peace/nn had/hvd issue/nn a/at writ/nn against/in Chavez/np for/in taking/vbg part/nn in/in the/at ``/`` murder/nn ''/'' of/in Manuel/np Gonzales/np so/rb he/pps and/cc his/pp$ father/nn were/bed anxious/jj to/to be/be taken/vbn out/rp of/in danger/nn ./.
The/at men/nns helped/vbd them/ppo gather/vb their/pp$ belongings/nns and/cc escorted/vbd them/ppo to/in Raton/np along/rb with/in three/cd other/ap families/nns desiring/vbg to/to leave/vb ./.


	The/at ten/cd or/cc more/ap dangerous/jj parties/nns singled/vbn out/rp for/in prosecution/nn were/bed still/rb at/in large/nn ,/, and/cc Pels/np realized/vbd that/cs if/cs these/dts men/nns entrenched/vbd themselves/ppls in/in their/pp$ adobe/nn houses/nns ,/, defending/vbg themselves/ppls through/in loopholes/nns ,/, it/pps would/md be/be most/ql difficult/jj to/to capture/vb them/ppo ./.
Thus/rb he/pps wired/vbd J./np-tl P./np-tl Lower/np-tl and/cc-tl Sons/nns-tl of/in Denver/np :/: ``/`` Have/hv you/ppss any/dti percussion/nn hand/nn grenades/nns for/in throwing/vbg in/in a/at house/nn or/cc across/in a/at well/nn loaded/vbn with/in balls/nns or/cc shrapnel/nn shot/nn ?/. ?/.
If/cs not/* ,/, how/wql long/rb to/to order/vb and/cc what/wdt is/bez the/at price/nn ''/'' ?/. ?/.
He/pps wisely/rb decided/vbd that/cs it/pps would/md be/be foolish/jj to/to create/vb a/at disturbance/nn during/in the/at coming/vbg roundup/nn ,/, particularly/rb since/cs the/at Mexicans/nps were/bed on/in their/pp$ guard/nn ./.
His/pp$ problem/nn then/rb became/vbd one/cd of/in restraining/vbg the/at American/jj fighters/nns who/wps wanted/vbd to/to clean/vb out/rp the/at Vermejo/np by/in force/nn immediately/rb ./.

The/at plant/nn was/bedz located/vbn west/nr of/in the/at Battenkill/np and/cc south/nr of/in the/at location/nn of/in the/at former/ap electric/jj light/nn plant/nn ./.


	The/at Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl Sewer/nn-tl Company/nn-tl issued/vbd 214/cd shares/nns of/in stock/nn at/in $10/nns each/dt for/in construction/nn of/in a/at sewer/nn in/in that/dt locality/nn ,/, and/cc assessments/nns were/bed made/vbn for/in its/pp$ maintenance/nn ./.
It/pps has/hvz given/vbn considerable/jj trouble/nn at/in times/nns and/cc empties/vbz right/ql into/in the/at Battenkill/np-tl ./.
Fire/nn-tl District/nn-tl No./nn-tl 1/cd-tl discussed/vbd its/pp$ possible/jj purchase/nn in/in 1945/cd ,/, but/cc considered/vbd it/ppo an/at unwise/jj investment/nn ./.


	The/at sewer/nn on/in Bonnet/nn-tl Street/nn-tl was/bedz constructed/vbn when/wrb there/ex were/bed only/rb a/at few/ap houses/nns on/in the/at street/nn ./.
As/cs new/jj homes/nns were/bed built/vbn they/ppss were/bed connected/vbn so/cs that/cs all/abn residences/nns south/nr of/in School/nn-tl Street/nn-tl are/ber served/vbn by/in it/ppo ./.
B./np J./np Connell/np is/bez the/at present/jj treasurer/nn and/cc manager/nn ./.


	The/at 1946/cd town/nn meeting/nn voted/vbd to/to have/hv the/at Selectmen/nns-tl appoint/vb a/at committee/nn to/to investigate/vb and/cc report/vb on/in the/at feasibility/nn of/in some/dti system/nn of/in sewage/nn disposal/nn and/cc a/at disposal/nn plant/nn to/to serve/vb Manchester/np-tl Center/nn-tl ,/, Depot/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Way's/np$-tl Lane/nn-tl ./.
The/at committee/nn submitted/vbd a/at report/nn signed/vbn by/in Louis/np Martin/np and/cc Leon/np Wiley/np with/in a/at map/nn published/vbn in/in the/at 1946/cd town/nn report/nn ./.
The/at layout/nn of/in the/at sewer/nn lines/nns was/bedz designed/vbn by/in Henry/np W./np Taylor/np ,/, who/wps was/bedz the/at engineer/nn for/in the/at Manchester/np-tl Village/nn-tl disposal/nn plant/nn ./.
No/at figures/nns were/bed submitted/vbn with/in the/at report/nn and/cc no/at action/nn was/bedz taken/vbn on/in it/ppo by/in the/at town/nn ./.


	The/at 1958/cd town/nn meeting/nn directed/vbd town/nn authorities/nns to/to seek/vb federal/jj and/cc state/nn funds/nns with/in which/wdt to/to conduct/vb a/at preliminary/jj survey/nn of/in a/at proposed/vbn sewage/nn plant/nn with/in its/pp$ attendant/jj facilities/nns ./.
The/at final/ap step/nn was/bedz a/at vote/nn for/in a/at $230,000/nns bond/nn issue/nn for/in the/at construction/nn of/in a/at sewage/nn system/nn by/in the/at 1959/cd town/nn meeting/nn ,/, later/rbr confirmed/vbn by/in a/at two-thirds/nns vote/nn at/in a/at special/jj town/nn meeting/nn June/np 21/cd ,/, 1960/cd ./.


	There/rb the/at matter/nn stands/vbz with/in the/at prospect/nn that/cs soon/rb Manchester/np may/md be/be removed/vbn from/in the/at roster/nn of/in towns/nns contributing/vbg raw/jj sewage/nn to/in its/pp$ main/jjs streams/nns ./.



Telephone/nn-hl and/cc-hl telegraph/nn-hl 
Manchester's/np$ unusual/jj interest/nn in/in telegraphy/nn has/hvz often/rb been/ben attributed/vbn to/in the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at Rev./np J./np D./np Wickham/np ,/, headmaster/nn of/in Burr/np-tl and/cc-tl Burton/np-tl Seminary/nn-tl ,/, was/bedz a/at personal/jj friend/nn and/cc correspondent/nn of/in the/at inventor/nn ,/, Samuel/np F./np B./np Morse/np ./.
At/in any/dti rate/nn ,/, Manchester/np did/dod not/* lag/vb far/rb behind/in the/at first/od commercial/jj system/nn which/wdt was/bedz set/vbn up/rp in/in 1844/cd between/in Baltimore/np and/cc Washington/np ./.


	In/in 1846/cd Matthew/np B./np Goodwin/np ,/, jeweler/nn and/cc watchmaker/nn ,/, became/vbd the/at town's/nn$ first/od telegrapher/nn in/in a/at dwelling/nn he/pps built/vbd for/in himself/ppl and/cc his/pp$ business/nn ``/`` two/cd doors/nns north/nr of/in the/at Equinox/np-tl House/nn-tl ''/'' or/cc ``/`` one/cd door/nn north/nr of/in the/at Bank/nn-tl ,/, Manchester/np ,/, Vermont/np ''/'' ./.
Goodwin/np was/bedz telegrapher/nn for/in the/at ``/`` American/jj-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' and/cc the/at ``/`` Troy/np-tl and/cc-tl Canada/np-tl Junction/nn-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
Shares/nns of/in capital/nn stock/nn at/in $15/nns each/dt in/in the/at latter/ap company/nn were/bed payable/jj at/in the/at Bank/nn-tl of/in-tl Manchester/np-tl or/cc at/in various/ap other/ap Vermont/np banks/nns ./.
A/at message/nn of/in less/ap than/in fifteen/cd words/nns to/in Bennington/np cost/vbd twenty-five/cd cents/nns ./.


	By/in 1871/cd L./np C./np Orvis/np ,/, manager/nn of/in the/at ``/`` Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, expressed/vbd willingness/nn to/to send/vb emergency/nn telegrams/nns on/in Sundays/nrs from/in his/pp$ Village/nn-tl drugstore/nn ./.
Orvis/np even/rb needed/vbd to/to hire/vb an/at assistant/nn ,/, Clark/np J./np Wait/np ./.
The/at Manchester/np-tl Journal/nn-tl commented/vbd editorially/rb on/in the/at surprising/vbg amount/nn of/in local/jj telegraphic/jj business/nn ./.


	In/in the/at fall/nn of/in 1878/cd ,/, the/at ``/`` Popular/jj-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Line/nn-tl ''/'' was/bedz established/vbn between/in Manchester/np and/cc Factory/nn-tl Point/nn-tl by/in the/at owners/nns ,/, Paul/np W./np Orvis/np ,/, Henry/np Gray/np ,/, J./np N./np Hard/np ,/, and/cc Clark/np J./np Wait/np ./.
The/at line/nn soon/rb lived/vbd up/rp to/in its/pp$ name/nn ,/, as/cs local/jj messages/nns of/in moderate/jj length/nn could/md be/be sent/vbn for/in a/at dime/nn and/cc the/at company/nn was/bedz quickly/rb able/jj to/to declare/vb very/ql liberal/jj dividends/nns on/in its/pp$ capital/nn stock/nn ./.


	In/in 1879/cd the/at same/ap Clark/np Wait/np ,/, with/in H./np H./np Holley/np of/in South/jj-tl Dorset/np-tl ,/, formed/vbd the/at ``/`` American/jj-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Line/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, extending/vbg from/in Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl via/in Factory/nn-tl Point/nn-tl and/cc South/jj-tl Dorset/np-tl to/in Dorset/np ./.
Besides/in being/beg most/ql convenient/jj ,/, the/at line/nn ``/`` soon/rb proved/vbd a/at good/jj investment/nn for/in the/at owners/nns ''/'' ./.
Telegraphers/nns at/in the/at Depot/nn-tl at/in this/dt time/nn were/bed Aaron/np C./np Burr/np and/cc Mark/np Manley/np of/in ``/`` Burr/np-tl and/cc-tl Manley/np-tl ''/'' ,/, dealers/nns in/in lumber/nn and/cc dry/jj goods/nns ./.


	Early/jj equipment/nn was/bedz very/ql flimsy/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at smallest/jjt gusts/nns of/in wind/nn toppled/vbd poles/nns ,/, making/vbg communications/nns impossible/jj ./.
But/cc companies/nns continued/vbd to/to spring/vb up/rp ./.
By/in 1883/cd the/at ``/`` Battenkill/np-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' was/bedz in/in existence/nn and/cc Alvin/np Pettibone/np was/bedz its/pp$ president/nn ./.
Operating/vbg in/in 1887/cd was/bedz the/at ``/`` Valley/nn-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Line/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, officers/nns of/in which/wdt were/bed E./np C./np Orvis/np ,/, president/nn ;/. ;/.
H./np K./np Fowler/np ,/, vice-president/nn and/cc secretary/nn ;/. ;/.
J./np N./np Hard/np ,/, treasurer/nn ;/. ;/.
F./np H./np Walker/np ,/, superintendent/nn ;/. ;/.
H./np S./np Walker/np ,/, assistant/nn superintendent/nn ./.
Two/cd companies/nns now/rb had/hvd headquarters/nn with/in Clark/np J./np Wait/np ,/, who/wps by/in then/rb had/hvd his/pp$ own/jj drugstore/nn at/in Factory/nn-tl Point/nn-tl --/-- the/at ``/`` Northern/jj-tl Union/nn-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' and/cc the/at ``/`` Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
Operators/nns were/bed Arthur/np Koop/np and/cc Norman/np Taylor/np ./.
Still/rb existing/vbg on/in a/at ``/`` Northern/jj-tl Union/nn-tl ''/'' telegraph/nn form/nn is/bez a/at typical/jj peremptory/jj message/nn from/in Peru/np grocer/nn J./np J./np Hapgood/np to/in Burton/np-tl and/cc-tl Graves'/np$-tl store/nn in/in Manchester/np --/-- ``/`` Get/vb and/cc send/vb by/in stage/nn four/cd pounds/nns best/jjt Porterhouse/np or/cc serloin/nn stake/nn ,/, for/in Mrs./np Hapgood/np send/vb six/cd sweet/jj oranges/nns ''/'' ./.


	About/rb 1888/cd J./np E./np McNaughton/np of/in Barnumville/np and/cc E./np G./np Bacon/np became/vbd proprietors/nns of/in the/at ``/`` Green/jj-tl Mountain/nn-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, connecting/vbg all/abn offices/nns on/in the/at Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl line/nn and/cc extending/vbg over/in the/at mountain/nn from/in Barnumville/np to/in Peru/np ,/, Londonderry/np ,/, South/jj-tl Londonderry/np-tl ,/, Lowell/np-tl Lake/nn-tl ,/, Windham/np ,/, North/jj-tl Windham/np-tl ,/, Grafton/np ,/, Cambridgeport/np ,/, Saxton's/np$-tl River/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Bellows/np-tl Falls/nns-tl ./.


	From/in 1896/cd until/in 1910/cd John/np H./np Whipple/np was/bedz manager/nn of/in Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl at/in the/at Center/nn-tl in/in the/at drugstore/nn he/pps purchased/vbd from/in Clark/np Wait/np ./.
The/at Village/nn-tl office/nn of/in Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl with/in George/np Towsley/np as/cs manager/nn and/cc telegrapher/nn continued/vbd in/in Hard's/np$ drugstore/nn until/in 1905/cd ./.
During/in the/at summers/nns ,/, Towsley/np often/rb needed/vbd the/at assistance/nn of/in a/at company/nn operator/nn ./.


	These/dts were/bed the/at years/nns when/wrb people/nns flocked/vbd to/in Manchester/np not/* only/rb to/to play/vb golf/nn ,/, which/wdt had/hvd come/vbn into/in vogue/nn ,/, but/cc also/rb to/to witness/vb the/at Ekwanok/np-tl Country/nn-tl Club/nn-tl tournaments/nns ./.
New/jj-tl Yorkers/nps-tl were/bed kept/vbn informed/vbn of/in scores/nns by/in reporters/nns who/wps telegraphed/vbd fifteen/cd to/in twenty/cd thousand/cd words/nns daily/rb to/in the/at metropolitan/jj newspapers/nns ./.
This/dt boosted/vbd local/jj telegraph/nn business/nn and/cc Manchester/np basked/vbd in/in all/abn the/at free/jj advertising/nn ./.
In/in 1914/cd when/wrb the/at town/nn was/bedz chosen/vbn for/in the/at U./np-tl S./np-tl Amateur/nn-tl Golf/nn-tl tournament/nn ,/, a/at representative/nn hurried/vbd here/rb from/in the/at Boston/np manager's/nn$ office/nn ./.
In/in his/pp$ wake/nn came/vbd the/at District/nn-tl Traffic/nn-tl Supervisor/nn-tl and/cc the/at cream/nn of/in the/at telegraphic/jj profession/nn ,/, ten/cd of/in Boston's/np$ best/jjt ,/, chosen/vbn for/in their/pp$ long/jj experience/nn and/cc thorough/jj knowledge/nn of/in golf/nn ./.
During/in that/dt tournament/nn alone/rb ,/, some/dti 250,000/cd words/nns winged/vbd their/pp$ way/nn out/rp of/in Manchester/np ./.


	The/at old/jj Morse/np system/nn was/bedz replaced/vbn locally/rb by/in the/at Simplex/np modern/jj automatic/jj method/nn in/in 1929/cd ,/, when/wrb Ellamae/np Heckman/np (/( Wilcox/np )/) was/bedz manager/nn of/in the/at Western/jj-tl Union/nn-tl office/nn ./.
During/in summers/nns ,/, business/nn was/bedz so/ql brisk/jj that/cs Mrs./np Wilcox/np had/hvd two/cd assistants/nns and/cc a/at messenger/nn ./.
She/pps was/bedz succeeded/vbn by/in Clarence/np Goyette/np ./.
Since/in that/dt time/nn the/at telegraph/nn office/nn has/hvz shifted/vbn in/in location/nn from/in the/at railroad/nn station/nn at/in the/at Depot/nn-tl and/cc shops/nns at/in the/at Center/nn-tl back/rb to/in the/at town/nn clerk's/nn$ office/nn and/cc drugstore/nn at/in the/at Village/nn-tl ./.
After/cs being/beg located/vbn for/in some/dti years/nns in/in the/at Village/nn-tl at/in the/at Equinox/np-tl Pharmacy/nn-tl under/in the/at supervision/nn of/in Mrs./np Harry/np Mercier/np ,/, it/pps is/bez presently/rb located/vbn in/in the/at Hill/nn-tl and/cc-tl Dale/nn-tl Shop/nn-tl ,/, Manchester/np-tl Center/nn-tl ./.


	The/at first/od known/vbn telephone/nn line/nn in/in Manchester/np was/bedz established/vbn in/in July/np 1883/cd between/in Burr/np-tl and/cc-tl Manley's/np$-tl store/nn at/in Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl and/cc the/at Kent/np-tl and/cc-tl Root/np-tl Marble/nn-tl Company/nn-tl in/in South/jj-tl Dorset/np-tl ./.
This/dt was/bedz extended/vbn the/at following/vbg year/nn to/to include/vb the/at railroad/nn station/nn agent's/nn$ office/nn and/cc Thayer's/np$-tl Hotel/nn-tl at/in Factory/nn-tl Point/nn-tl ./.
In/in November/np 1887/cd a/at line/nn connecting/vbg several/ap dwelling/nn houses/nns in/in Dorset/np was/bedz extended/vbn to/in Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl ./.
Telephone/nn wires/nns from/in Louis/np Dufresne's/np$ house/nn in/in East/jj-tl Manchester/np-tl to/in the/at Dufresne/np lumber/nn job/nn near/in Bourn/np-tl Pond/nn-tl were/bed up/rp about/rb 1895/cd ./.
Eber/np L./np Taylor/np of/in Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl recorded/vbd the/at setting/nn of/in phone/nn poles/nns in/in East/jj-tl Dorset/np-tl and/cc Barnumville/np in/in his/pp$ diary/nn for/in 1906/cd ./.
These/dts must/md have/hv been/ben for/in local/jj calls/nns strictly/rb ,/, as/cs in/in May/np 1900/cd the/at ``/`` only/ap long/jj distance/nn telephone/nn ''/'' in/in town/nn was/bedz transferred/vbn from/in C./np B./np Carleton's/np$ to/in Young's/np$ shoe/nn store/nn ./.


	A/at small/jj single/ap switchboard/nn was/bedz installed/vbn in/in the/at Village/nn-tl over/in Woodcock's/np$ hardware/nn store/nn (/( later/rbr E./np H./np Hemenway's/np$ )/) ./.
George/np Woodcock/np was/bedz manager/nn and/cc troubleshooter/nn ;/. ;/.
Elizabeth/np Way/np was/bedz the/at first/od operator/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc a/at night/nn operator/nn was/bedz also/rb employed/vbn ./.
Anyone/pn fortunate/jj enough/qlp to/to have/hv one/cd of/in those/dts early/jj phones/nns advertised/vbd the/at fact/nn along/rb with/in the/at telephone/nn number/nn in/in the/at Manchester/np-tl Journal/nn-tl ./.


	In/in 1918/cd the/at New/jj-tl England/np-tl Telephone/nn-tl Company/nn-tl began/vbd erecting/vbg a/at building/nn to/to house/vb its/pp$ operations/nns on/in the/at corner/nn of/in U./np-tl S./np-tl Rte./nn-tl 7/cd-tl and/cc what/wdt is/bez now/rb Memorial/jj-tl Avenue/nn-tl at/in Manchester/np-tl Center/nn-tl ./.
Service/nn running/vbg through/in Barnumville/np and/cc to/in Bennington/np-tl County/nn-tl towns/nns east/nr of/in the/at mountains/nns was/bedz in/in the/at hands/nns of/in the/at ``/`` Gleason/np-tl Telephone/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ''/'' in/in 1925/cd ,/, but/cc major/jj supervision/nn of/in telephone/nn lines/nns in/in Manchester/np was/bedz with/in the/at New/jj-tl England/np-tl Telephone/nn-tl and/cc-tl Telegraph/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt eventually/rb gained/vbd all/abn control/nn ./.
More/ap aerial/jj and/cc underground/jj equipment/nn was/bedz installed/vbn as/ql well/rb as/cs office/nn improvements/nns to/to take/vb care/nn of/in the/at expanding/vbg business/nn ./.


	In/in 1931/cd Mrs./np F./np H./np Briggs/np ,/, agent/nn and/cc chief/jjs operator/nn ,/, who/wps was/bedz to/to retire/vb in/in 1946/cd with/in thirty/cd years'/nns$ service/nn ,/, led/vbd agency/nn offices/nns in/in sales/nns for/in the/at year/nn with/in $2,490/nns ./.
William/np Hitchcock/np ,/, who/wps retired/vbd in/in 1938/cd ,/, was/bedz a/at veteran/nn of/in thirty-four/cd years'/nns$ local/jj service/nn ./.
Another/dt veteran/nn telephone/nn operator/nn was/bedz Edith/np Fleming/np Blackmer/np ,/, who/wps had/hvd been/ben in/in the/at office/nn forty/cd years/nns at/in the/at time/nn of/in her/pp$ death/nn in/in 1960/cd ./.


	In/in 1932/cd Dorset/np received/vbd its/pp$ own/jj exchange/nn ,/, which/wdt made/vbd business/nn easier/jjr for/in the/at Manchester/np office/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps was/bedz not/* until/in February/np 1953/cd that/cs area/nn service/nn was/bedz extended/vbn to/to include/vb Manchester/np and/cc Dorset/np ./.
This/dt eliminated/vbd toll/nn calls/nns between/in the/at two/cd towns/nns ./.
Within/in a/at month/nn ,/, calls/nns were/bed up/rp seventy/cd per/in cent/nn ./.



Electric/jj-hl power/nn-hl 
electricity/nn plays/vbz such/abl an/at important/jj part/nn in/in community/nn life/nn today/nr that/cs it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/in envision/vb a/at time/nn when/wrb current/nn was/bedz not/* available/jj for/in daily/jj use/nn ./.
Yet/cc one/pn has/hvz to/to go/vb back/rb only/rb some/rb sixty/cd years/nns ./.


	The/at first/od mention/nn of/in an/at electric/jj plant/nn in/in Manchester/np seems/vbz to/to be/be one/cd installed/vbn in/in Reuben/np Colvin's/np$ and/cc Houghton's/np$ gristmill/nn on/in the/at West/jj-tl Branch/nn-tl in/in Factory/nn-tl Point/nn-tl ./.
No/at records/nns are/ber available/jj as/in to/in the/at date/nn or/cc extent/nn of/in installation/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps may/md have/hv been/ben in/in 1896/cd ./.


	On/in June/np 14/cd ,/, 1900/cd the/at Manchester/np-tl Journal/nn-tl reported/vbd that/cs an/at electrical/jj engineer/nn was/bedz installing/vbg an/at electric/jj light/nn plant/nn for/in Edward/np S./np Isham/np at/in ``/`` Ormsby/np-tl Hill/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
This/dt was/bedz working/vbg by/in the/at end/nn of/in August/np and/cc giving/vbg satisfactory/jj service/nn ./.


	In/in November/np 1900/cd surveying/vbg was/bedz done/vbn under/in John/np Marsden/np on/in the/at east/nr mountains/nns to/to ascertain/vb if/cs it/pps would/md be/be possible/jj to/to get/vb sufficient/jj water/nn and/cc fall/nn to/to operate/vb an/at electric/jj power/nn plant/nn ./.
Nothing/pn came/vbd of/in it/ppo ,/, perhaps/rb due/rb to/in lack/nn of/in opportunity/nn for/in water/nn storage/nn ./.


	The/at next/ap step/nn was/bedz construction/nn by/in the/at Manchester/np-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc-tl Power/nn-tl Company/nn-tl of/in a/at plant/nn on/in the/at west/nr bank/nn of/in the/at Battenkill/np south/nr of/in Union/nn-tl Street/nn-tl bridge/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz nearly/rb completed/vbn May/np 23/cd ,/, 1901/cd with/in a/at promise/nn of/in lights/nns by/in June/np 10/cd ,/, but/cc the/at first/od light/nn did/dod not/* go/vb on/rp until/in September/np 28/cd ./.
It/pps was/bedz at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at sidewalk/nn in/in front/nn of/in the/at Dellwood/np-tl Cemetery/nn-tl cottage/nn ./.


	The/at first/od directors/nns of/in the/at Manchester/np-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc Power/nn-tl Company/nn-tl were/bed John/np Marsden/np ,/, M./np L./np Manley/np ,/, William/np F./np Orvis/np ,/, George/np Smith/np ,/, and/cc John/np Blackmer/np ./.
The/at officers/nns were/bed John/np Marsden/np ,/, president/nn ;/. ;/.
John/np C./np Blackmer/np ,/, vice-president/nn ;/. ;/.
George/np Smith/np ,/, treasurer/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc William/np F./np Orvis/np ,/, secretary/nn ./.
Marsden/np was/bedz manager/nn of/in the/at company/nn for/in ten/cd years/nns and/cc manager/nn of/in its/pp$ successor/nn company/nn ,/, the/at Colonial/jj-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc-tl Power/nn-tl Company/nn-tl ,/, for/in one/cd year/nn ./.


	At/in about/rb the/at time/nn the/at Marsden/np enterprise/nn was/bedz getting/vbg under/in way/nn ,/, the/at Vail/np-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc-tl Lumber/nn-tl Company/nn-tl started/vbd construction/nn of/in a/at chair/nn stock/nn factory/nn on/in the/at site/nn of/in the/at present/jj Bennington/np-tl Co-operative/jj-tl Creamery/nn-tl ,/, intending/vbg to/to use/vb its/pp$ surplus/nn power/nn for/in generating/vbg electricity/nn ./.
Manchester/np then/rb had/hvd two/cd competing/vbg power/nn companies/nns until/in 1904/cd ,/, when/wrb the/at Manchester/np-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc-tl Power/nn-tl Company/nn-tl purchased/vbd the/at transmission/nn system/nn of/in the/at Vail/np-tl Company/nn-tl ./.
This/dt was/bedz fortunate/jj ,/, as/cs the/at Vail/np plant/nn burned/vbd in/in 1905/cd ./.


	The/at Colonial/jj-tl Light/nn-tl and/cc-tl Power/nn-tl Company/nn-tl was/bedz succeeded/vbn by/in the/at Vermont/np-tl Hydro-Electric/jj-tl Corporation/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt in/in turn/nn was/bedz absorbed/vbn by/in the/at Central/jj-tl Vermont/np-tl Public/jj-tl Service/nn-tl Corporation/nn-tl ./.
The/at latter/ap now/rb furnishes/vbz the/at area/nn with/in electricity/nn distributed/vbn from/in a/at modern/jj sub-station/nn at/in Manchester/np-tl Depot/nn-tl which/wdt was/bedz put/vbn into/in operation/nn February/np 19/cd ,/, 1930/cd and/cc was/bedz improved/vbn in/in January/np 1942/cd by/in the/at installation/nn of/in larger/jjr transformers/nns ./.


	For/in a/at time/nn following/in the/at abandonment/nn of/in the/at local/jj plant/nn ,/, electric/jj current/nn for/in Manchester/np was/bedz brought/vbn in/rp from/in the/at south/nr with/in an/at emergency/nn tie-in/nn with/in the/at Vermont/np-tl Marble/nn-tl Company/nn-tl system/nn to/in the/at north/nr ./.

Some/dti who/wps have/hv written/vbn on/in Utopia/np-tl have/hv treated/vbn it/ppo as/cs ``/`` a/at learned/vbn diversion/nn of/in a/at learned/vbn world/nn ''/'' ,/, ``/`` a/at phantasy/nn with/in which/wdt More/np amused/vbd himself/ppl ''/'' ,/, ``/`` a/at holiday/nn work/nn ,/, a/at spontaneous/jj overflow/nn of/in intellectual/jj high/jj spirits/nns ,/, a/at revel/nn of/in debate/nn ,/, paradox/nn ,/, comedy/nn and/cc invention/nn ''/'' ./.
With/in respect/nn to/in this/dt view/nn ,/, two/cd points/nns are/ber worth/jj making/vbg ./.
First/rb ,/, it/pps appears/vbz to/to be/be based/vbn on/in the/at fact/nn that/cs on/in its/pp$ title/nn page/nn Utopia/np-tl is/bez described/vbn as/cs ``/`` festivus/fw-jj ''/'' ,/, ``/`` gay/jj ''/'' ./.
It/pps overlooks/vbz the/at other/ap fact/nn that/cs it/pps is/bez described/vbn as/cs ``/`` Nec/fw-cc minus/fw-ql salutaris/fw-jj quam/fw-cs festivus/fw-jj ''/'' ,/, ``/`` no/ql less/ql salutary/jj than/cs gay/jj ''/'' ./.
It/pps also/rb overlooks/vbz the/at fact/nn that/cs in/in a/at rational/jj lexicon/nn ,/, and/cc quite/ql clearly/rb in/in More's/np$ lexicon/nn ,/, the/at opposite/nn of/in serious/jj-nc is/bez not/* gay/jj-nc but/cc frivolous/jj-nc ,/, and/cc the/at opposite/nn of/in gay/jj-nc is/bez not/* serious/jj-nc but/cc solemn/jj-nc ./.
More/np believed/vbd that/cs a/at man/nn could/md be/be both/abx serious/jj and/cc gay/jj ./.
That/cs a/at writer/nn who/wps is/bez gay/jj cannot/md* be/be serious/jj is/bez a/at common/jj professional/jj illusion/nn ,/, sedulously/rb fostered/vbn by/in all/ql too/ql many/ap academics/nns who/wps mistakenly/rb believe/vb that/cs their/pp$ frivolous/jj efforts/nns should/md be/be taken/vbn seriously/rb because/cs they/ppss are/ber expressed/vbn with/in that/dt dreary/jj solemnity/nn which/wdt is/bez the/at only/ap mode/nn of/in expression/nn their/pp$ authors/nns are/ber capable/jj of/in ./.
Secondly/rb ,/, to/to find/vb a/at learned/vbn diversion/nn and/cc a/at pleasing/jj joke/nn in/in More's/np$ account/nn of/in the/at stupid/jj brutalities/nns of/in early/jj sixteenth/od century/nn wars/nns ,/, of/in the/at anguish/nn of/in the/at poor/jj and/cc dispossessed/vbn ,/, of/in the/at insolence/nn and/cc cruelty/nn of/in the/at rich/jj and/cc powerful/jj requires/vbz a/at callousness/nn toward/in suffering/vbg and/cc sin/nn that/wps would/md be/be surprising/vbg in/in a/at moral/jj imbecile/nn and/cc most/ql surprising/jj in/in More/np himself/ppl ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez even/rb surprising/jj in/in the/at Canon/nn-tl of/in-tl Christ/np-tl Church/nn-tl and/cc Regius/np-tl Professor/nn-tl of/in-tl Ecclesiastical/jj-tl History/nn-tl ,/, who/wps fathered/vbd this/dt most/ql peculiar/jj view/nn ,/, and/cc in/in the/at brilliant/jj Professor/nn-tl of/in-tl Medieval/jj-tl and/cc Renaissance/nn-tl English/np-tl at/in Cambridge/np ,/, who/wps inherited/vbd it/ppo and/cc is/bez now/rb its/pp$ most/ql eminent/jj proponent/nn ./.


	But/cc to/to return/vb to/in the/at main/jjs line/nn of/in our/pp$ inquiry/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez doubtful/jj that/cs Utopia/np-tl is/bez still/rb widely/rb read/vbn because/cs More/np was/bedz medieval/jj or/cc even/rb because/cs he/pps was/bedz a/at martyr/nn --/-- indeed/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez likely/jj that/cs these/dts days/nns many/ap who/wps read/vb Utopia/np-tl with/in interest/nn do/do not/* even/rb know/vb that/cs its/pp$ author/nn was/bedz a/at martyr/nn ./.
Utopia/np-tl is/bez still/rb widely/rb read/vbn because/cs in/in a/at sense/nn More/np stood/vbd on/in the/at margin/nn of/in modernity/nn ./.
And/cc if/cs he/pps did/dod stand/vb on/in the/at margins/nns of/in modernity/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz not/* in/in dying/vbg a/at martyr/nn for/in such/jj unity/nn as/cs Papal/jj supremacy/nn might/md be/be able/jj to/to force/vb on/in Western/jj-tl Christendom/np-tl ./.
It/pps was/bedz not/* even/rb in/in writing/vbg Latin/jj epigrams/nns ,/, sometimes/rb bawdy/jj ones/nns ,/, or/cc in/in translating/vbg Lucian/np from/in Greek/np into/in Latin/np or/cc in/in defending/vbg the/at study/nn of/in Greek/np against/in the/at attack/nn of/in conservative/jj academics/nns ,/, or/cc in/in attacking/vbg the/at conservative/jj theologians/nns who/wps opposed/vbd Erasmus's/np$ philological/jj study/nn of/in the/at New/jj-tl Testament/nn-tl ./.
Similar/jj literary/jj exercises/nns were/bed the/at common/jj doings/nns of/in a/at Christian/jj humanist/nn of/in the/at first/od two/cd decades/nns of/in the/at sixteenth/od century/nn ./.
Had/hvd More's/np$ writings/nns been/ben wholly/rb limited/vbn to/in such/jj exercises/nns ,/, they/ppss would/md be/be almost/rb as/ql dimly/rb remembered/vbn as/cs those/dts of/in a/at dozen/nn or/cc so/rb other/ap authors/nns living/vbg in/in his/pp$ time/nn ,/, whose/wp$ works/nns tenuously/rb survive/vb in/in the/at minds/nns of/in the/at few/ap hundred/cd scholars/nns who/wps each/dt decade/nn in/in pursuit/nn of/in their/pp$ very/ql specialized/vbn occasions/nns read/vb those/dts works/nns ./.


	More/np stands/vbz on/in the/at margins/nns of/in modernity/nn for/in one/cd reason/nn alone/rb --/-- because/cs he/pps wrote/vbd Utopia/np-tl ./.
And/cc the/at evidence/nn that/cs he/pps does/doz ,/, indeed/rb ,/, stand/vb there/rb derives/vbz quite/ql simply/rb from/in the/at vigorous/jj interest/nn with/in which/wdt rather/ql casual/jj readers/nns have/hv responded/vbn to/in that/dt book/nn for/in the/at past/ap century/nn or/cc so/rb ./.
Only/rb one/cd other/ap contemporary/nn of/in More's/np$ evokes/vbz so/ql immediate/jj and/cc direct/jj a/at response/nn ,/, and/cc only/rb one/cd other/ap contemporary/jj work/nn --/-- Niccolo/np Machiavelli/np and/cc The/at-tl Prince/nn-tl ./.
Can/md we/ppss discover/vb what/wdt it/pps is/bez in/in Utopia/np-tl that/wps has/hvz evoked/vbn this/dt response/nn ?/. ?/.
Remember/vb that/cs in/in seeking/vbg the/at modern/jj in/in Utopia/np-tl we/ppss do/do not/* deny/vb the/at existence/nn of/in the/at medieval/jj and/cc the/at Renaissance/np there/rb ;/. ;/.
we/ppss do/do not/* even/rb need/vb to/to commit/vb ourselves/ppls to/in assessing/vbg on/in the/at same/ap inconceivable/jj scale/nn the/at relative/jj importance/nn of/in the/at medieval/jj ,/, the/at Renaissance/np ,/, and/cc the/at modern/jj ./.
The/at medieval/jj was/bedz the/at most/ql important/jj to/in Chambers/np because/cs he/pps sought/vbd to/to place/vb Thomas/np More/np ,/, the/at author/nn of/in Utopia/np-tl ,/, in/in some/dti intelligible/jj relation/nn with/in St./nn-tl Thomas/np More/np ,/, the/at martyr/nn ./.
To/in others/nns whose/wp$ concern/nn it/pps is/bez to/to penetrate/vb the/at significance/nn of/in Christian/jj Humanism/nn-tl ,/, the/at Renaissance/np elements/nns are/ber of/in primary/jj concern/nn ./.
But/cc here/rb we/ppss have/hv a/at distinctly/rb modern/jj preoccupation/nn ;/. ;/.
we/ppss want/vb to/to know/vb why/wrb that/dt book/nn has/hvz kept/vbn on/rp selling/vbg the/at way/nn it/pps has/hvz ;/. ;/.
we/ppss want/vb to/to know/vb what/wdt is/bez perennially/rb new/jj about/in Utopia/np-tl ./.


	What/wdt is/bez new/jj about/in it/ppo ?/. ?/.
To/in that/dt question/nn the/at answer/nn is/bez simple/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps can/md be/be made/vbn in/in two/cd words/nns ,/, Utopian/jj-tl-nc communism/nn-nc ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez an/at answer/nn which/wdt opens/vbz the/at door/nn wide/jj to/in an/at onrush/nn of/in objections/nns and/cc denials/nns ./.
Surely/rb there/ex is/bez nothing/pn new/jj about/in communism/nn ./.
We/ppss find/vb it/ppo in/in Plato's/np$ Republic/nn-tl ,/, and/cc in/in Utopia/np-tl More/np acknowledges/vbz his/pp$ debt/nn to/in that/dt book/nn ./.
We/ppss find/vb it/ppo in/in that/dt ``/`` common/jj way/nn of/in life/nn pleasing/jj to/in Christ/np and/cc still/rb in/in use/nn among/in the/at truest/jjt societies/nns of/in Christians/nps ''/'' ,/, that/dt is/bez ,/, the/at better/jjr monasteries/nns which/wdt made/vbd it/ppo easier/jjr to/to convert/vb the/at Utopians/nps to/in Christianity/np ./.
We/ppss find/vb it/ppo in/in the/at later/jjr Stoic/np conception/nn of/in man's/nn$ natural/jj condition/nn which/wdt included/vbd the/at community/nn of/in all/abn possessions/nns ./.
This/dt conception/nn was/bedz taken/vbn up/rp by/in the/at early/jj Church/nn-tl Fathers/nns-tl and/cc by/in canon/nn lawyers/nns and/cc theologians/nns in/in the/at Middle/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl ;/. ;/.
and/cc More/np was/bedz far/ql too/ql well/rb read/vbn not/* to/to have/hv come/vbn across/in it/ppo in/in one/cd or/cc several/ap of/in the/at forms/nns thus/rb given/vbn it/ppo ./.


	But/cc although/cs the/at idea/nn of/in communism/nn is/bez very/ql old/jj even/rb in/in More's/np$ day/nn and/cc did/dod not/* spring/vb full-clad/jj from/in his/pp$ imagination/nn in/in 1515/cd ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* communism/nn as/cs such/jj that/wpo we/ppss are/ber concerned/vbn with/in ./.
We/ppss are/ber concerned/vbn not/* with/in the/at genus/nn communism/nn nor/cc with/in other/ap species/nns of/in the/at genus/nn :/: Platonic/jj ,/, Stoic/np ,/, early/jj Christian/jj ,/, monastic/jj ,/, canonist/jj or/cc theological/jj communism/nn ;/. ;/.
we/ppss are/ber concerned/vbn with/in Utopian/jj communism/nn --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, simply/rb communism/nn as/cs it/pps appears/vbz in/in the/at imaginary/jj commonwealth/nn of/in Utopia/np ,/, as/cs More/np conceived/vbd it/ppo ./.
Perhaps/rb one/cd way/nn to/to sharpen/vb our/pp$ sense/nn of/in the/at modernity/nn of/in Utopian/jj communism/nn is/bez to/to contrast/vb it/ppo with/in the/at principal/jjs earlier/jjr types/nns of/in communistic/jj theory/nn ./.
We/ppss will/md achieve/vb a/at more/ql vivid/jj sense/nn of/in what/wdt it/pps is/bez by/in realizing/vbg what/wdt it/pps is/bez not/* ./.


	In/in Plato's/np$ Republic/nn-tl communism/nn is/bez --/-- to/to speak/vb anachronistically/rb --/-- a/at communism/nn of/in Janissaries/nps ./.
Its/pp$ function/nn is/bez to/to separate/vb from/in the/at base/jj ruled/vbn mass/nn ,/, among/in whom/wpo private/jj ownership/nn prevails/vbz ,/, the/at governing/vbg warrior/nn elite/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez too/ql readily/rb forgotten/vbn that/cs in/in the/at Republic/nn-tl what/wdt gave/vbd the/at initial/jj impetus/nn to/in Plato's/np$ excursus/nn into/in the/at construction/nn of/in an/at imaginary/jj commonwealth/nn with/in its/pp$ ruling-class/nn communism/nn of/in goods/nns ,/, wives/nns ,/, and/cc children/nns ,/, was/bedz his/pp$ quest/nn for/in a/at canon/nn for/in the/at proper/jj ordering/nn of/in the/at individual/jj human/jj psyche/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc it/pps is/bez to/in this/dt problem/nn that/cs the/at Republic/nn-tl ultimately/rb returns/vbz ./.
In/in More's/np$ Utopia/np-tl communism/nn is/bez not/* a/at means/nn of/in separating/vbg out/rp a/at warrior/nn elite/nn from/in the/at lumpish/jj mass/nn ./.
Utopian/jj communism/nn applies/vbz to/in all/abn Utopians/nps ./.
And/cc in/in the/at economy/nn of/in the/at book/nn it/pps is/bez not/* peripheral/jj but/cc central/jj ./.
The/at concern/nn of/in Utopia/np-tl is/bez with/in the/at optimo/fw-jjt reipublicae/fw-nn statu/fw-nn ,/, the/at best/jjt ordering/nn of/in a/at civil/jj society/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc it/pps is/bez again/rb and/cc again/rb made/vbn clear/jj that/cs Utopian/jj communism/nn provides/vbz the/at institutional/jj array/nn indispensible/jj to/in that/dt best/jjt ordering/nn ./.


	To/to derive/vb Utopian/jj communism/nn from/in the/at Jerusalem/np Christian/jj community/nn of/in the/at apostolic/jj age/nn or/cc from/in its/pp$ medieval/jj successors-in-spirit/nns ,/, the/at monastic/jj communities/nns ,/, is/bez with/in an/at appropriate/jj shift/nn of/in adjectives/nns ,/, misleading/vbg in/in the/at same/ap way/nn as/cs to/to derive/vb it/ppo from/in Plato's/np$ Republic/nn-tl :/: in/in the/at Republic/nn-tl we/ppss have/hv to/to do/do with/in an/at elite/nn of/in physical/jj and/cc intellectual/jj athletes/nns ,/, in/in the/at apostolic/jj and/cc monastic/jj communities/nns with/in an/at elite/nn of/in spiritual/jj and/cc religious/jj athletes/nns ./.
The/at apostolic/jj community/nn was/bedz literally/rb an/at elite/nn :/: chosen/vbn by/in Christ/np himself/ppl ./.
And/cc the/at monastic/jj communities/nns were/bed supposed/vbn to/to be/be made/vbn up/rp of/in volunteers/nns selected/vbn only/rb after/in a/at novitiate/nn which/wdt would/md test/vb their/pp$ religious/jj aptitude/nn for/in monastic/jj rigors/nns ,/, their/pp$ spiritual/jj athleticism/nn ./.


	Finally/rb ,/, the/at conception/nn of/in the/at natural/jj community/nn of/in all/abn possessions/nns which/wdt originated/vbd with/in the/at Stoics/nps was/bedz firmly/rb fixed/vbn in/in a/at tradition/nn by/in More's/np$ time/nn ,/, although/cs it/pps was/bedz not/* accepted/vbn by/in all/abn the/at theologian-philosophers/nns of/in the/at Middle/jj-tl Ages/nns-tl ./.
In/in that/dt tradition/nn communism/nn lay/vbd a/at safe/jj distance/nn back/rb in/in the/at age/nn of/in innocence/nn before/in the/at Fall/nn-tl of/in-tl Man/nn-tl ./.
It/pps did/dod not/* serve/vb to/to contrast/vb the/at existing/vbg order/nn of/in society/nn with/in a/at possible/jj alternative/nn order/nn ,/, because/cs the/at age/nn of/in innocence/nn was/bedz not/* a/at possible/jj alternative/nn once/cs man/nn had/hvd sinned/vbn ./.
The/at actual/jj function/nn of/in patristic/jj communism/nn was/bedz adequately/rb set/vbn forth/rb by/in St./nn-tl Gregory/np almost/rb a/at millenium/nn before/cs More/np wrote/vbd Utopia/np-tl ./.


	``/`` The/at soil/nn is/bez common/jj to/in all/abn men/nns ./.
When/wrb we/ppss give/vb the/at necessities/nns of/in life/nn to/in the/at poor/jj ,/, we/ppss restore/vb to/in them/ppo what/wdt is/bez already/rb theirs/pp$$ ./.
We/ppss should/md think/vb of/in it/ppo more/ap as/cs an/at act/nn of/in justice/nn than/cs compassion/nn ''/'' ./.


	Because/cs community/nn not/* severalty/nn of/in property/nn is/bez the/at law/nn of/in nature/nn no/at man/nn can/md assert/vb an/at absolutely/ql unalterable/jj right/nn to/in what/wdt is/bez his/pp$$ ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, of/in all/abn that/wps is/bez his/pp$$ every/at man/nn is/bez by/in nature/nn and/cc reason/nn and/cc therefore/rb by/in conscience/nn obligated/vbn to/to regard/vb himself/ppl as/cs a/at custodian/nn ./.
He/pps is/bez a/at trustee/nn for/in the/at common/jj good/nn ,/, however/wql feeble/jj the/at safeguards/nns which/wdt the/at positive/jj or/cc municipal/jj law/nn of/in property/nn provides/vbz against/in his/pp$ misuse/nn of/in that/dt share/nn of/in the/at common/jj fund/nn ,/, wisely/rb or/cc unwisely/rb ,/, entrusted/vbn to/in his/pp$ keeping/nn ./.
In/in contrast/nn to/in this/dt Stoic-patristic/jj view/nn ,/, Utopia/np-tl implies/vbz that/cs the/at nature/nn of/in man/nn is/bez such/jj that/cs to/to rely/vb on/in individual/jj conscience/nn to/to supply/vb the/at deficiencies/nns of/in municipal/jj law/nn is/bez to/to embark/vb on/in the/at bottomless/jj sea/nn of/in human/jj sinfulness/nn in/in a/at sieve/nn ./.
The/at Utopians/nps brace/vb conscience/nn with/in legal/jj sanctions/nns ./.
In/in a/at properly/rb ordered/vbn society/nn the/at massive/jj force/nn of/in public/jj law/nn performs/vbz the/at function/nn which/wdt in/in natural/jj law/nn theory/nn ineptly/rb is/bez left/vbn altogether/rb to/in a/at small/jj voice/nn so/ql often/rb still/jj ./.


	In/in all/abn the/at respects/nns just/rb indicated/vbn Utopian/jj communism/nn differs/vbz from/in previous/ap conceptions/nns in/in which/wdt community/nn of/in possessions/nns and/cc living/vbg plays/vbz a/at role/nn ./.
Neither/cc from/in one/cd of/in these/dts conceptions/nns nor/cc from/in a/at combination/nn of/in them/ppo can/md it/pps be/be deduced/vbn ./.
We/ppss do/do not/* deny/vb originality/nn to/in the/at Agamemnon/np-tl because/cs Aeschylus/np found/vbd the/at tales/nns of/in the/at house/nn of/in Atreus/np among/in the/at folk/nn lore/nn of/in the/at Greeks/nps ./.
In/in a/at like/jj sense/nn whatever/wdt bits/nns or/cc shreds/nns of/in previous/ap conceptions/nns one/pn may/md find/vb in/in it/ppo ,/, Utopian/jj communism/nn remains/vbz ,/, as/cs an/at integral/jj whole/nn ,/, original/jj --/-- a/at new/jj thing/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* merely/rb a/at new/jj thing/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps is/bez one/cd of/in the/at very/ql few/ap new/jj things/nns in/in Utopia/np-tl ;/. ;/.
most/ap of/in the/at rest/nn is/bez medieval/jj or/cc humanist/jj or/cc part/nn of/in an/at old/jj tradition/nn of/in social/jj criticism/nn ./.
But/cc to/to say/vb that/cs at/in a/at moment/nn in/in history/nn something/pn is/bez new/jj is/bez not/* necessarily/rb to/to say/vb that/cs it/pps is/bez modern/jj ;/. ;/.
and/cc for/in this/dt statement/nn the/at best/jjt evidence/nn comes/vbz within/in the/at five/cd years/nns following/in the/at publication/nn of/in Utopia/np-tl ,/, when/wrb Martin/np Luther/np elaborates/vbz a/at new/jj perception/nn of/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at Divine's/np$ encounter/nn with/in man/nn ./.
New/jj ,/, indeed/rb ,/, is/bez Luther's/np$ perception/nn ,/, but/cc not/* modern/jj ,/, as/cs anyone/pn knows/vbz who/wps has/hvz ever/rb tried/vbn to/to make/vb intelligible/jj to/in modern/jj students/nns what/wdt Luther/np was/bedz getting/vbg at/in ./.


	Although/cs Utopian/jj communism/nn is/bez both/abx new/jj in/in 1516/cd and/cc also/rb modern/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* modern/jj communism/nn or/cc even/rb modern/jj socialism/nn ,/, as/cs they/ppss exist/vb or/cc have/hv ever/rb existed/vbn in/in theory/nn or/cc in/in practice/nn ./.
Consider/vb the/at features/nns of/in Utopian/jj communism/nn :/: generous/jj public/jj provision/nn for/in the/at infirm/jj ;/. ;/.
democratic/jj and/cc secret/jj elections/nns of/in all/abn officers/nns including/in priests/nns ,/, meals/nns taken/vbn publicly/rb in/in common/jj refectories/nns ;/. ;/.
a/at common/jj habit/nn or/cc uniform/nn prescribed/vbn for/in all/abn citizens/nns ;/. ;/.
even/rb houses/nns changed/vbn once/rb a/at decade/nn ;/. ;/.
six/cd hours/nns of/in manual/jj labor/nn a/at day/nn for/in all/abn but/in a/at handful/nn of/in magistrates/nns and/cc scholars/nns ,/, and/cc careful/jj measures/nns to/to prevent/vb anyone/pn from/in shirking/vbg ;/. ;/.
no/at private/jj property/nn ,/, no/at money/nn ;/. ;/.
no/at sort/nn of/in pricing/vbg at/in all/abn for/in any/dti goods/nns or/cc services/nns ,/, and/cc therefore/rb no/at market/nn in/in the/at economic/jj sense/nn of/in the/at term/nn ./.
Whatever/wdt the/at merits/nns of/in its/pp$ intent/nn ,/, Utopian/jj communism/nn is/bez far/ql too/ql naive/jj ,/, far/ql too/ql crude/jj ,/, to/to suit/vb any/dti modern/jj socialist/nn or/cc communist/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* the/at details/nns of/in Utopian/jj communism/nn that/wps make/vb Utopia/np-tl modern/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez the/at spirit/nn ,/, the/at attitude/nn of/in mind/nn that/wps informs/vbz those/dts details/nns ./.
What/wdt that/dt spirit/nn and/cc attitude/nn were/bed we/ppss can/md best/rbt understand/vb if/cs we/ppss see/vb more/ql precisely/rb how/wrb it/pps contrasts/vbz with/in the/at communist/nn tradition/nn with/in the/at longest/jjt continuous/jj history/nn ,/, the/at one/cd which/wdt reached/vbd Christianity/np by/in the/at way/nn of/in Stoicism/nn-tl through/in the/at Church/nn-tl Fathers/nns-tl of/in Late/jj-tl Antiquity/nn-tl ./.



	During/in the/at Dorr/np trial/nn the/at Democratic/jj-tl press/nn condemned/vbd the/at proceedings/nns and/cc heralded/vbd Dorr/np as/cs a/at martyr/nn to/in the/at principles/nns of/in the/at Declaration/nn-tl of/in-tl Independence/nn-tl ./.
During/in the/at Brown/np trial/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at state's/nn$ most/ql powerful/jj Democratic/jj-tl newspaper/nn ,/, the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl ,/, stated/vbd that/cs Brown/np was/bedz a/at murderer/nn ,/, a/at man/nn of/in blood/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs he/pps and/cc his/pp$ associates/nns ,/, with/in the/at assistance/nn of/in Republicans/nps and/cc Abolitionists/nns-tl ,/, had/hvd plotted/vbn not/* only/rb the/at liberation/nn of/in the/at slaves/nns but/cc also/rb the/at overthrow/nn of/in state/nn and/cc federal/jj governments/nns ./.
The/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl answered/vbd the/at Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl by/in stating/vbg that/cs the/at raid/nn of/in John/np Brown/np was/bedz characteristic/jj of/in Democratic/jj-tl acts/nns of/in violence/nn and/cc that/cs ``/`` He/pps was/bedz acting/vbg in/in direct/jj opposition/nn to/in the/at Republican/np-tl Party/nn-tl ,/, who/wps proclaim/vb as/cs one/cd of/in their/pp$ cardinal/jj principles/nns that/cs they/ppss do/do not/* interfere/vb with/in slavery/nn in/in the/at states/nns ''/'' ./.
The/at two/cd major/jj newspapers/nns in/in Providence/np continued/vbd ,/, throughout/in the/at crisis/nn ,/, to/to accuse/vb each/dt other/ap of/in misrepresenting/vbg the/at facts/nns and/cc attempting/vbg to/to falsify/vb history/nn ./.


	While/cs the/at Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl continued/vbd to/to accuse/vb Republicans/nps and/cc the/at Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl continued/vbd to/to accuse/vb Democrats/nps ,/, the/at Woonsocket/np-tl Patriot/nn-tl complained/vbd that/cs the/at Virginia/np authorities/nns showed/vbd indecent/jj and/cc cowardly/jj haste/nn to/to condemn/vb Brown/np and/cc his/pp$ men/nns ./.
Editor/nn Foss/np stated/vbd ,/, ``/`` Of/in their/pp$ guilt/nn there/ex can/md be/be no/at doubt/nn but/cc they/ppss are/ber entitled/vbn to/in sufficient/jj time/nn to/to prepare/vb for/in trial/nn ,/, and/cc a/at fair/jj trial/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl thought/vbd that/cs there/ex were/bed probably/rb good/jj reasons/nns for/in the/at haste/nn in/in which/wdt the/at trial/nn was/bedz being/beg conducted/vbn and/cc that/cs the/at only/ap thing/nn gained/vbn by/in a/at delay/nn would/md be/be calmer/jjr feelings/nns ./.
The/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl stated/vbd that/cs although/cs the/at guilt/nn of/in Brown/np was/bedz evident/jj ,/, the/at South/nr-tl must/md guarantee/nn him/ppo a/at fair/jj trial/nn to/to preserve/vb domestic/jj peace/nn ./.


	On/in October/np 31/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, John/np Brown/np was/bedz found/vbn guilty/jj of/in treason/nn against/in the/at state/nn of/in Virginia/np ,/, inciting/vbg slave/nn rebellion/nn ,/, and/cc murder/nn ./.
For/in these/dts crimes/nns he/pps was/bedz sentenced/vbn to/to be/be hanged/vbn in/in public/nn on/in Friday/nr ,/, December/np 2/cd ,/, 1859/cd ./.
Upon/in receiving/vbg the/at news/nn ,/, Northern/jj-tl writers/nns ,/, editors/nns ,/, and/cc clergymen/nns heaped/vbd accusations/nns of/in murder/nn on/in the/at Southern/jj-tl states/nns ,/, particularly/rb Virginia/np ./.


	Although/cs Rhode/np-tl Islanders/nns-tl were/bed preparing/vbg for/in the/at state/nn elections/nns ,/, they/ppss watched/vbd John/np Brown's/np$ trial/nn with/in extreme/jj interest/nn ./.
On/in Wednesday/nr morning/nn ,/, November/np 2/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl stated/vbd that/cs although/cs Brown/np justly/rb deserved/vbd the/at extreme/jj penalty/nn ,/, no/at man/nn ,/, however/wql criminal/jj ,/, ought/md to/to suffer/vb the/at penalty/nn without/in a/at fair/jj trial/nn ./.
The/at editor's/nn$ main/jjs criticism/nn of/in the/at trial/nn was/bedz the/at haste/nn with/in which/wdt it/pps was/bedz conducted/vbn ./.
The/at readers/nns of/in the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl ,/, however/rb ,/, learned/vbd that/cs it/pps was/bedz generally/rb conceded/vbn that/cs ``/`` Old/jj-tl Brown/np-tl ''/'' had/hvd a/at fair/jj trial/nn ./.
Concerning/in the/at sentence/nn the/at editor/nn asked/vbd ,/, ``/`` What/wdt else/rb can/md Virginia/np do/do than/cs to/to hang/vb the/at men/nns who/wps have/hv defied/vbn her/pp$ laws/nns ,/, organized/vbn treason/nn ,/, and/cc butchered/vbn her/pp$ citizens/nns ''/'' ./.


	In/in the/at eastern/jj section/nn of/in the/at state/nn the/at newspapers'/nns$ reaction/nn to/in Brown's/np$ trial/nn and/cc sentence/nn were/bed basically/rb identical/jj ./.
J./np Wheaton/np Smith/np ,/, editor/nn of/in the/at Warren/np-tl Telegraph/nn-tl stated/vbd that/cs ``/`` the/at ends/nns of/in justice/nn must/md be/be satisfied/vbn ,/, a/at solitary/jj example/nn must/md be/be set/vbn ,/, in/in order/nn that/cs all/abn those/dts misnamed/vbn philantropists/nns ,/, who/wps ,/, actuated/vbn by/in a/at blind/jj zeal/nn ,/, dare/vb to/to instigate/vb riot/nn ,/, treason/nn ,/, and/cc murder/nn ,/, may/md heed/vb it/ppo and/cc shape/vb their/pp$ future/jj course/nn accordingly/rb ''/'' ./.
The/at editor/nn of/in the/at Newport/np-tl Advertiser/nn-tl could/md discover/vb no/at evidence/nn of/in extenuating/vbg circumstances/nns in/in the/at Brown/np trial/nn which/wdt would/md warrant/vb making/vbg an/at exception/nn to/in the/at infliction/nn of/in capital/jj punishment/nn ./.


	In/in direct/jj contrast/nn to/in the/at other/ap Rhode/np-tl Island/nn-tl editors/nns ,/, Samuel/np S./np Foss/np of/in the/at Woonsocket/np-tl Patriot/nn-tl outwardly/rb condemned/vbd the/at trial/nn as/cs being/beg completely/ql unfair/jj ./.
Concerning/in the/at sentence/nn ,/, Foss/np wrote/vbd ,/, ``/`` If/cs it/pps be/be possible/jj that/cs mercy/nn shall/md override/vb vengeance/nn and/cc that/cs John/np Brown's/np$ sentence/nn shall/md be/be commuted/vbn to/in imprisonment/nn ,/, it/pps would/md be/be well/jj --/-- well/jj for/in the/at country/nn and/cc for/in Virginia/np ''/'' ./.


	Despite/in the/at excitement/nn being/beg caused/vbn by/in the/at trial/nn and/cc sentence/nn of/in John/np Brown/np ,/, Rhode/np-tl Islanders/nns-tl turned/vbd their/pp$ attention/nn to/in the/at state/nn elections/nns ./.
The/at state/nn had/hvd elected/vbn Republican/np candidates/nns in/in the/at past/ap two/cd years/nns ./.
There/ex was/bedz no/at doubt/nn as/in to/in the/at control/nn the/at Republican/np party/nn exercised/vbd throughout/in the/at state/nn ./.
If/cs it/pps failed/vbd on/in occasion/nn to/to elect/vb its/pp$ candidates/nns for/in general/jj state/nn offices/nns by/in majorities/nns ,/, the/at failure/nn was/bedz due/jj to/in a/at lingering/vbg remnant/nn of/in the/at Know-Nothing/jj-tl party/nn-tl ,/, which/wdt called/vbd itself/ppl the/at American/jj-tl Republican/np party/nn-tl ./.
The/at American/jj-tl Republicans/nps and/cc the/at Republicans/nps both/abx nominated/vbd Lieutenant-Governor/nn-tl Turner/np for/in governor/nn ./.
Elisha/np R./np Potter/np was/bedz the/at Democratic/jj-tl candidate/nn ./.
The/at results/nns of/in the/at election/nn of/in 1859/cd found/vbd Republican/np candidates/nns not/* only/rb winning/vbg the/at offices/nns of/in governor/nn and/cc lieutenant-governor/nn but/cc also/rb obtaining/vbg the/at two/cd Congressional/jj-tl offices/nns from/in the/at eastern/jj and/cc western/jj sections/nns of/in the/at state/nn ./.


	During/in the/at month/nn of/in November/np hardly/rb a/at day/nn passed/vbd when/wrb there/ex was/bedz not/* some/dti mention/nn of/in John/np Brown/np in/in the/at Rhode/np-tl Island/nn-tl newspapers/nns ./.
On/in November/np 7/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl reprinted/vbd a/at letter/nn sent/vbn to/in John/np Brown/np from/in ``/`` E./np B./np ''/'' ,/, a/at Quaker/np lady/nn in/in Newport/np ./.
In/in reference/nn to/in Brown's/np$ raid/nn she/pps wrote/vbd ,/, ``/`` though/cs we/ppss are/ber non-resistants/nns and/cc religiously/rb believe/vb it/ppo better/jjr to/to reform/vb by/in moral/jj and/cc not/* by/in carnal/jj weapons/nns ,/, we/ppss know/vb thee/pps was/bedz anemated/vbn by/in the/at most/ql generous/jj and/cc philanthropic/jj motives/nns ''/'' ./.
``/`` E./np B./np ''/'' compared/vbd John/np Brown/np to/in Moses/np in/in that/cs they/ppss were/bed both/abx acting/vbg to/to deliver/vb millions/nns from/in oppression/nn ./.
In/in contrast/nn to/in ``/`` E./np B./np ''/'' ,/, most/ap Rhode/np-tl Islanders/nns-tl hardly/rb thought/vbd of/in John/np Brown/np as/cs being/beg another/dt Moses/np ./.
Most/ap attempts/nns to/to develop/vb any/dti sympathy/nn for/in Brown/np and/cc his/pp$ actions/nns found/vbd an/at unresponsive/jj audience/nn in/in Rhode/np-tl Island/nn-tl ./.


	On/in Wednesday/nr evening/nn ,/, November/np 23/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, in/in Warren/np ,/, Rev./np Mark/np Trafton/np of/in New/jj-tl Bedford/np-tl ,/, gave/vbd a/at ``/`` Mission/nn-tl of/in-tl Sympathy/nn-tl ''/'' lecture/nn in/in which/wdt he/pps favorably/rb viewed/vbd the/at Harper's/np$-tl Ferry/nn-tl insurrection/nn ./.
The/at Warren/np-tl Telegraph/nn-tl stated/vbd that/cs many/ap of/in Rev./np Trafton's/np$ remarks/nns were/bed inappropriate/jj and/cc savored/vbd strongly/rb of/in radicalism/nn and/cc fanaticism/nn ./.
In/in its/pp$ account/nn of/in the/at Trafton/np lecture/nn ,/, the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl said/vbd that/cs the/at remarks/nns of/in Rev./np Trafton/np made/vbd the/at people/nns indignant/jj ./.


	No/at sympathy/nn or/cc admiration/nn for/in Brown/np could/md be/be found/vbn in/in the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post/nn-tl ,/, for/cs the/at editor/nn claimed/vbd that/cs there/ex were/bed a/at score/nn of/in men/nns in/in the/at state/nn prison/nn who/wps were/bed a/at thousand/cd times/nns more/ql deserving/jj of/in sympathy/nn ./.
The/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl ,/, however/rb ,/, stated/vbd that/cs Brown's/np$ courage/nn ,/, bravery/nn ,/, and/cc heroism/nn ``/`` in/in a/at good/jj cause/nn would/md make/vb a/at man/nn a/at martyr/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps gives/vbz something/pn of/in dignity/nn even/rb to/in a/at bad/jj one/cd ''/'' ./.
The/at Woonsocket/np-tl Patriot/nn-tl admitted/vbd that/cs John/np Brown/np might/md deserve/vb punishment/nn or/cc imprisonment/nn ``/`` but/cc he/pps should/md no/ql more/rbr be/be hung/vbn than/cs Henry/np A./np Wise/np or/cc James/np Buchanan/np ''/'' ./.
The/at Newport/np-tl Mercury/np-tl exhibited/vbd more/ap concern/nn over/in the/at possibility/nn of/in the/at abolitionists/nns making/vbg a/at martyr/nn of/in Brown/np than/cs it/pps did/dod over/in the/at development/nn of/in sympathy/nn for/in him/ppo ./.


	In/in her/pp$ letter/nn to/in John/np Brown/np ,/, ``/`` E./np B./np ''/'' ,/, the/at Quakeress/np from/in Newport/np ,/, had/hvd suggested/vbn that/cs the/at American/jj people/nns owed/vbd more/ap honor/nn to/in John/np Brown/np for/in seeking/vbg to/to free/vb the/at slaves/nns than/cs they/ppss did/dod to/in George/np Washington/np ./.
During/in the/at latter/ap days/nns of/in November/np to/in the/at day/nn of/in Brown's/np$ execution/nn ,/, it/pps seems/vbz that/cs most/ap Rhode/np-tl Islanders/nns-tl did/dod not/* concur/vb in/in ``/`` E./np B.'s/np$ ''/'' suggestion/nn ./.
On/in November/np 22/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl stated/vbd that/cs although/cs Brown's/np$ ``/`` pluck/nn ''/'' and/cc honest/jj fanaticism/nn must/md be/be admired/vbn ,/, any/dti honor/nn paid/vbn to/in Brown/np would/md only/rb induce/vb other/ap fanatics/nns to/to imitate/vb his/pp$ actions/nns ./.
A/at week/nn later/rbr the/at Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl had/hvd discovered/vbn the/at initial/jj plans/nns of/in some/dti Providence/np citizens/nns to/to hold/vb a/at meeting/nn honoring/vbg John/np Brown/np on/in the/at day/nn of/in his/pp$ execution/nn ./.
The/at editor/nn of/in the/at Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl warned/vbd ,/, ``/`` that/cs if/cs such/abl a/at demonstration/nn be/be made/vbn ,/, it/pps will/md not/* find/vb support/nn or/cc countenance/nn from/in any/dti of/in the/at men/nns whose/wp$ names/nns are/ber recognized/vbn as/cs having/hvg a/at right/nn to/to speak/vb for/in Providence/np ''/'' ./.
The/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Post's/nn$-tl editor/nn wrote/vbd that/cs he/pps could/md not/* believe/vb that/cs a/at meeting/nn honoring/vbg Brown/np was/bedz to/to be/be held/vbn in/in Providence/np ./.
He/pps further/rbr called/vbd upon/rb the/at people/nns of/in Providence/np to/to rebuke/vb the/at meeting/nn and/cc avoid/vb disgrace/nn ./.


	On/in December/np 2/cd ,/, 1859/cd ,/, John/np Brown/np was/bedz hanged/vbn at/in Charles/np-tl Town/nn-tl ,/, Virginia/np ./.
Extraordinary/jj precautions/nns were/bed taken/vbn so/cs that/cs no/at stranger/nn be/be allowed/vbn in/in the/at city/nn and/cc no/at citizen/nn within/in the/at enclosure/nn surrounding/vbg the/at scaffold/nn ./.
In/in many/ap Northern/jj-tl towns/nns and/cc cities/nns meetings/nns were/bed held/vbn and/cc church/nn bells/nns were/bed tolled/vbn ./.
Such/jj was/bedz not/* the/at case/nn in/in Rhode/np-tl Island/nn-tl ./.
The/at only/ap public/jj demonstration/nn in/in honor/nn of/in John/np Brown/np was/bedz held/vbn at/in Pratt's/np$-tl Hall/nn-tl in/in Providence/np ,/, on/in the/at day/nn of/in his/pp$ execution/nn ./.


	Despite/in the/at opposition/nn of/in the/at city/nn newspapers/nns ,/, the/at Pratt/np-tl Hall/nn-tl meeting/nn ``/`` brought/vbd together/rb a/at very/ql respectable/jj audience/nn ,/, composed/vbn in/in part/nn of/in those/dts who/wps had/hvd been/ben distinguished/vbn for/in years/nns for/in their/pp$ radical/jj views/nns upon/in the/at subject/nn of/in slavery/nn ,/, of/in many/ap of/in our/pp$ colored/vbn citizens/nns ,/, and/cc of/in those/dts who/wps were/bed attracted/vbn to/in the/at place/nn by/in the/at novelty/nn of/in such/abl a/at gathering/nn ''/'' ./.
Seated/vbn on/in the/at platform/nn were/bed Amos/np C./np Barstow/np ,/, ex-mayor/nn of/in Providence/np and/cc a/at wealthy/jj Republican/np stove/nn manufacturer/nn ;/. ;/.
Thomas/np Davis/np ,/, an/at uncompromising/jj Garrisonian/np ;/. ;/.
the/at Reverend/np Augustus/np Woodbury/np ,/, a/at Unitarian/jj minister/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at Reverend/np George/np T./np Day/np ,/, a/at Free-Will/nn-tl Baptist/np-tl ;/. ;/.
Daniel/np W./np Vaughan/np ,/, and/cc William/np H./np H./np Clements/np ./.
The/at latter/ap two/cd were/bed appointed/vbn secretaries/nns ./.
The/at first/od speaker/nn was/bedz Amos/np C./np Barstow/np who/wps had/hvd been/ben unanimously/rb chosen/vbn president/nn of/in the/at meeting/nn ./.
He/pps spoke/vbd of/in his/pp$ desire/nn to/to promote/vb the/at abolition/nn of/in slavery/nn by/in peaceable/jj means/nns and/cc he/pps compared/vbd John/np Brown/np of/in Harper's/np$-tl Ferry/nn-tl to/in the/at John/np Brown/np of/in Rhode/np-tl Island's/nn$-tl colonial/jj period/nn ./.
Barstow/np concluded/vbd that/cs as/cs Rhode/np-tl Island's/nn$-tl John/np Brown/np became/vbd a/at canonized/vbn hero/nn ,/, if/cs not/* a/at saint/nn ,/, so/rb would/md it/pps be/be with/in John/np Brown/np of/in Harper's/np$-tl Ferry/nn-tl ./.


	The/at next/ap speaker/nn was/bedz George/np T./np Day/np ./.
Although/cs admitting/vbg Brown's/np$ guilt/nn on/in legal/jj grounds/nns ,/, Day/np said/vbd that/cs ,/, ``/`` Brown/np is/bez no/at common/jj criminal/nn ;/. ;/.
his/pp$ deed/nn was/bedz not/* below/in ,/, but/cc above/in the/at law/nn ''/'' ./.
Following/vbg Day/np was/bedz Woodbury/np who/wps spoke/vbd of/in his/pp$ disapproval/nn of/in Brown's/np$ attempt/nn at/in servile/jj insurrection/nn ,/, his/pp$ admiration/nn of/in Brown's/np$ character/nn ,/, and/cc his/pp$ opposition/nn to/in slavery/nn ./.
Woodbury's/np$ remarks/nns were/bed applauded/vbn by/in a/at portion/nn of/in the/at audience/nn several/ap times/nns and/cc once/rb there/ex was/bedz hissing/vbg ./.


	The/at fourth/od and/cc last/ap speaker/nn was/bedz Thomas/np Davis/np ./.
By/in this/dt time/nn large/jj numbers/nns of/in the/at audience/nn had/hvd left/vbn the/at hall/nn ./.
Davis/np commenced/vbd his/pp$ remarks/nns by/in an/at allusion/nn to/in the/at general/jj feeling/nn of/in opposition/nn which/wdt the/at meeting/nn had/hvd encountered/vbn from/in many/ap of/in the/at citizens/nns and/cc all/abn the/at newspapers/nns of/in the/at city/nn ./.
He/pps said/vbd that/cs the/at propriety/nn or/cc impropriety/nn of/in such/abl a/at gathering/nn was/bedz a/at question/nn that/wps was/bedz to/to be/be settled/vbn by/in every/at man/nn in/in accordance/nn with/in the/at convictions/nns of/in private/jj judgments/nns ./.
In/in the/at remainder/nn of/in his/pp$ speech/nn Davis/np spoke/vbd of/in his/pp$ admiration/nn for/in Brown/np and/cc warned/vbd those/dts who/wps took/vbd part/nn in/in the/at meeting/nn that/cs they/ppss ``/`` are/ber liable/jj to/in the/at charge/nn that/cs they/ppss are/ber supporting/vbg traitors/nns and/cc upholding/vbg men/nns whom/wpo the/at laws/nns have/hv condemned/vbn ''/'' ./.
He/pps recalled/vbd that/cs in/in Rhode/np-tl Island/nn-tl a/at party/nn opposed/vbn to/in the/at state's/nn$ condemnation/nn of/in a/at man/nn (/( Thomas/np W./np Dorr/np )/) proclaimed/vbd the/at state's/nn$ action/nn as/cs a/at violation/nn of/in the/at law/nn of/in the/at land/nn and/cc the/at principles/nns of/in human/jj liberty/nn ./.
At/in the/at close/nn of/in Davis'/np$ speech/nn the/at following/vbg preamble/nn and/cc resolutions/nns were/bed read/vbn by/in the/at president/nn ,/, and/cc on/in the/at question/nn of/in their/pp$ adoption/nn passed/vbn unanimously/rb :/: 

	Whereas/cs ,/, John/np Brown/np has/hvz cheerfully/rb risked/vbn his/pp$ life/nn in/in endeavoring/vbg to/to deliver/vb those/dts who/wps are/ber denied/vbn all/abn rights/nns and/cc is/bez this/dt day/nn doomed/vbn to/to suffer/vb death/nn for/in his/pp$ efforts/nns in/in behalf/nn of/in those/dts who/wps have/hv no/at helper/nn :/: Therefore/rb ,/, 

	Resolved/vbn that/cs ,/, while/cs we/ppss most/ql decidedly/rb disapprove/vb the/at methods/nns he/pps adopted/vbd to/to accomplish/vb his/pp$ objects/nns ,/, yet/cc in/in his/pp$ willingness/nn to/to die/vb in/in aid/nn of/in the/at great/jj cause/nn of/in human/jj freedom/nn ,/, we/ppss still/rb recognize/vb the/at qualities/nns of/in a/at noble/jj nature/nn and/cc the/at exercise/nn of/in a/at spirit/nn which/wdt true/jj men/nns have/hv always/rb admired/vbn and/cc which/wdt history/nn never/rb fails/vbz to/to honor/vb ./.


	Resolved/vbn that/cs his/pp$ wrongs/nns and/cc bereavements/nns in/in Kansas/np ,/, occasioned/vbn by/in the/at violence/nn and/cc brutality/nn of/in those/dts who/wps were/bed intent/jj on/in the/at propagation/nn of/in slavery/nn in/in that/dt territory/nn ,/, call/vb for/in a/at charitable/jj judgment/nn upon/in his/pp$ recent/jj efforts/nns in/in Virginia/np to/to undermine/vb the/at despotism/nn from/in which/wdt he/pps had/hvd suffered/vbn ,/, and/cc commend/vb his/pp$ family/nn to/in the/at special/jj sympathy/nn and/cc aid/nn of/in all/abn who/wps pity/vb suffering/vbg and/cc reverence/vb justice/nn ./.


	Resolved/vbn that/cs the/at anti-slavery/jj sentiment/nn is/bez becoming/vbg ripe/jj for/in resolute/jj action/nn ./.


	Resolved/vbn ,/, that/cs we/ppss find/vb in/in this/dt fearful/jj tragedy/nn at/in Harper's/np$-tl Ferry/nn-tl a/at reason/nn for/in more/ql earnest/jj effort/nn to/to remove/vb the/at evil/nn of/in slavery/nn from/in the/at whole/jj land/nn as/ql speedily/rb as/cs possible/jj ./.


	On/in the/at morning/nn following/in the/at Pratt/np-tl Hall/nn-tl meeting/nn the/at editor/nn of/in the/at Providence/np-tl Daily/jj-tl Journal/nn-tl wrote/vbd that/cs although/cs the/at meeting/nn was/bedz milder/jjr and/cc less/ql extreme/jj than/cs those/dts held/vbn in/in other/ap areas/nns for/in similar/jj purposes/nns ,/, it/pps could/md have/hv been/ben avoided/vbn completely/rb ./.

Rather/rb than/cs being/beg deceived/vbn ,/, the/at eye/nn is/bez puzzled/vbn ;/. ;/.
instead/rb of/in seeing/vbg objects/nns in/in space/nn ,/, it/pps sees/vbz nothing/pn more/ap than/cs --/-- a/at picture/nn ./.


	Through/in 1911/cd and/cc 1912/cd ,/, as/cs the/at Cubist/jj-tl facet-plane's/nn$ tendency/nn to/to adhere/vb to/in the/at literal/jj surface/nn became/vbd harder/rbr and/cc harder/rbr to/to deny/vb ,/, the/at task/nn of/in keeping/vbg the/at surface/nn at/in arm's/nn$ length/nn fell/vbd all/abn the/at more/rbr to/in eye-undeceiving/jj contrivances/nns ./.
To/to reinforce/vb ,/, and/cc sometimes/rb to/to replace/vb ,/, the/at simulated/vbn typography/nn ,/, Braque/np and/cc Picasso/np began/vbd to/to mix/vb sand/nn and/cc other/ap foreign/jj substances/nns with/in their/pp$ paint/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at granular/jj texture/nn thus/rb created/vbd likewise/rb called/vbd attention/nn to/in the/at reality/nn of/in the/at surface/nn and/cc was/bedz effective/jj over/in much/ql larger/jjr areas/nns ./.
In/in certain/ap other/ap pictures/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, Braque/np began/vbd to/to paint/vb areas/nns in/in exact/jj simulation/nn of/in wood/nn graining/nn or/cc marbleizing/vbg ./.
These/dts areas/nns ,/, by/in virtue/nn of/in their/pp$ abrupt/jj density/nn of/in pattern/nn ,/, stated/vbd the/at literal/jj surface/nn with/in such/ql new/jj and/cc superior/jj force/nn that/cs the/at resulting/vbg contrast/nn drove/vbd the/at simulated/vbn printing/nn into/in a/at depth/nn from/in which/wdt it/pps could/md be/be rescued/vbn --/-- and/cc set/vbn to/in shuttling/vbg again/rb --/-- only/rb by/in conventional/jj perspective/nn ;/. ;/.
that/dt is/bez ,/, by/in being/beg placed/vbn in/in such/jj relation/nn to/in the/at forms/nns depicted/vbn within/in the/at illusion/nn that/cs these/dts forms/nns left/vbd no/at room/nn for/in the/at typography/nn except/rb near/in the/at surface/nn ./.


	The/at accumulation/nn of/in such/jj devices/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, soon/rb had/hvd the/at effect/nn of/in telescoping/vbg ,/, even/rb while/cs separating/vbg ,/, surface/nn and/cc depth/nn ./.
The/at process/nn of/in flattening/vbg seemed/vbd inexorable/jj ,/, and/cc it/pps became/vbd necessary/jj to/to emphasize/vb the/at surface/nn still/ql further/rbr in/in order/nn to/to prevent/vb it/ppo from/in fusing/vbg with/in the/at illusion/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz for/in this/dt reason/nn ,/, and/cc no/at other/ap that/wpo I/ppss can/md see/vb ,/, that/cs in/in September/np 1912/cd ,/, Braque/np took/vbd the/at radical/jj and/cc revolutionary/jj step/nn of/in pasting/vbg actual/jj pieces/nns of/in imitation-woodgrain/nn wallpaper/nn to/in a/at drawing/nn on/in paper/nn ,/, instead/rb of/in trying/vbg to/to simulate/vb its/pp$ texture/nn in/in paint/nn ./.
Picasso/np says/vbz that/cs he/pps himself/ppl had/hvd already/rb made/vbn his/pp$ first/od collage/nn toward/in the/at end/nn of/in 1911/cd ,/, when/wrb he/pps glued/vbd a/at piece/nn of/in imitation-caning/nn oilcloth/nn to/in a/at painting/nn on/in canvas/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez true/jj that/cs his/pp$ first/od collage/nn looks/vbz more/ql Analytical/jj-tl than/cs Braque's/np$ ,/, which/wdt would/md confirm/vb the/at date/nn he/pps assigns/vbz it/ppo ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez also/rb true/jj that/cs Braque/np was/bedz the/at consistent/jj pioneer/nn in/in the/at use/nn of/in simulated/vbn textures/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs of/in typography/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc moreover/rb ,/, he/pps had/hvd already/rb begun/vbn to/to broaden/vb and/cc simplify/vb the/at facet-planes/nns of/in Analytical/jj-tl Cubism/np-tl as/ql far/rb back/rb as/cs the/at end/nn of/in 1910/cd ./.




When/wrb we/ppss examine/vb what/wdt each/dt master/nn says/nns was/bedz his/pp$ first/od collage/nn we/ppss see/vb that/cs much/ap the/at same/ap thing/nn happens/vbz in/in each/dt ./.
(/( It/pps makes/vbz no/at real/jj difference/nn that/cs Braque's/np$ collage/nn is/bez on/in paper/nn and/cc eked/vbn out/rp in/in charcoal/nn ,/, while/cs Picasso's/np$ is/bez on/in canvas/nn and/cc eked/vbn out/rp in/in oil/nn ./.
)/) By/in its/pp$ greater/jjr corporeal/jj presence/nn and/cc its/pp$ greater/jjr extraneousness/nn ,/, the/at affixed/vbn paper/nn or/cc cloth/nn serves/vbz for/in a/at seeming/jj moment/nn to/to push/vb everything/pn else/rb into/in a/at more/ql vivid/jj idea/nn of/in depth/nn than/cs the/at simulated/vbn printing/nn or/cc simulated/vbn textures/nns had/hvd ever/rb done/vbn ./.
But/cc here/rb again/rb ,/, the/at surface-declaring/jj device/nn both/abx overshoots/vbz and/cc falls/vbz short/rb of/in its/pp$ aim/nn ./.
For/cs the/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn created/vbn by/in the/at contrast/nn between/in the/at affixed/vbn material/nn and/cc everything/pn else/rb gives/vbz way/nn immediately/rb to/in an/at illusion/nn of/in forms/nns in/in bas-relief/nn ,/, which/wdt gives/vbz way/nn in/in turn/nn ,/, and/cc with/in equal/jj immediacy/nn ,/, to/in an/at illusion/nn that/wps seems/vbz to/to contain/vb both/abx --/-- or/cc neither/dtx ./.


	Because/rb of/in the/at size/nn of/in the/at areas/nns it/pps covers/vbz ,/, the/at pasted/vbn paper/nn establishes/vbz undepicted/jj flatness/nn bodily/rb ,/, as/cs more/ap than/cs an/at indication/nn or/cc sign/nn ./.
Literal/jj flatness/nn now/rb tends/vbz to/to assert/vb itself/ppl as/cs the/at main/jjs event/nn of/in the/at picture/nn ,/, and/cc the/at device/nn boomerangs/vbz :/: the/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn is/bez rendered/vbn even/ql more/ql precarious/jj than/cs before/rb ./.
Instead/rb of/in isolating/vbg the/at literal/jj flatness/nn by/in specifying/vbg and/cc circumscribing/vbg it/ppo ,/, the/at pasted/vbn paper/nn or/cc cloth/nn releases/vbz and/cc spreads/vbz it/ppo ,/, and/cc the/at artist/nn seems/vbz to/to have/hv nothing/pn left/vbn but/in this/dt undepicted/jj flatness/nn with/in which/wdt to/to finish/vb as/ql well/rb as/cs start/vb his/pp$ picture/nn ./.
The/at actual/jj surface/nn becomes/vbz both/abx ground/nn and/cc background/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps turns/vbz out/rp --/-- suddenly/rb and/cc paradoxically/rb --/-- that/cs the/at only/ap place/nn left/vbn for/in a/at three-dimensional/jj illusion/nn is/bez in/in front/nn of/in ,/, upon/in ,/, the/at surface/nn ./.
In/in their/pp$ very/ql first/od collages/nns ,/, Braque/np and/cc Picasso/np draw/vb or/cc paint/vb over/in and/cc on/in the/at affixed/vbn paper/nn or/cc cloth/nn ,/, so/cs that/cs certain/ap of/in the/at principal/jjs features/nns of/in their/pp$ subjects/nns as/cs depicted/vbn seem/vb to/to thrust/vb out/rp into/in real/jj ,/, bas-relief/nn space/nn --/-- or/cc to/to be/be about/rb to/to do/do so/rb --/-- while/cs the/at rest/nn of/in the/at subject/nn remains/vbz imbedded/vbn in/in ,/, or/cc flat/jj upon/in ,/, the/at surface/nn ./.
And/cc the/at surface/nn is/bez driven/vbn back/rb ,/, in/in its/pp$ very/ap surfaceness/nn ,/, only/rb by/in this/dt contrast/nn ./.


	In/in the/at upper/jj center/nn of/in Braque's/np$ first/od collage/nn ,/, Fruit/nn-tl Dish/nn-tl (/( in/in Douglas/np Cooper's/np$ collection/nn )/) ,/, a/at bunch/nn of/in grapes/nns is/bez rendered/vbn with/in such/jj conventionally/rb vivid/jj sculptural/jj effect/nn as/cs to/to lift/vb it/ppo practically/rb off/in the/at picture/nn plane/nn ./.
The/at trompe-l'oeil/fw-nn illusion/nn here/rb is/bez no/ql longer/rbr enclosed/vbn between/in parallel/jj flatnesses/nns ,/, but/cc seems/vbz to/to thrust/vb through/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at drawing/nn paper/nn and/cc establish/vb depth/nn on/in top/nn of/in it/ppo ./.
Yet/cc the/at violent/jj immediacy/nn of/in the/at wallpaper/nn strips/nns pasted/vbn to/in the/at paper/nn ,/, and/cc the/at only/ql lesser/jjr immediacy/nn of/in block/nn capitals/nns that/wps simulate/vb window/nn lettering/nn ,/, manage/vb somehow/rb to/to push/vb the/at grape/nn cluster/nn back/rb into/in place/nn on/in the/at picture/nn plane/nn so/cs that/cs it/pps does/doz not/* ``/`` jump/vb ''/'' ./.
At/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, the/at wallpaper/nn strips/nns themselves/ppls seem/vb to/to be/be pushed/vbn into/in depth/nn by/in the/at lines/nns and/cc patches/nns of/in shading/vbg charcoaled/vbn upon/in them/ppo ,/, and/cc by/in their/pp$ placing/nn in/in relation/nn to/in the/at block/nn capitals/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc these/dts capitals/nns seem/vb in/in turn/nn to/to be/be pushed/vbn back/rb by/in their/pp$ placing/nn ,/, and/cc by/in contrast/nn with/in the/at corporeality/nn of/in the/at woodgraining/nn ./.
Thus/rb every/at part/nn and/cc plane/nn of/in the/at picture/nn keeps/vbz changing/vbg place/nn in/in relative/jj depth/nn with/in every/at other/ap part/nn and/cc plane/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc it/pps is/bez as/cs if/cs the/at only/ap stable/jj relation/nn left/vbn among/in the/at different/jj parts/nns of/in the/at picture/nn is/bez the/at ambivalent/jj and/cc ambiguous/jj one/cd that/wpo each/dt has/hvz with/in the/at surface/nn ./.
And/cc the/at same/ap thing/nn ,/, more/ap or/cc less/ap ,/, can/md be/be said/vbn of/in the/at contents/nns of/in Picasso's/np$ first/od collage/nn ./.


	In/in later/jjr collages/nns of/in both/abx masters/nns ,/, a/at variety/nn of/in extraneous/jj materials/nns are/ber used/vbn ,/, sometimes/rb in/in the/at same/ap work/nn ,/, and/cc almost/ql always/rb in/in conjunction/nn with/in every/at other/ap eye-deceiving/jj and/cc eye-undeceiving/jj device/nn they/ppss can/md think/vb of/in ./.
The/at area/nn adjacent/jj to/in one/cd edge/nn of/in a/at piece/nn of/in affixed/vbn material/nn --/-- or/cc simply/rb of/in a/at painted-in/jj form/nn --/-- will/md be/be shaded/vbn to/to pry/vb that/dt edge/nn away/rb from/in the/at surface/nn ,/, while/cs something/pn will/md be/be drawn/vbn ,/, painted/vbn or/cc even/rb pasted/vbn over/in another/dt part/nn of/in the/at same/ap shape/nn to/to drive/vb it/ppo back/rb into/in depth/nn ./.
Planes/nns defined/vbn as/cs parallel/rb to/in the/at surface/nn also/rb cut/vb through/in it/ppo into/in real/jj space/nn ,/, and/cc a/at depth/nn is/bez suggested/vbn optically/rb which/wdt is/bez greater/jjr than/cs that/dt established/vbn pictorially/rb ./.
All/abn this/dt expands/vbz the/at oscillation/nn between/in surface/nn and/cc depth/nn so/cs as/cs to/to encompass/vb fictive/jj space/nn in/in front/nn of/in the/at surface/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs behind/in it/ppo ./.
Flatness/nn may/md now/rb monopolize/vb everything/pn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez a/at flatness/nn become/vbn so/ql ambiguous/jj and/cc expanded/vbn as/cs to/to turn/vb into/in illusion/nn itself/ppl --/-- at/in least/ap an/at optical/jj if/cs not/* ,/, properly/rb speaking/vbg ,/, a/at pictorial/jj illusion/nn ./.
Depicted/vbn ,/, Cubist/jj-tl flatness/nn is/bez now/rb almost/ql completely/rb assimilated/vbn to/in the/at literal/jj ,/, undepicted/jj kind/nn ,/, but/cc at/in the/at same/ap time/nn it/pps reacts/vbz upon/in and/cc largely/rb transforms/vbz the/at undepicted/jj kind/nn --/-- and/cc it/pps does/doz so/rb ,/, moreover/rb ,/, without/in depriving/vbg the/at latter/ap of/in its/pp$ literalness/nn ;/. ;/.
rather/rb ,/, it/pps underpins/vbz and/cc reinforces/vbz that/dt literalness/nn ,/, re-creates/vbz it/ppo ./.




Out/rp of/in this/dt re-created/vbn literalness/nn ,/, the/at Cubist/jj-tl subject/nn reemerged/vbd ./.
For/cs it/pps had/hvd turned/vbn out/rp ,/, by/in a/at further/ap paradox/nn of/in Cubism/np ,/, that/cs the/at means/nn to/in an/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn and/cc plasticity/nn had/hvd now/rb become/vbn widely/ql divergent/jj from/in the/at means/nn of/in representation/nn or/cc imaging/nn ./.
In/in the/at Analytical/jj-tl phase/nn of/in their/pp$ Cubism/np ,/, Braque/np and/cc Picasso/np had/hvd not/* only/rb had/hvn to/to minimize/vb three-dimensionality/nn simply/rb in/in order/nn to/to preserve/vb it/ppo ;/. ;/.
they/ppss had/hvd also/rb had/hvn to/to generalize/vb it/ppo --/-- to/in the/at point/nn ,/, finally/rb ,/, where/wrb the/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn and/cc relief/nn became/vbd abstracted/vbn from/in specific/jj three-dimensional/jj entities/nns and/cc was/bedz rendered/vbn largely/rb as/cs the/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn and/cc relief/nn as/cs such/jj :/: as/cs a/at disembodied/vbn attribute/nn and/cc expropriated/vbn property/nn detached/vbn from/in everything/pn not/* itself/ppl ./.
In/in order/nn to/to be/be saved/vbn ,/, plasticity/nn had/hvd had/hvn to/to be/be isolated/vbn ;/. ;/.
and/cc as/cs the/at aspect/nn of/in the/at subject/nn was/bedz transposed/vbn into/in those/dts clusters/nns of/in more/ql or/cc less/ql interchangeable/jj and/cc contour-obliterating/jj facet-planes/nns by/in which/wdt plasticity/nn was/bedz isolated/vbn under/in the/at Cubist/jj-tl method/nn ,/, the/at subject/nn itself/ppl became/vbd largely/ql unrecognizable/jj ./.
Cubism/np ,/, in/in its/pp$ 1911-1912/cd phase/nn (/( which/wdt the/at French/nps ,/, with/in justice/nn ,/, call/vb ``/`` hermetic/jj ''/'' )/) was/bedz on/in the/at verge/nn of/in abstract/jj art/nn ./.


	It/pps was/bedz then/rb that/cs Picasso/np and/cc Braque/np were/bed confronted/vbn with/in a/at unique/jj dilemma/nn :/: they/ppss had/hvd to/to choose/vb between/in illusion/nn and/cc representation/nn ./.
If/cs they/ppss opted/vbd for/in illusion/nn ,/, it/pps could/md only/rb be/be illusion/nn per/in se/fw-ppl --/-- an/at illusion/nn of/in depth/nn ,/, and/cc of/in relief/nn ,/, so/ql general/jj and/cc abstracted/vbn as/cs to/to exclude/vb the/at representation/nn of/in individual/ap objects/nns ./.
If/cs ,/, on/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, they/ppss opted/vbd for/in representation/nn ,/, it/pps had/hvd to/to be/be representation/nn per/in se/fw-ppl --/-- representation/nn as/cs image/nn pure/jj and/cc simple/jj ,/, without/in connotations/nns (/( at/in least/ap ,/, without/in more/ap than/cs schematic/jj ones/nns )/) of/in the/at three-dimensional/jj space/nn in/in which/wdt the/at objects/nns represented/vbn originally/rb existed/vbd ./.
It/pps was/bedz the/at collage/nn that/wps made/vbd the/at terms/nns of/in this/dt dilemma/nn clear/jj :/: the/at representational/nn could/md be/be restored/vbn and/cc preserved/vbn only/rb on/in the/at flat/jj and/cc literal/jj surface/nn now/rb that/cs illusion/nn and/cc representation/nn had/hvd become/vbn ,/, for/in the/at first/od time/nn ,/, mutually/rb exclusive/jj alternatives/nns ./.


	In/in the/at end/nn ,/, Picasso/np and/cc Braque/np plumped/vbd for/in the/at representational/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps would/md seem/vb they/ppss did/dod so/rb deliberately/rb ./.
(/( This/dt provides/vbz whatever/wdt real/jj justification/nn there/ex is/bez for/in the/at talk/nn about/in ``/`` reality/nn ''/'' ./.
)/) But/cc the/at inner/jj ,/, formal/jj logic/nn of/in Cubism/np ,/, as/cs it/pps worked/vbd itself/ppl out/rp through/in the/at collage/nn ,/, had/hvd just/ql as/ql much/ap to/to do/do with/in shaping/vbg their/pp$ decision/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at smaller/jjr facet-planes/nns of/in Analytical/jj-tl Cubism/np-tl were/bed placed/vbn upon/in or/cc juxtaposed/vbn with/in the/at large/jj ,/, dense/jj shapes/nns formed/vbn by/in the/at affixed/vbn materials/nns of/in the/at collage/nn ,/, they/ppss had/hvd to/to coalesce/vb --/-- become/vb ``/`` synthesized/vbn ''/'' --/-- into/in larger/jjr planar/jj shapes/nns themselves/ppls simply/rb in/in order/nn to/to maintain/vb the/at integrity/nn of/in the/at picture/nn plane/nn ./.
Left/vbn in/in their/pp$ previous/ap atom-like/jj smallness/nn ,/, they/ppss would/md have/hv cut/vbn away/rb too/ql abruptly/rb into/in depth/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc the/at broad/jj ,/, opaque/jj shapes/nns of/in pasted/vbn paper/nn would/md have/hv been/ben isolated/vbn in/in such/abl a/at way/nn as/cs to/to make/vb them/ppo jump/vb out/rp of/in plane/nn ./.
Large/jj planes/nns juxtaposed/vbn with/in other/ap large/jj planes/nns tend/vb to/to assert/vb themselves/ppls as/cs independent/jj shapes/nns ,/, and/cc to/in the/at extent/nn that/cs they/ppss are/ber flat/jj ,/, they/ppss also/rb assert/vb themselves/ppls as/cs silhouettes/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc independent/jj silhouettes/nns are/ber apt/jj to/to coincide/vb with/in the/at recognizable/jj contours/nns of/in the/at subject/nn from/in which/wdt a/at picture/nn starts/vbz (/( if/cs it/pps does/doz start/vb from/in a/at subject/nn )/) ./.
It/pps was/bedz because/rb of/in this/dt chain-reaction/nn as/ql much/rb as/cs for/in any/dti other/ap reason/nn --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, because/rb of/in the/at growing/vbg independence/nn of/in the/at planar/jj unit/nn in/in collage/nn as/cs a/at shape/nn --/-- that/cs the/at identity/nn of/in depicted/vbn objects/nns ,/, or/cc at/in least/ap parts/nns of/in them/ppo ,/, re-emerged/vbd in/in Braque's/np$ and/cc Picasso's/np$ papiers/fw-nns colles/fw-jj and/cc continued/vbd to/to remain/vb more/ql conspicuous/jj there/rb --/-- but/cc only/rb as/cs flattened/vbn silhouettes/nns --/-- than/cs in/in any/dti of/in their/pp$ paintings/nns done/vbn wholly/rb in/in oil/nn before/in the/at end/nn of/in 1913/cd ./.


	Analytical/jj Cubism/np came/vbd to/in an/at end/nn in/in the/at collage/nn ,/, but/cc not/* conclusively/rb ;/. ;/.
nor/cc did/dod Synthetic/jj-tl Cubism/np-tl fully/rb begin/vb there/rb ./.
Only/rb when/wrb the/at collage/nn had/hvd been/ben exhaustively/rb translated/vbn into/in oil/nn ,/, and/cc transformed/vbn by/in this/dt translation/nn ,/, did/dod Cubism/np become/vb an/at affair/nn of/in positive/jj color/nn and/cc flat/jj ,/, interlocking/vbg silhouettes/nns whose/wp$ legibility/nn and/cc placement/nn created/vbd allusions/nns to/in ,/, if/cs not/* the/at illusion/nn of/in ,/, unmistakable/jj three-dimensional/jj identities/nns ./.


	Synthetic/jj Cubism/np began/vbd with/in Picasso/np alone/rb ,/, late/rb in/in 1913/cd or/cc early/rb in/in 1914/cd ;/. ;/.
this/dt was/bedz the/at point/nn at/in which/wdt he/pps finally/rb took/vbd the/at lead/nn in/in Cubist/jj-tl innovation/nn away/rb from/in Braque/np ,/, never/rb again/rb to/to relinquish/vb it/ppo ./.
But/cc even/rb before/in that/dt ,/, Picasso/np had/hvd glimpsed/vbn and/cc entered/vbn ,/, for/in a/at moment/nn ,/, a/at certain/ap revolutionary/jj path/nn in/in which/wdt no/at one/pn had/hvd preceded/vbn him/ppo ./.
It/pps was/bedz as/cs though/cs ,/, in/in that/dt instant/nn ,/, he/pps had/hvd felt/vbn the/at flatness/nn of/in collage/nn as/cs too/ql constricting/jj and/cc had/hvd suddenly/rb tried/vbn to/to escape/vb all/abn the/at way/nn back/rb --/-- or/cc forward/rb --/-- to/in literal/jj three-dimensionality/nn ./.
This/dt he/pps did/dod by/in using/vbg utterly/ql literal/jj means/nns to/to carry/vb the/at forward/jj push/nn of/in the/at collage/nn (/( and/cc of/in Cubism/np in/in general/jj )/) literally/rb into/in the/at literal/jj space/nn in/in front/nn of/in the/at picture/nn plane/nn ./.


	Some/dti time/nn in/in 1912/cd ,/, Picasso/np cut/vbd out/rp and/cc folded/vbd a/at piece/nn of/in paper/nn in/in the/at shape/nn of/in a/at guitar/nn ;/. ;/.
to/in this/dt he/pps glued/vbd and/cc fitted/vbd other/ap pieces/nns of/in paper/nn and/cc four/cd taut/jj strings/nns ,/, thus/rb creating/vbg a/at sequence/nn of/in flat/jj surfaces/nns in/in real/jj and/cc sculptural/jj space/nn to/in which/wdt there/ex clung/vbd only/rb the/at vestige/nn of/in a/at picture/nn plane/nn ./.
The/at affixed/vbn elements/nns of/in collage/nn were/bed extruded/vbn ,/, as/cs it/pps were/bed ,/, and/cc cut/vbn off/rp from/in the/at literal/jj pictorial/jj surface/nn to/to form/vb a/at bas-relief/nn ./.

Los/np Angeles/np in/in 1957/cd finally/rb bowed/vbd to/in the/at skyscraper/nn ./.
)/) And/cc without/in high/jj density/nn in/in the/at core/nn ,/, rapid-transit/nn systems/nns cannot/md* be/be maintained/vbn economically/rb ,/, let/vb alone/rb built/vbn from/in scratch/nn at/in today's/nr$ prices/nns ./.


	However/rb ,/, the/at building/nn of/in freeways/nns and/cc garages/nns cannot/md* continue/vb forever/rb ./.
The/at new/jj interchange/nn among/in the/at four/cd Los/np Angeles/np freeways/nns ,/, including/in the/at grade-constructed/jj accesses/nns ,/, occupies/vbz by/in itself/ppl no/ql less/ap than/cs eighty/cd acres/nns of/in downtown/nr land/nn ,/, one-eighth/nn of/in a/at square/jj mile/nn ,/, an/at area/nn about/rb the/at size/nn of/in Rockefeller/np-tl Center/nn-tl in/in New/jj-tl York/np-tl ./.
It/pps is/bez hard/jj to/to believe/vb that/cs this/dt mass/nn of/in intertwined/vbn concrete/nn constitutes/vbz what/wdt the/at law/nn calls/vbz ``/`` the/at highest/jjt and/cc best/jjt use/nn ''/'' of/in centrally/rb located/vbn urban/jj land/nn ./.
As/cs it/pps affects/vbz the/at city's/nn$ fiscal/jj situation/nn ,/, such/abl an/at interchange/nn is/bez ruinous/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps removes/vbz forever/rb from/in the/at tax/nn rolls/nns property/nn which/wdt should/md be/be taxed/vbn to/to pay/vb for/in the/at city/nn services/nns ./.
Subways/nns improved/vbd land/nn values/nns without/in taking/vbg away/rb land/nn ;/. ;/.
freeways/nns boost/vb valuation/nn less/rbr (/( because/cs the/at garages/nns they/ppss require/vb are/ber not/* prime/jj buildings/nns by/in a/at long/jj shot/nn )/) ,/, and/cc reduce/vb the/at acreage/nn that/wps can/md be/be taxed/vbn ./.
Downtown/nr Los/np Angeles/np is/bez already/rb two-thirds/nns freeway/nn ,/, interchange/nn ,/, street/nn ,/, parking/vbg lot/nn and/cc garage/nn --/-- one/cd of/in those/dts preposterous/jj ``/`` if/nil ''/'' statistics/nns has/hvz already/rb come/vbn to/to pass/vb ./.


	The/at freeway/nn with/in narrowly/rb spaced/vbn interchanges/nns concentrates/vbz and/cc mitigates/vbz the/at access/nn problem/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps also/rb acts/vbz inevitably/rb as/cs an/at artificial/jj ,/, isolating/vbg boundary/nn ./.
City/nn planners/nns do/do not/* always/rb use/vb this/dt boundary/nn as/ql effectively/rb as/cs they/ppss might/md ./.
Less/ql ambitious/jj freeway/nn plans/nns may/md be/be more/ql successful/jj --/-- especially/rb when/wrb the/at roadways/nns and/cc interchanges/nns are/ber raised/vbn ,/, allowing/vbg for/in cross/jj access/nn at/in many/ap points/nns and/cc providing/vbg parking/vbg areas/nns below/in the/at ramp/nn ./.




Meanwhile/rb ,/, the/at automobile/nn and/cc its/pp$ friend/nn the/at truck/nn have/hv cost/vbn the/at central/jj city/nn some/dti of/in its/pp$ industrial/jj dominance/nn ./.
In/in ever/rb greater/jjr numbers/nns ,/, factories/nns are/ber locating/vbg in/in the/at suburbs/nns or/cc in/in ``/`` industrial/jj parks/nns ''/'' removed/vbn from/in the/at city's/nn$ political/jj jurisdiction/nn ./.
The/at appeal/nn of/in the/at suburb/nn is/bez particularly/ql strong/jj for/in heavy/jj industry/nn ,/, which/wdt must/md move/vb bulky/jj objects/nns along/in a/at lengthy/jj assembly/nn line/nn and/cc wants/vbz enough/ap land/nn area/nn to/to do/do the/at entire/jj job/nn on/in one/cd floor/nn ./.
To/in light/jj industry/nn ,/, the/at economies/nns of/in being/beg on/in one/cd floor/nn are/ber much/ql slighter/jjr ,/, but/cc efficiency/nn engineers/nns usually/rb believe/vb in/in them/ppo ,/, and/cc manufacturers/nns looking/vbg for/in ways/nns to/to cut/vb costs/nns cannot/md* be/be prevented/vbn from/in turning/vbg to/in efficiency/nn engineers/nns ./.


	This/dt movement/nn of/in industry/nn away/rb from/in the/at central/jj cities/nns is/bez not/* so/ql catastrophically/ql new/jj as/cs some/dti prophets/nns seem/vb to/to believe/vb ./.
It/pps is/bez merely/rb the/at latest/jjt example/nn of/in the/at leapfrog/nn growth/nn which/wdt formed/vbd the/at pattern/nn of/in virtually/rb all/abn American/jj cities/nns ./.
The/at big/jj factories/nns which/wdt are/ber relatively/ql near/in the/at centers/nns of/in our/pp$ cities/nns --/-- the/at rubber/nn factories/nns in/in Akron/np ,/, Chrysler's/np$ Detroit/np plants/nns ,/, U.S./np-tl Steel's/nn$-tl Pittsburgh/np works/nns --/-- often/rb began/vbd on/in these/dts sites/nns at/in a/at time/nn when/wrb that/dt was/bedz the/at edge/nn of/in the/at city/nn ,/, yet/cc close/rb to/in transport/nn (/( river/nn )/) ,/, storage/nn (/( piers/nns )/) and/cc power/nn (/( river/nn )/) ./.
The/at ``/`` leapfrog/nn ''/'' was/bedz a/at phenomenon/nn of/in the/at railroad/nn and/cc the/at steam/nn turbine/nn ,/, and/cc the/at time/nn when/wrb the/at belts/nns of/in residence/nn surrounding/vbg the/at old/jj factory/nn area/nn were/bed not/* yet/rb blighted/vbn ./.


	The/at truck/nn and/cc the/at car/nn gave/vbd the/at manufacturer/nn a/at new/jj degree/nn of/in freedom/nn in/in selecting/vbg his/pp$ plant/nn site/nn ./.
Until/cs internal/jj combustion/nn became/vbd cheap/jj ,/, he/pps had/hvd to/to be/be near/in a/at railroad/nn siding/nn and/cc a/at trolley/nn line/nn or/cc an/at existing/vbg large/jj community/nn of/in lower-class/nn homes/nns ./.
The/at railroad/nn siding/nn is/bez still/rb important/jj --/-- it/pps is/bez usually/rb ,/, though/cs not/* always/rb ,/, true/jj that/cs long-haul/nn shipment/nn by/in rail/nn is/bez cheaper/jjr than/cs trucking/vbg ./.
But/cc anybody/pn who/wps promises/vbz a/at substantial/jj volume/nn of/in business/nn can/md get/vb a/at railroad/nn to/to run/vb a/at short/jj spur/nn to/in his/pp$ plant/nn these/dts days/nns ,/, and/cc many/ap businesses/nns can/md live/vb without/in the/at railroad/nn ./.
And/cc there/ex are/ber now/rb many/ap millions/nns of/in workers/nns for/in whom/wpo the/at factory/nn with/in the/at big/jj parking/vbg lot/nn ,/, which/wdt can/md be/be reached/vbn by/in driving/vbg across/in or/cc against/in the/at usual/jj pattern/nn of/in rush/nn hour/nn traffic/nn and/cc grille-route/nn bus/nn lines/nns ,/, is/bez actually/rb more/ql convenient/jj than/cs the/at walk-to/jj factory/nn ./.


	Willow/nn-tl Run/nn-tl ,/, General/nn-tl Electric's/nn$-tl enormous/jj installations/nns at/in Louisville/np and/cc Syracuse/np ,/, the/at Pentagon/nn-tl ,/, Boeing/np in/in Seattle/np ,/, Douglas/np and/cc Lockheed/np in/in Los/np Angeles/np ,/, the/at new/jj automobile/nn assembly/nn plants/nns everywhere/rb --/-- none/pn of/in these/dts is/bez substantially/rb served/vbn by/in any/dti sort/nn of/in conventional/jj mass/jj rapid/jj transit/nn ./.
They/ppss are/ber all/abn suburban/jj plants/nns ,/, relying/vbg on/in the/at roads/nns to/to keep/vb them/ppo supplied/vbn with/in workers/nns ./.
And/cc wherever/wrb the/at new/jj thruways/nns go/vb up/rp their/pp$ banks/nns are/ber lined/vbn by/in neat/jj glass/nn and/cc metal/nn and/cc colored/vbn brick/nn light/jj industry/nn ./.
The/at drive/nn along/in Massachusetts'/np$ Route/nn-tl 128/cd-tl ,/, the/at by-pass/nn which/wdt makes/vbz an/at arc/nn about/rb twenty/cd miles/nns from/in downtown/nr Boston/np ,/, may/md be/be a/at vision/nn of/in the/at future/nn ./.


	The/at future/nn could/md be/be worse/jjr ./.
The/at plants/nns along/in Route/nn-tl 128/cd-tl are/ber mostly/rb well/rb designed/vbn and/cc nicely/rb set/vbn against/in the/at New/jj-tl England/np-tl rocks/nns and/cc trees/nns ./.
They/ppss can/md even/rb be/be rather/ql grand/jj ,/, like/cs Edward/np Land's/np$ monument/nn to/in the/at astonishing/jj success/nn of/in Polaroid/np ./.
But/cc they/ppss deny/vb the/at values/nns of/in the/at city/nn --/-- the/at crowded/vbn ,/, competitive/jj ,/, tolerant/jj city/nn ,/, the/at ``/`` melting/vbg pot/nn ''/'' which/wdt gave/vbd off/rp so/ql many/ap of/in the/at most/ql admirable/jj American/jj qualities/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber segregated/vbn businesses/nns ,/, combining/vbg again/rb on/in one/cd site/nn the/at factory/nn and/cc the/at office/nn ,/, drawing/vbg their/pp$ work/nn force/nn from/in segregated/vbn communities/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez interesting/jj to/to note/vb how/wql many/ap of/in the/at plants/nns on/in Massachusetts'/np$ Route/nn-tl 128/cd draw/vb most/ap of/in their/pp$ income/nn either/cc from/in the/at government/nn in/in non-competitive/jj cost-plus/nn arrangements/nns ,/, or/cc from/in the/at exploitation/nn of/in patents/nns which/wdt grant/vb at/in least/ap a/at partial/jj monopoly/nn ./.




While/cs the/at factories/nns were/bed always/rb the/at center/nn of/in the/at labor/nn market/nn ,/, they/ppss were/bed often/rb on/in the/at city's/nn$ periphery/nn ./.
In/in spreading/vbg the/at factories/nns even/ql farther/rbr ,/, the/at automobile/nn may/md not/* have/hv changed/vbn to/in any/dti great/jj extent/nn the/at growth/nn pattern/nn of/in the/at cities/nns ./.
Even/rb the/at loss/nn of/in hotel/nn business/nn to/in the/at outskirt's/nn$ motel/nn has/hvz been/ben relatively/ql painless/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at hotel-motel/nn demarcation/nn is/bez becoming/vbg harder/jjr to/to find/vb every/at year/nn ./.
What/wdt hurts/vbz most/rbt is/bez the/at damage/nn the/at automobile/nn has/hvz done/vbn to/in central-city/nn retailing/nn ,/, especially/rb in/in those/dts cities/nns where/wrb public/jj transit/nn is/bez feeble/jj ./.


	Some/dti retailing/nn ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, always/rb spreads/vbz with/in the/at population/nn --/-- grocery/nn stores/nns ,/, drugstores/nns ,/, local/jj haberdasheries/nns and/cc dress/nn shops/nns ,/, candy/nn stores/nns and/cc the/at like/jj ./.
But/cc whenever/wrb a/at major/jj purchase/nn was/bedz contemplated/vbn forty/cd years/nns ago/rb --/-- a/at new/jj bedroom/nn set/nn or/cc a/at winter/nn coat/nn ,/, an/at Easter/np bonnet/nn ,/, a/at bicycle/nn for/in Junior/np --/-- the/at family/nn set/vbd off/rp for/in the/at downtown/nr department/nn store/nn ,/, where/wrb the/at selection/nn would/md be/be greatest/jjt ./.
Department/nn stores/nns congregated/vbd in/in the/at ``/`` one/cd hundred/cd per/in cent/nn location/nn ''/'' ,/, where/wrb all/abn the/at transit/nn lines/nns converged/vbd ./.
These/dts stores/nns are/ber still/rb there/rb ,/, but/cc the/at volume/nn of/in the/at ``/`` downtown/nr store/nn ''/'' has/hvz been/ben on/in a/at relative/jj decline/nn ,/, while/cs in/in many/ap cities/nns the/at suburban/jj ``/`` branch/nn ''/'' sells/vbz more/ap and/cc more/ap dry/jj goods/nns ./.
If/cs the/at retailer/nn and/cc hotelman's/nn$ downtown/nr unit/nn sales/nns have/hv been/ben decreasing/vbg ,/, however/rb ,/, his/pp$ dollar/nn volume/nn continues/vbz to/to rise/vb ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez dollars/nns which/wdt you/ppss put/vb in/in the/at bank/nn ./.


	In/in most/ap discussions/nns of/in this/dt phenomenon/nn ,/, the/at figures/nns are/ber substantially/rb inflated/vbn ./.
No/at suburban/jj shopping-center/nn branch/nn --/-- not/* even/rb Hudson's/np$ vast/jj Northland/np outside/in Detroit/np --/-- does/doz anything/pn like/cs the/at unit/nn volume/nn of/in business/nn or/cc carries/vbz anything/pn like/cs the/at variety/nn of/in merchandise/nn to/to be/be found/vbn in/in the/at home/nn store/nn ./.
Telephone/nn orders/nns distort/vb the/at picture/nn :/: the/at suburbanite/nn naturally/rb calls/vbz a/at local/jj rather/rb than/cs a/at central-city/nn number/nn if/cs both/abx are/ber listed/vbn in/in an/at advertisement/nn ,/, especially/rb if/cs the/at local/jj call/nn eliminates/vbz city/nn sales/nns tax/nn ./.
The/at suburban/jj branch/nn is/bez thereby/rb credited/vbn with/in a/at sale/nn which/wdt would/md have/hv been/ben made/vbn even/rb if/cs its/pp$ glass/nn doors/nns had/hvd never/rb opened/vbn ./.
Accounting/vbg procedures/nns which/wdt continue/vb to/to charge/vb a/at disproportionate/jj overhead/nn and/cc warehouse/nn expense/nn to/in the/at main/jjs store/nn make/vb the/at branches/nns seem/vb more/ql profitable/jj than/cs they/ppss are/ber ./.
In/in many/ap cases/nns that/dt statement/nn --/-- ``/`` We/ppss break/vb even/jj on/in our/pp$ downtown/nr operation/nn and/cc make/vb money/nn on/in our/pp$ branches/nns ''/'' --/-- would/md be/be turned/vbn around/rb if/cs the/at cost/nn analysis/nn were/bed recalculated/vbn on/in terms/nns less/ql prejudicial/jj to/in the/at old/jj store/nn ./.
Fear/nn of/in the/at competition/nn --/-- always/rb a/at great/jj motivating/vbg force/nn in/in the/at American/jj economy/nn --/-- makes/vbz retailers/nns who/wps do/do not/* have/hv suburban/jj operations/nns exaggerate/vb both/abx the/at volume/nn and/cc the/at profitability/nn of/in their/pp$ rival's/nn$ shiny/jj new/jj branches/nns ./.
The/at fact/nn seems/vbz to/to be/be that/cs very/ql many/ap large/jj branch/nn stores/nns are/ber uneconomical/jj ,/, that/cs the/at choice/nn of/in location/nn in/in the/at suburbs/nns is/bez as/ql important/jj as/cs it/pps was/bedz downtown/nr ,/, and/cc that/cs even/rb highly/ql suburbanized/vbn cities/nns will/md support/vb only/rb so/ql many/ap big/jj branches/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at cost/nn of/in operations/nns is/bez always/rb high/jj in/in any/dti new/jj store/nn ,/, as/cs the/at conservative/jj bankers/nns who/wps act/vb as/cs controllers/nns for/in retail/jj giants/nns are/ber beginning/vbg to/to discover/vb ./.


	When/wrb all/abn has/hvz been/ben said/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at big/jj branch/nn store/nn remains/vbz a/at major/jj break/nn with/in history/nn in/in the/at development/nn of/in American/jj retailing/nn ./.
Just/rb as/cs the/at suburban/jj factory/nn may/md be/be more/ql convenient/jj than/cs the/at downtown/nr plant/nn to/in the/at worker/nn with/in a/at car/nn ,/, the/at trip/nn to/in the/at shopping/vbg center/nn may/md seem/vb far/ql easier/jjr than/cs to/in the/at downtown/nr department/nn store/nn ,/, though/cs both/abx are/ber the/at same/ap distance/nn from/in home/nr ./.
Indeed/rb ,/, there/ex are/ber some/dti cities/nns where/wrb the/at suburban/jj shopping/nn pulls/vbz customers/nns who/wps are/ber geographically/rb much/ql nearer/rbr to/in downtown/nr ./.
Raymond/np Vernon/np reports/vbz that/cs residents/nns of/in East/jj-tl St./np-tl Louis/np-tl have/hv been/ben driving/vbg across/in the/at Mississippi/np ,/, through/in the/at heart/nn of/in downtown/nr St./np Louis/np and/cc out/rp to/in the/at western/jj suburbs/nns for/in major/jj shopping/nn ,/, simply/rb because/cs parking/vbg is/bez easier/jjr at/in the/at big/jj branches/nns than/cs it/pps is/bez in/in the/at heart/nn of/in town/nn ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs the/at problem/nn is/bez merely/rb parking/vbg ,/, an/at aggressive/jj downtown/nr management/nn ,/, like/cs that/dt of/in Lazarus/np-tl Brothers/nns-tl in/in Columbus/np ,/, Ohio/np ,/, can/md fight/vb back/rb successfully/rb by/in building/vbg a/at garage/nn on/in the/at lot/nn next/ap door/nn ./.
If/cs the/at distant/jj patron/nn of/in the/at suburban/jj branch/nn has/hvz been/ben frightened/vbn away/rb from/in downtown/nr by/in traffic/nn problems/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at city/nn store/nn can/md only/rb pressure/vb the/at politicians/nns to/to do/do something/pn about/in the/at highways/nns or/cc await/vb the/at completion/nn of/in the/at federal/jj highway/nn program/nn ./.
And/cc if/cs the/at affection/nn for/in the/at suburban/jj branch/nn reflects/vbz a/at desire/nn to/to shop/vb with/in ``/`` nice/jj people/nns ''/'' ,/, rather/rb than/cs with/in the/at indiscriminate/jj urban/jj mass/nn which/wdt supports/vbz the/at downtown/nr department/nn store/nn ,/, the/at central/jj location/nn may/md be/be in/in serious/jj trouble/nn ./.
Today/nr ,/, according/rb to/in land/nn economist/nn Homer/np Hoyt/np ,/, shopping/vbg centers/nns and/cc their/pp$ associated/vbn parking/vbg lots/nns cover/vb some/rb 46,000/cd acres/nns of/in land/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez almost/ql exactly/rb the/at total/jj land/nn area/nn in/in all/abn the/at nation's/nn$ Central/jj-tl Business/nn-tl Districts/nns-tl put/vbn together/rb ./.


	The/at downtown/nr store/nn continues/vbz to/to offer/vb the/at great/jj inducement/nn of/in variety/nn ,/, both/abx within/in its/pp$ gates/nns and/cc across/in the/at street/nn ,/, where/wrb other/ap department/nn stores/nns are/ber immediately/rb convenient/jj for/in the/at shopper/nn who/wps wants/vbz to/to see/vb what/wdt is/bez available/jj before/cs making/vbg up/rp her/pp$ mind/nn ./.
If/cs anything/pn may/md be/be predicted/vbn in/in the/at quicksilver/nn world/nn of/in retailing/vbg ,/, it/pps seems/vbz likely/jj that/cs the/at suburban/jj branch/nn will/md come/vb to/to dominate/vb children's/nns$ clothing/nn (/( taking/vbg the/at kid/nn downtown/nr is/bez too/ql much/ap of/in a/at production/nn )/) ,/, household/nn gadgetry/nn and/cc the/at discount/nn business/nn in/in big-ticket/nn items/nns ./.
Department/nn stores/nns were/bed built/vbn on/in dry/jj goods/nns ,/, especially/rb ladies'/nns$ fashions/nns ,/, and/cc in/in this/dt area/nn ,/, in/in the/at long/jj run/nn ,/, the/at suburban/jj branches/nns will/md be/be hard/rb put/vbn to/to compete/vb against/in downtown/nr ./.
If/cs this/dt analysis/nn is/bez correct/jj ,/, the/at suburban/jj branches/nns will/md turn/vb out/rp to/to be/be what/wdt management's/nn$ cost/nn accountants/nns refuse/vb to/to acknowledge/vb ,/, marginal/jj operations/nns rather/rb than/cs major/jj factors/nns ./.


	Historically/rb in/in America/np the/at appeal/nn of/in cities/nns has/hvz been/ben their/pp$ color/nn and/cc life/nn ,/, the/at variety/nn of/in experience/nn they/ppss offered/vbd ./.
``/`` How/wrb ya/ppss gonna/vbg+to keep/vb 'em/ppo down/rp on/in the/at farm/nn ''/'' ?/. ?/.
Was/bedz a/at question/nn that/wps had/hvd to/to be/be asked/vbn long/rb before/cs they/ppss saw/vbd Paree/np ./.
Though/cs Americans/nps usually/rb lived/vbd in/in groups/nns segregated/vbn by/in national/jj origin/nn or/cc religious/jj belief/nn ,/, they/ppss liked/vbd to/to work/vb and/cc shop/vb in/in the/at noise/nn and/cc vitality/nn of/in downtown/nr ./.
Only/rb a/at radical/jj change/nn in/in the/at nature/nn of/in the/at population/nn in/in the/at central/jj city/nn would/md be/be likely/jj to/to destroy/vb this/dt preference/nn --/-- and/cc we/ppss must/md now/rb turn/vb our/pp$ attention/nn to/in the/at question/nn of/in whether/cs such/abl a/at change/nn ,/, gloomily/rb foreseen/vbn by/in so/ql many/ap urban/jj diagnosticians/nns ,/, is/bez actually/rb upon/in us/ppo ./.



4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Suburbs/nns-hl and/cc-hl Negroes/nps-hl 
In/in their/pp$ book/nn ,/, American/jj-tl Skyline/nn-tl ,/, Christopher/np Tunnard/np and/cc Henry/np Hope/np Reed/np argue/vb that/cs Franklin/np Roosevelt's/np$ New/jj-tl Deal/nn-tl was/bedz what/wdt made/vbd the/at modern/jj suburb/nn a/at possibility/nn --/-- a/at fine/jj ironical/jj argument/nn ,/, when/wrb you/ppss consider/vb how/wrb suburbanites/nns tend/vb to/to vote/vb ./.
The/at first/od superhighways/nns --/-- New/jj-tl York's/np$-tl Henry/np Hudson/np and/cc Chicago's/np$ Lake/nn-tl Shore/nn-tl ,/, San/np Francisco's/np$ Bay/nn-tl Bridge/nn-tl and/cc its/pp$ approaches/nns ,/, a/at good/jj slice/nn of/in the/at Pennsylvania/np-tl Turnpike/nn-tl --/-- were/bed built/vbn as/cs part/nn of/in the/at federal/jj works/nns program/nn which/wdt was/bedz going/vbg to/to cure/vb the/at depression/nn ./.
At/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, Roosevelt's/np$ Federal/jj-tl Housing/nn-tl Administration/nn-tl ,/, coupled/vbn with/in Henry/np Morgenthau's/np$ cheap-money/nn policy/nn ,/, permitted/vbd ordinary/jj lower-middle-class/nn families/nns to/to build/vb their/pp$ own/jj homes/nns ./.
Bankers/nns who/wps had/hvd been/ben reluctant/jj to/to lend/vb without/in better/jjr security/nn than/cs the/at house/nn itself/ppl got/vbd that/dt security/nn from/in the/at U./np S./np government/nn ;/. ;/.
householders/nns who/wps had/hvd been/ben unable/jj to/to pick/vb up/rp the/at burden/nn of/in short-term/nn high-interest/nn mortgages/nns found/vbd they/ppss could/md borrow/vb for/in twenty-five/cd years/nns at/in 4/cd per/in cent/nn ,/, under/in government/nn aegis/nn ./.

Before/cs losing/vbg itself/ppl in/in the/at sands/nns of/in the/at 19th/od Century/nn-tl ,/, the/at grand/jj stream/nn of/in Italian/jj-tl Renaissance/np-tl architectural/jj decoration/nn made/vbd a/at last/ap appearance/nn in/in the/at Brumidi/np frescos/nns of/in the/at Capitol/nn-tl Rotunda/nn-tl in/in Washington/np ./.


	The/at artistic/jj generation/nn after/in Brumidi/np was/bedz trained/vbn in/in the/at Paris/np of/in that/dt time/nn to/in a/at more/ql meticulous/jj standard/nn of/in execution/nn ,/, and/cc tended/vbd to/to overlook/vb greatness/nn of/in conception/nn where/wrb faults/nns and/cc weakness/nn were/bed easy/jj to/to find/vb ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez a/at great/jj conception/nn ./.
The/at open/jj ceiling/nn ,/, with/in allegorical/jj and/cc classical/jj figures/nns thrown/vbn in/in masses/nns against/in the/at sky/nn :/: the/at closed/vbn frieze/nn ,/, formally/rb divided/vbn into/in historical/jj scenes/nns and/cc tightly/rb tied/vbn to/in the/at stone/nn walls/nns ,/, belong/vb in/in their/pp$ large/jj ordering/nn to/in the/at line/nn of/in Correggio/np and/cc his/pp$ Baroque/jj-tl followers/nns ./.
The/at descent/nn may/md be/be remote/jj ,/, but/cc this/dt is/bez surely/rb the/at only/ap full-scale/jj example/nn of/in that/dt vigorous/jj inheritance/nn in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ./.


	Constantino/np Brumidi/np designed/vbd the/at decorative/jj scheme/nn as/cs a/at whole/jj ,/, in/in collaboration/nn with/in the/at architect/nn Charles/np U./np Walter/np ,/, at/in the/at time/nn when/wrb plans/nns were/bed being/beg made/vbn to/to replace/vb the/at wooden/jj dome/nn of/in Bullfinch/np with/in the/at present/jj much/ql larger/jjr iron/nn structure/nn ./.
After/in many/ap years/nns and/cc many/ap interruptions/nns he/pps was/bedz able/jj to/to finish/vb the/at canopy/nn fresco/nn ,/, and/cc slightly/ql less/ap than/in half/abn the/at frieze/nn ,/, beginning/vbg with/in the/at Liberty/nn-tl group/nn opposite/in the/at East/jj-tl door/nn ,/, and/cc ending/vbg with/in William/np Penn/np ,/, all/abn but/in one/cd leg/nn ,/, when/wrb a/at tragic/jj accident/nn ended/vbd his/pp$ career/nn ./.
He/pps left/vbd at/in his/pp$ death/nn sketches/nns ,/, drawn/vbn to/in scale/nn ,/, for/in the/at rest/nn of/in the/at circle/nn ./.
These/dts were/bed carried/vbn out/rp not/* too/ql faithfully/rb by/in Filippo/np Costaggini/np ,/, who/wps began/vbd by/in supplying/vbg the/at missing/vbg member/nn to/in the/at founder/nn of/in Pennsylvania/np and/cc noting/vbg in/in pencil/nn ,/, in/in Italian/np ,/, that/cs he/pps ``/`` began/vbd at/in this/dt point/nn ''/'' ./.


	When/wrb Costaggini/np had/hvd used/vbn up/rp all/abn the/at sketches/nns thirty-six/cd feet/nns of/in empty/jj frieze/nn were/bed left/vbn over/rp ./.
A/at blank/jj undecorated/jj void/nn ,/, plastered/vbn in/in roughcast/nn ,/, disfigured/vbd the/at wall/nn of/in the/at Rotunda/nn-tl until/in 1951/cd ./.
Then/rb ,/, advised/vbn by/in the/at Architect/nn-tl of/in the/at Capitol/nn-tl ,/, the/at Joint/jj-tl Committee/nn-tl for/in-tl the/at-tl Library/nn-tl ,/, traditionally/rb responsible/jj for/in the/at works/nns of/in art/nn in/in the/at building/nn ,/, ordered/vbd the/at space/nn cleared/vbn and/cc painted/vbn in/in fresco/nn ,/, to/to show/vb ``/`` the/at Peace/nn-tl after/in-tl the/at-tl Civil/jj-tl War/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, ``/`` the/at Spanish-American/jj-tl War/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, and/cc ``/`` the/at Birth/nn-tl of/in-tl Aviation/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, to/to match/vb as/ql nearly/rb as/cs feasible/jj Brumidi's/np$ technique/nn and/cc composition/nn ./.
Later/rbr the/at cleaning/nn and/cc restoration/nn were/bed ordered/vbn ,/, first/rb of/in the/at older/jjr part/nn of/in the/at frieze/nn ,/, finally/rb of/in the/at canopy/nn ./.
What/wdt follows/vbz is/bez therefore/rb a/at description/nn of/in three/cd separate/jj undertakings/nns ,/, the/at new/jj frescoing/nn of/in the/at gap/nn ,/, and/cc the/at successive/jj essays/nns in/in conservation/nn ,/, with/in some/dti discussion/nn of/in problems/nns that/wps arose/vbd in/in connection/nn with/in each/dt ./.


	For/in the/at use/nn of/in students/nns and/cc future/jj restorers/nns ,/, a/at full/jj ,/, day-by-day/jj record/nn was/bedz kept/vbn of/in all/abn three/cd undertakings/nns ,/, complete/jj technical/jj reports/nns on/in what/wdt we/ppss found/vbd and/cc what/wdt we/ppss did/dod ./.
These/dts may/md be/be consulted/vbn in/in the/at office/nn of/in the/at Architect/nn-tl of/in-tl the/at-tl Capitol/nn-tl ,/, or/cc the/at Library/nn-tl of/in-tl Congress/np-tl ./.


	The/at first/od preliminary/nn was/bedz inspecting/vbg the/at unfinished/jj length/nn of/in frieze/nn ,/, a/at jumble/nn of/in roughcast/nn and/cc finish/nn coats/nns ,/, all/abn in/in bad/jj condition/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz decided/vbn to/to strip/vb the/at whole/jj area/nn down/rp to/in the/at bricks/nns ,/, and/cc to/to replace/vb the/at rough/jj coats/nns up/rp to/in one/cd inch/nn thickness/nn to/to agree/vb with/in the/at older/jjr artists'/nns$ preparation/nn ,/, with/in a/at mortar/nn ,/, one/cd part/nn slaked/vbn lime/nn ,/, three/cd parts/nns sand/nn ,/, to/to be/be put/vbn on/rp in/in two/cd layers/nns ./.
Cartoons/nns were/bed drawn/vbn full/jj size/nn ,/, after/cs sketches/nns had/hvd been/ben made/vbn to/to satisfy/vb all/abn the/at authorities/nns ./.
There/ex was/bedz some/dti difficulty/nn here/rb ./.
One/pn had/hvd to/to manage/vb the/at given/vbn subjects/nns ,/, three/cd diverse/jj recent/jj events/nns ,/, so/cs as/cs to/to make/vb them/ppo part/nn of/in a/at classical/jj frieze/nn ,/, --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, a/at pattern/nn of/in large/jj figures/nns filling/vbg the/at space/nn ,/, with/in not/* much/ap else/rb ,/, against/in a/at blank/jj background/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, all/abn three/cd representations/nns must/md be/be squeezed/vbn comfortably/rb into/in little/ql more/ap than/cs the/at length/nn Brumidi/np allowed/vbd for/in each/dt one/cd of/in his/pp$$ ./.


	When/wrb it/pps was/bedz all/abn arranged/vbn to/to fit/vb ,/, and/cc not/* to/to interrupt/vb the/at lengthwise/jj flow/nn of/in movement/nn in/in the/at frieze/nn ,/, the/at cartoons/nns were/bed tried/vbn in/in place/nn ./.
The/at scaffolding/nn ,/, a/at confusion/nn of/in heavy/jj beams/nns hanging/vbg from/in the/at gallery/nn above/rb ,/, was/bedz strong/jj and/cc safe/jj ,/, but/cc obscured/vbd visibility/nn ./.
Nothing/pn could/md be/be seen/vbn from/in the/at floor/nn ,/, but/cc by/in moving/vbg around/in the/at gallery/nn one/pn could/md get/vb glimpses/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc we/ppss were/bed able/jj to/to decide/vb on/in some/dti amplification/nn of/in scale/nn ./.
To/to be/be sure/jj of/in matching/vbg color/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs form/nn ,/, pieces/nns of/in cartoon/nn were/bed traced/vbn on/in the/at roughcast/nn ,/, and/cc large/jj samples/nns painted/vbn in/in fresco/nn ,/, then/rb left/vbn two/cd months/nns to/to dry/vb out/rp to/in their/pp$ final/jj key/nn ./.
Later/rbr it/pps was/bedz gratifying/jj to/to note/vb that/cs they/ppss had/hvd set/vbn so/ql solidly/rb as/cs to/to be/be hard/jj to/to remove/vb when/wrb the/at time/nn came/vbd ./.


	The/at scaffold/nn was/bedz the/at length/nn of/in the/at space/nn to/to be/be painted/vbn ./.
What/wdt bits/nns of/in Brumidi/np and/cc Costaggini/np could/md be/be reached/vbn at/in either/cc end/nn seemed/vbd in/in good/jj order/nn ,/, though/cs the/at roughish/jj sandy/jj surface/nn was/bedz thick/jj with/in dust/nn ./.
Washed/vbn ,/, they/ppss came/vbd out/rp surprisingly/ql clear/jj and/cc bright/jj ./.
It/pps could/md be/be seen/vbn that/cs both/abx artists/nns used/vbd a/at very/ql thick/jj final/ap coat/nn of/in plaster/nn ,/, one/cd half/abn inch/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs both/abx followed/vbd the/at traditional/jj Italian/jj fresco/nn technique/nn as/cs described/vbn by/in Cennino/np Cennini/np in/in the/at 14th/od Century/nn-tl ,/, and/cc current/jj in/in Italy/np to/in this/dt day/nn ./.
That/dt is/bez ,/, they/ppss used/vbd opaque/jj color/nn throughout/rb ,/, getting/vbg solid/jj highlights/nns with/in active/jj lime/nn white/nn ./.
Painting/vbg ``/`` a/at secco/fw-nn ''/'' is/bez much/rb in/in evidence/nn ./.
A/at brown/jj hatching/nn reinforces/vbz and/cc broadens/vbz shadows/nns ,/, and/cc much/ap of/in the/at background/nn is/bez solidly/rb covered/vbn with/in a/at dark/jj coat/nn ./.
This/dt brown/nn is/bez sometimes/rb so/ql rich/jj in/in medium/nn as/cs to/to appear/vb to/to be/be oil/nn paint/nn ./.


	In/in our/pp$ own/jj practice/nn ,/, to/to have/hv the/at last/ap ``/`` intonaco/fw-nn ''/'' plaster/nn coat/nn thick/jj enough/qlp to/to match/vb ,/, and/cc at/in the/at same/ap time/nn to/to avoid/vb fine/jj cracks/nns in/in drying/vbg ,/, we/ppss found/vbd that/cs it/pps had/hvd to/to be/be put/vbn on/rp in/in two/cd layers/nns ,/, letting/vbg the/at first/od set/vb awhile/rb before/cs applying/vbg the/at second/od ./.
The/at mortar/nn was/bedz three/cd parts/nns sand/nn to/in two/cd of/in lime/nn ./.
Some/dti of/in the/at lime/nn that/wps is/bez always/rb on/in hand/nn in/in the/at Capitol/nn-tl basement/nn for/in plaster/nn repairs/nns was/bedz slaked/vbn several/ap months/nns for/in us/ppo ;/. ;/.
but/cc to/to make/vb it/ppo stiffer/jjr ,/, of/in a/at really/ql putty-like/jj consistency/nn to/to avoid/vb cracking/vbg ,/, we/ppss added/vbd a/at little/ap hydrated/vbn lime/nn --/-- hard/jj on/in the/at hands/nns ,/, but/cc we/ppss could/md see/vb no/at other/ap disadvantage/nn ./.
I/ppss am/bem told/vbn that/cs a/at mortar/nn longer/rbr slaked/vbn might/md have/hv remained/vbn longer/rbr in/in condition/nn for/in painting/vbg ./.
As/cs it/pps was/bedz ,/, it/pps took/vbd the/at pigment/nn well/rb for/in six/cd hours/nns ,/, enough/ap for/in our/pp$ purpose/nn ,/, and/cc held/vbd it/ppo firmly/rb in/in setting/vbg ./.
It/pps was/bedz obvious/jj that/cs to/to match/vb Brumidi/np ,/, white/nn must/md be/be mixed/vbn with/in all/abn but/in the/at darkest/jjt tones/nns ./.
Lime/nn white/nn ,/, hard/jj and/cc brilliant/jj ,/, has/hvz a/at tendency/nn to/to ``/`` jump/vb ''/'' away/rb from/in the/at other/ap colors/nns in/in drying/vbg ,/, and/cc also/rb by/in its/pp$ capacity/nn to/to set/vb ,/, to/to preclude/vb the/at use/nn of/in ready-made/jj gradations/nns ,/, so/ql useful/jj in/in decorative/jj work/nn ./.
In/in older/jjr Italian/jj practice/nn ,/, lime/nn ,/, dried/vbn and/cc reground/vbn ``/`` bianco/nil sangiovanni/nil ''/'' ,/, entered/vbd into/in such/jj prepared/vbn shades/nns ./.
For/in convenience/nn we/ppss chose/vbd a/at stronger/jjr pigment/nn ,/, unknown/jj to/in the/at early/jj Italians/nps or/cc to/in Brumidi/np ,/, titanium/nn oxide/nn ,/, reserving/vbg the/at active/jj lime/nn white/nn for/in highest/jjt lights/nns ,/, put/vbn on/rp at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at day's/nn$ stint/nn ./.
Other/ap pigments/nns were/bed mostly/rb raw/jj umber/nn ,/, some/dti burnt/vbn umber/nn ,/, and/cc a/at little/ap yellow/jj ochre/nn ./.
This/dt last/ap was/bedz probably/rb not/* in/in Brumidi's/np$ palette/nn ,/, but/cc was/bedz needed/vbn to/to take/vb the/at chill/nn ,/, bluish/jj look/nn off/in the/at new/jj work/nn next/rb to/in the/at old/jj ,/, where/wrb softening/vbg effects/nns of/in time/nn were/bed seen/vbn ,/, even/rb after/in thorough/jj cleaning/nn ./.
The/at use/nn of/in ``/`` secco/fw-nn ''/'' we/ppss tried/vbd to/to restrict/vb to/in covering/vbg joints/nns ./.
Experience/nn showed/vbd ,/, however/rb ,/, that/cs it/pps is/bez very/ql difficult/jj to/to paint/vb a/at dark/jj umber/nn background/nn in/in fresco/nn that/wps will/md not/* dry/vb out/rp spotty/jj and/cc uneven/jj ./.
Later/rbr Brumidi/np and/cc Costaggini/np will/md be/be seen/vbn coping/vbg with/in this/dt same/ap problem/nn ./.
We/ppss were/bed forced/vbn ,/, as/cs they/ppss were/bed ,/, to/to work/vb a/at good/jj deal/nn of/in tempera/nn into/in background/nn and/cc dark/jj areas/nns ./.
We/ppss made/vbd it/ppo by/in Doerner's/np$ recipe/nn ,/, five/cd parts/nns thoroughly/rb washed/vbn cheese/nn curd/nn to/in one/cd of/in lime/nn putty/nn ;/. ;/.
ground/vbn together/rb they/ppss made/vbd a/at strong/jj adhesive/nn ,/, which/wdt became/vbd waterproof/jj in/in drying/vbg ./.


	Figure/nn 1/cd was/bedz taken/vbn in/in 1953/cd ./.
The/at new/jj part/nn is/bez finished/vbn ./.
On/in the/at right/nr is/bez the/at Brumidi/np-tl Liberty/nn-tl group/nn ,/, as/cs it/pps looked/vbd after/in cleaning/vbg operations/nns ,/, which/wdt had/hvd not/* yet/rb come/vbn around/rb to/in the/at other/ap end/nn ;/. ;/.
where/wrb ,/, of/in Costaggini/np ,/, only/rb some/dti foliage/nn has/hvz been/ben washed/vbn ,/, at/in the/at point/nn where/wrb his/pp$ work/nn stopped/vbd ./.
One/pn is/bez led/vbn to/to speculate/vb as/in to/in why/wrb the/at empty/jj space/nn was/bedz there/rb ,/, left/vbn for/in our/pp$ century/nn to/to finish/vb ./.
Costaggini/np said/vbd it/pps was/bedz Brumidi's/np$ fault/nn in/in not/* providing/vbg enough/ap material/nn to/to fill/vb the/at circle/nn ./.
Brumidi's/np$ son/nn later/rbr maintained/vbd that/cs Costaggini/np had/hvd compressed/vbn and/cc mutilated/vbn his/pp$ father's/nn$ designs/nns ,/, ambitiously/rb coveting/vbg a/at bit/nn he/pps could/md claim/vb for/in his/pp$ very/ap own/jj ./.
This/dt question/nn might/md be/be settled/vbn by/in comparing/vbg the/at measurement/nn of/in the/at actual/jj circumference/nn with/in the/at dimensions/nns noted/vbn ,/, presumably/rb in/in Brumidi's/np$ hand/nn ,/, above/in the/at various/ap sections/nns of/in his/pp$ long/jj preparatory/jj drawing/nn ,/, which/wdt has/hvz been/ben kept/vbn ./.
Whosever/wp$ fault/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez evident/jj that/cs Brumidi/np intended/vbd to/to fill/vb out/rp the/at whole/jj frieze/nn with/in his/pp$ ``/`` histories/nns ''/'' and/cc come/vb full/jj circle/nn with/in the/at scene/nn of/in the/at discovery/nn of/in California/np gold/nn ./.
In/in painting/vbg a/at fresco/nn ,/, the/at handling/nn of/in wet/jj mortar/nn compels/vbz one/pn always/rb to/to move/vb from/in top/nn to/in bottom/nn and/cc from/in left/nr to/in right/nr ,/, not/* to/to spoil/vb yesterday's/nr$ work/nn with/in today's/nr$ plastering/nn ./.
At/in the/at very/ql first/rb ,/, then/rb ,/, Brumidi/np was/bedz required/vbn ,/, by/in the/at classically/rb pyramidal/jj shape/nn of/in his/pp$ central/jj group/nn ,/, to/to fill/vb in/rp the/at triangular/jj space/nn above/in the/at seated/vbn girl/nn on/in Liberty's/nn$-tl right/nr ,/, before/cs starting/vbg on/in the/at allegorical/jj figures/nns themselves/ppls ./.
Here/rb he/pps put/vbd a/at small/jj man/nn ,/, whose/wp$ missing/vbg hands/nns might/md have/hv left/vbn his/pp$ function/nn doubtful/jj ,/, until/cs comparison/nn with/in the/at first/od sketches/nns showed/vbd that/cs when/wrb the/at artist/nn came/vbd back/rb to/in the/at beginning/nn ,/, this/dt was/bedz to/to be/be the/at closing/vbg figure/nn of/in the/at party/nn of/in ``/`` forty-niners/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc was/bedz to/to hold/vb a/at basket/nn ./.
One/pn sees/vbz Costaggini's/np$ rendering/nn of/in the/at same/ap figure/nn more/ap than/in thirty/cd feet/nns away/rb ./.
The/at photograph/nn ,/, Figure/nn-tl 1/cd-tl of/in the/at completed/vbn frieze/nn ,/, shows/vbz how/wrb ,/, having/hvg been/ben separated/vbn from/in his/pp$ fellows/nns in/in useless/jj isolation/nn for/in eighty/cd years/nns ,/, he/pps has/hvz now/rb been/ben given/vbn a/at hand/nn ,/, and/cc by/in juxtaposition/nn (/( and/cc the/at permission/nn of/in the/at Committee/nn-tl )/) ,/, given/vbn a/at new/jj job/nn ,/, to/to represent/vb the/at witnesses/nns of/in the/at first/od flight/nn at/in Kitty/np Hawk/np in/in 1903/cd ./.


	The/at startlingly/rb bright/jj effect/nn of/in the/at first/od washings/nns led/vbd the/at Committee/nn-tl to/to order/vb the/at rest/nn of/in the/at Brumidi-Costaggini/np cycle/nn cleaned/vbn and/cc restored/vbn to/to go/vb with/in them/ppo ./.
The/at fixed/vbn wooden/jj scaffold/nn was/bedz removed/vbn ,/, and/cc ,/, so/cs as/cs to/to reach/vb all/abn the/at frieze/nn ,/, one/cd of/in pipe/nn ,/, on/in wheels/nns ,/, built/vbn up/rp from/in the/at floor/nn ./.
Every/at few/ap days/nns ,/, in/in the/at early/jj morning/nn ,/, as/cs the/at work/nn progressed/vbd ,/, twenty/cd men/nns would/md appear/vb to/to push/vb it/ppo ahead/rb and/cc to/to shift/vb the/at plank/nn foundation/nn that/wps distributed/vbd its/pp$ weight/nn widely/rb on/in the/at Rotunda/nn-tl pavement/nn ,/, supported/vbn as/cs it/pps is/bez by/in ancient/jj brick/nn vaulting/nn ./.


	On/in this/dt giddy/jj and/cc oscillating/vbg platform/nn over/rp fifty/cd feet/nns from/in the/at floor/nn ,/, after/in a/at first/od dusting/nn ,/, we/ppss began/vbd to/to wash/vb ./.
A/at most/ql useful/jj tool/nn for/in wetting/vbg the/at surface/nn without/in running/vbg down/rp was/bedz made/vbn from/in a/at greenhouse/nn ``/`` mist/nn spray/nn ''/'' nozzle/nn welded/vbn to/in a/at hose/nn connection/nn ,/, to/to be/be used/vbn at/in low/jj water/nn pressure/nn ./.
A/at valve/nn in/in the/at handle/nn let/vbd us/ppo cut/vb the/at pressure/nn still/rb lower/jjr ./.
One/cd man/nn sprayed/vbd ,/, with/in a/at sponge/nn in/in hand/nn to/to check/vb excess/jj wetting/nn ./.
A/at second/od assistant/nn mopped/vbd with/in two/cd sponges/nns ./.
In/in parts/nns a/at repeated/vbn sponging/nn was/bedz needed/vbn ,/, but/cc everywhere/rb we/ppss found/vbd that/cs water/nn alone/rb was/bedz enough/ap to/to restore/vb the/at original/jj brightness/nn ./.
No/at soap/nn or/cc other/ap cleaning/vbg agent/nn was/bedz used/vbn that/wps might/md bring/vb in/rp unwanted/jj chemical/nn reactions/nns ./.
The/at painting/nn ``/`` a/nil fresco/nil ''/'' stood/vbd up/rp superbly/rb ;/. ;/.
a/at little/jj of/in the/at ``/`` secco/fw-nn ''/'' came/vbd off/rp ./.
Necessary/jj retouching/nn was/bedz put/vbn on/rp at/in once/rb ./.
Altogether/rb we/ppss found/vbd the/at craftsmanship/nn first/od rate/nn ,/, especially/rb Brumidi's/np$ ./.
We/ppss were/bed greatly/rb helped/vbn by/in there/ex being/beg no/at traces/nns of/in former/ap restoring/nn ./.
Apparently/rb not/* more/ap than/cs dusting/nn had/hvd ever/rb been/ben done/vbn ,/, and/cc not/* much/ap of/in that/dt ./.
The/at plaster/nn was/bedz sound/jj ,/, the/at intonaco/fw-nn firmly/rb attached/vbn all/ql over/rp ,/, and/cc the/at pigment/nn solidly/rb incorporated/vbn with/in it/ppo in/in all/abn but/in a/at few/ap unimportant/jj places/nns ./.


	The/at greatest/jjt source/nn of/in trouble/nn was/bedz rain/nn which/wdt had/hvd repeatedly/rb flowed/vbn from/in openings/nns above/rb ,/, soaking/vbg the/at surface/nn and/cc leaving/vbg streaks/nns of/in dissolved/vbn lime/nn ,/, very/ql conspicuous/jj even/rb after/in cleaning/vbg ,/, particularly/rb in/in the/at ``/`` Landing/nn-tl of/in-tl Columbus/np-tl ''/'' ,/, ``/`` Oglethorpe/np-tl and/cc-tl the/at-tl Indians/nps-tl ''/'' ,/, and/cc ``/`` Yorktown/np-tl ''/'' ./.
Here/rb the/at Architect/nn-tl ,/, referring/vbg to/in the/at use/nn of/in the/at Capitol/nn-tl as/cs a/at public/jj building/nn ,/, not/* a/at museum/nn ,/, requested/vbd some/dti repainting/nn to/to maintain/vb decorative/jj effect/nn ,/, rather/rb than/cs leaving/vbg blank/jj ,/, unsightly/jj patches/nns ./.


	These/dts frescos/nns have/hv had/hvn no/at care/nn for/in eighty/cd years/nns ./.
With/in naked/jj gas/nn jets/nns below/rb and/cc leaky/jj windows/nns above/rb ,/, enough/ap to/to ruin/vb wall/nn paintings/nns in/in any/dti medium/nn ,/, they/ppss have/hv survived/vbn ,/, in/in a/at building/nn long/rb unheated/jj in/in winter/nn ,/, hot/jj and/cc damp/jj under/in the/at iron/nn dome/nn in/in summer/nn ./.



	Those/dts whom/wpo I/ppss wish/vb to/to address/vb with/in this/dt letter/nn are/ber for/in the/at most/ap part/nn unknown/jj to/in me/ppo ./.
It/pps may/md well/rb be/be that/cs ,/, when/wrb Rudy/np Pozzatti/np and/cc I/ppss visited/vbd your/pp$ country/nn last/ap spring/nn ,/, you/ppss were/bed living/vbg and/cc working/vbg close/rb to/in the/at places/nns we/ppss saw/vbd and/cc the/at streets/nns we/ppss walked/vbd ./.
As/cs American/jj artists/nns ,/, it/pps was/bedz natural/jj that/cs we/ppss would/md want/vb to/to meet/vb as/ql many/ap Soviet/np artists/nns as/cs possible/jj ./.
This/dt letter/nn might/md not/* have/hv been/ben necessary/jj had/hvd our/pp$ efforts/nns to/to meet/vb and/cc talk/vb with/in you/ppo been/ben more/ql successful/jj ./.
Even/rb though/cs we/ppss did/dod not/* see/vb many/ap of/in your/pp$ faces/nns ,/, it/pps appears/vbz now/rb quite/ql evident/jj that/cs a/at considerable/jj number/nn of/in your/pp$ profession/nn heard/vbd ,/, from/in those/dts whom/wpo we/ppss had/hvd the/at fortune/nn to/to encounter/vb ,/, that/cs we/ppss had/hvd been/ben in/in your/pp$ midst/nn ./.
I/ppss am/bem very/ql pleased/vbn that/cs quite/abl a/at number/nn of/in you/ppo found/vbd ways/nns to/to communicate/vb to/in me/ppo your/pp$ desire/nn to/to hear/vb of/in our/pp$ reactions/nns and/cc experiences/nns in/in the/at U.S.S.R./np ./.
I/ppss can/md well/rb understand/vb your/pp$ curiosity/nn ./.
We/ppss ,/, ourselves/ppls ,/, are/ber always/rb eager/jj to/to know/vb how/wrb others/nns feel/vb about/in us/ppo and/cc the/at way/nn in/in which/wdt we/ppss live/vb ./.
It/pps is/bez my/pp$ hope/nn that/cs this/dt written/vbn message/nn and/cc report/nn will/md reach/vb you/ppo through/in the/at good/jj offices/nns of/in the/at Union/nn-tl of/in-tl Soviet/np-tl Artists/nns-tl ./.


	There/ex should/md be/be no/at reason/nn to/to misinterpret/vb or/cc ignore/vb the/at intent/nn of/in this/dt letter/nn ./.
Pozzatti/np and/cc I/ppss endeavored/vbd earnestly/rb to/to record/vb our/pp$ impressions/nns without/in the/at prejudice/nn that/wpo the/at anxiety/nn of/in our/pp$ time/nn so/ql easily/rb provokes/vbz ./.
The/at time-span/nn of/in little/ql more/ap than/cs a/at month/nn cannot/md* entitle/vb me/ppo to/to pose/vb as/cs an/at expert/nn on/in anything/pn I/ppss saw/vbd ./.
Too/ql much/ap damage/nn is/bez done/vbn by/in ``/`` experts/nns ''/'' who/wps have/hv spent/vbn even/rb less/ap time/nn ,/, if/cs any/dti at/in all/abn ,/, in/in the/at U.S.S.R./np ./.


	Nevertheless/rb I/ppss consider/vb it/ppo reasonable/jj ,/, because/rb of/in my/pp$ commitment/nn as/cs an/at artist/nn ,/, to/to assume/vb that/cs the/at rights/nns and/cc responsibilities/nns of/in creative/jj individuals/nns are/ber related/vbn to/in humanity/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn rather/rb than/cs to/in specific/jj geo-political/jj interests/nns ./.
If/cs this/dt attitude/nn is/bez seriously/rb questioned/vbn in/in the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl ,/, it/pps does/doz not/* necessarily/rb follow/vb that/cs the/at majority/nn of/in the/at society/nn in/in which/wdt I/ppss live/vb is/bez too/ql aware/jj of/in the/at necessity/nn for/in clarity/nn on/in this/dt ethical/jj as/ql well/rb as/cs aesthetic/jj point/nn of/in view/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at matter/nn of/in some/dti disappointment/nn to/in me/ppo that/cs still/rb many/ap of/in my/pp$ own/jj countrymen/nns are/ber too/ql shortsighted/jj to/to ascribe/vb any/dti symbolic/jj significance/nn to/in the/at plight/nn of/in a/at minority/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs artists/nns ,/, in/in any/dti social/jj order/nn ./.
I/ppss encountered/vbd many/ap questions/nns and/cc great/jj interest/nn upon/in my/pp$ return/nn from/in the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl about/in my/pp$ reactions/nns to/in that/dt experience/nn ./.
That/dt which/wdt I/ppss found/vbd most/ql profound/jj and/cc most/ql disturbing/jj appeared/vbd to/to evoke/vb a/at curiously/rb muted/vbn reaction/nn ./.
Almost/rb as/cs if/cs I/ppss were/bed talking/vbg about/in something/pn quite/ql unreal/jj ./.
Apparently/rb this/dt is/bez not/* the/at time/nn and/cc the/at climate/nn in/in which/wdt people/nns will/md listen/vb objectively/rb ,/, or/cc at/in least/ap dispassionately/rb ,/, to/in individual/jj impressions/nns of/in a/at subject/nn which/wdt preoccupies/vbz a/at good/jj deal/nn of/in their/pp$ waking/vbg moments/nns ./.
Personal/jj predispositions/nns tend/vb to/to blunt/vb the/at ear/nn and/cc ,/, in/in turn/nn ,/, the/at voice/nn as/ql well/rb ./.
I/ppss cannot/md* be/be content/jj with/in the/at anecdotal/jj small/jj talk/nn of/in a/at somewhat/ql unusual/jj travelogue/nn ./.
I/ppss am/bem equally/rb impatient/jj with/in the/at shrug/nn of/in the/at shoulder/nn ,/, shake/nn of/in the/at head/nn of/in those/dts who/wps no/ql longer/rbr care/vb because/cs they/ppss have/hv known/vbn it/ppo for/in so/ql long/rb ;/. ;/.
the/at aggressive/jj disbelief/nn of/in those/dts who/wps are/ber romantically/rb lost/vbn in/in a/at semantic/jj jungle/nn of/in the/at word/nn ``/`` Revolution/nn-tl ''/'' ;/. ;/.
the/at belligerent/jj denunciations/nns by/in the/at sick/jj fanatics/nns of/in ignorance/nn who/wps try/vb to/to build/vb a/at papier-mache/nn wall/nn of/in pseudo-patriotism/nn on/in our/pp$ physical/jj horizons/nns ./.
Difficult/jj as/cs it/pps may/md have/hv been/ben at/in times/nns ,/, Pozzatti/np and/cc I/ppss saw/vbd enough/ap ,/, talked/vbd to/in enough/ap artists/nns ,/, historians/nns and/cc others/nns to/to realize/vb that/cs the/at issue/nn is/bez quite/ql clear/jj ./.
Artists/nns and/cc poets/nns are/ber the/at raw/jj nerve-ends/nns of/in humanity/nn ;/. ;/.
they/ppss are/ber small/jj in/in number/nn and/cc their/pp$ contribution/nn is/bez not/* immediately/rb decisive/jj in/in everyday/jj life/nn ./.
By/in themselves/ppls they/ppss may/md not/* be/be able/jj to/to save/vb the/at life/nn on/in this/dt planet/nn ,/, but/cc without/in them/ppo there/ex would/md be/be very/ql little/ap left/vbn worth/jj saving/vbg ./.


	It/pps cannot/md* be/be said/vbn that/cs our/pp$ very/ql first/od day/nn in/in the/at Soviet/np-tl Union/nn-tl turned/vbd out/rp to/to be/be an/at ordinary/jj one/cd ./.
On/in that/dt cold/jj ,/, but/cc bright/jj ,/, April/np day/nn we/ppss were/bed guests/nns of/in your/pp$ government/nn in/in the/at reviewing/vbg stand/nn of/in Red/jj-tl Square/nn-tl to/to witness/vb the/at poeple's/nns$ celebration/nn for/in Yuri/np Gagarin/np and/cc later/rbr on/rp that/dt day/nn we/ppss attended/vbd the/at somewhat/ql more/ql exclusive/jj reception/nn for/in him/ppo in/in one/cd of/in the/at impressive/jj palaces/nns of/in the/at Kremlin/np ./.
If/cs we/ppss thus/rb spent/vbd our/pp$ very/ql first/od day/nn in/in the/at midst/nn of/in a/at large/jj number/nn of/in your/pp$ people/nns honoring/vbg a/at new/jj hero/nn and/cc a/at great/jj national/jj achievement/nn ,/, our/pp$ last/ap day/nn ,/, to/in us/ppo at/in least/ap ,/, was/bedz equally/ql impressive/jj and/cc very/ql moving/jj ,/, even/rb though/cs the/at crowds/nns were/bed absent/jj and/cc there/ex was/bedz almost/ql complete/jj silence/nn ./.
We/ppss stood/vbd under/in a/at gigantic/jj tree/nn in/in the/at rolling/vbg country/nn just/ql outside/rb of/in Moscow/np looking/vbg at/in silent/jj flowers/nns on/in the/at grave/nn of/in a/at Russian/jj poet/nn and/cc writer/nn who/wps cherished/vbd the/at love/nn for/in his/pp$ country/nn to/in the/at point/nn of/in foregoing/vbg the/at highest/jjt international/jj honor/nn ./.
The/at grave/nn ,/, about/rb half-way/rb between/in his/pp$ home/nn and/cc the/at blue/jj turrets/nns of/in a/at small/jj church/nn ,/, rose/vbd above/in the/at forms/nns and/cc spaces/nns of/in gently/rb undisciplined/jj pastures/nns of/in green/nn ,/, the/at sounds/nns of/in birds/nns ,/, the/at silence/nn of/in other/ap graves/nns and/cc the/at casual/jj paths/nns through/in small/jj forests/nns ./.
Just/rb yesterday/nr we/ppss had/hvd met/vbn and/cc talked/vbn with/in a/at living/vbg writer/nn ,/, a/at contemporary/nn of/in the/at dead/jj poet/nn ,/, who/wps is/bez known/vbn for/in his/pp$ ability/nn of/in manipulating/vbg his/pp$ ideas/nns and/cc his/pp$ craft/nn more/ql advantageously/rb ./.
But/cc today/nr we/ppss were/bed aware/jj of/in only/ap two/cd men/nns ./.
One/cd had/hvd taken/vbn a/at flight/nn into/in uncharted/jj space/nn ,/, in/in the/at service/nn of/in science/nn ,/, to/to return/vb as/cs a/at living/vbg hero/nn ./.
The/at other/ap had/hvd assumed/vbn the/at right/nn to/to explore/vb the/at equally/rb uncharted/jj space/nn of/in the/at human/jj spirit/nn ./.
The/at flowers/nns on/in his/pp$ grave/nn attested/vbd to/in the/at fact/nn that/cs he/pps as/ql well/rb was/bedz somebody's/pn$ hero/nn ./.


	These/dts two/cd recollections/nns form/vb the/at frame/nn around/in a/at series/nn of/in experiences/nns and/cc sights/nns which/wdt ,/, to/in me/ppo at/in least/ap ,/, symbolize/vb the/at extremes/nns in/in the/at aesthetic/jj as/ql well/rb as/cs ethical/jj conflict/nn between/in materialism/nn and/cc humanism/nn ./.
A/at struggle/nn that/wps is/bez being/beg waged/vbn all/ql over/in the/at world/nn in/in the/at half-light/nn of/in disinterest/nn ./.
The/at prevalent/jj opinion/nn which/wdt we/ppss encountered/vbd in/in a/at variety/nn of/in expressions/nns in/in your/pp$ country/nn denied/vbd not/* only/rb the/at existence/nn of/in this/dt conflict/nn but/cc it/pps was/bedz elaborated/vbn even/rb further/rbr with/in an/at incredible/jj semantic/jj dexterity/nn ./.
The/at socialist/nn environment/nn ,/, it/pps was/bedz stated/vbn ,/, had/hvd cross-fertilized/vbn these/dts two/cd extreme/jj seeds/nns and/cc was/bedz about/rb to/to produce/vb a/at new/jj plant/nn and/cc fruit/nn ./.
When/wrb I/ppss speculated/vbd on/in one/cd such/jj occasion/nn that/cs the/at new/jj growth/nn ,/, like/cs other/ap mutations/nns ,/, might/md be/be unable/jj to/to propagate/vb ,/, I/ppss was/bedz immediately/rb accused/vbn of/in preaching/vbg racial/jj prejudice/nn ./.
I/ppss could/md not/* bring/vb myself/ppl to/to answer/vb that/cs ``/`` some/dti of/in my/pp$ best/jjt friends/nns are/ber non-propagating/jj mules/nns ''/'' ./.


	This/dt kind/nn of/in reasoning/vbg and/cc logic/nn takes/vbz a/at little/ap time/nn to/to get/vb used/vbn to/in ./.
After/in a/at while/nn we/ppss were/bed perhaps/rb less/ql surprised/vbn ,/, but/cc still/rb puzzled/vbn ,/, when/wrb a/at friendly/jj discussion/nn would/md suddenly/rb jump/vb the/at track/nn into/in the/at most/ql irrelevant/jj and/cc illogical/jj comparisons/nns ./.
A/at chance/jj remark/nn about/in Lenin's/np$ sealed/vbn train/nn brought/vbd the/at rejoinder/nn that/cs this/dt was/bedz a/at myth/nn akin/jj to/in George/np Washington's/np$ cherry/nn tree/nn ./.
Theories/nns of/in the/at behavior/nn pattern/nn of/in population/nn masses/nns were/bed compared/vbn to/in scientific/jj discoveries/nns concerning/in the/at motion-pattern/nn of/in gaseous/jj masses/nns ./.
No/at wonder/nn that/cs Pozzatti/np and/cc I/ppss had/hvd at/in times/nns difficulty/nn in/in remembering/vbg the/at real/jj purpose/nn of/in our/pp$ presence/nn ,/, namely/rb ,/, Cultural/jj-tl Exchange/nn-tl ./.


	Typical/jj of/in such/abl an/at experience/nn was/bedz the/at occasion/nn of/in a/at somewhat/ql formal/jj official/jj welcome/nn in/in the/at offices/nns of/in the/at Union/nn-tl of/in-tl Soviet/np-tl Artists/nns-tl ./.
We/ppss had/hvd looked/vbn forward/rb to/in what/wdt we/ppss hoped/vbd to/to be/be our/pp$ first/od informal/jj meeting/nn with/in a/at number/nn of/in Moscow's/np$ artists/nns ./.
Instead/rb ,/, we/ppss became/vbd involved/vbn in/in a/at series/nn of/in friendly/jj ,/, but/cc overly/ql formal/jj ,/, welcoming/vbg addresses/nns to/in which/wdt we/ppss had/hvd no/at choice/nn but/in to/to reply/vb in/in kind/nn ./.
The/at terms/nns of/in friendship/nn ,/, understanding/vbg ,/, cooperation/nn ,/, etc./rb ,/, tend/vb to/to become/vb somewhat/ql shopworn/jj because/rb of/in constant/jj and/cc indiscriminate/jj use/nn ./.
I/ppss can/md only/rb hope/vb that/cs the/at continuing/vbg exchange/nn of/in groups/nns and/cc individuals/nns between/in our/pp$ countries/nns will/md not/* wear/vb out/rp all/abn language/nn pertinent/jj to/in the/at occasion/nn ./.
The/at presiding/vbg female/jj functionary/nn ,/, of/in massive/jj proportions/nns and/cc forbidding/vbg appearance/nn ,/, initially/rb did/dod not/* contribute/vb to/in the/at expressions/nns of/in friendship/nn and/cc welcome/nn by/in a/at number/nn of/in dignified/vbn gentlemen/nns representing/vbg the/at arts/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz only/rb after/cs we/ppss had/hvd responded/vbn ,/, with/in what/wdt I/ppss fear/vb were/bed similar/jj cliches/nns ,/, that/cs she/pps went/vbd into/in action/nn by/in questioning/vbg our/pp$ desire/nn for/in friendship/nn and/cc understanding/vbg with/in a/at challenge/nn about/in aggressive/jj and/cc warlike/jj actions/nns by/in the/at U.S./np-tl Government/nn-tl in/in Cuba/np and/cc Laos/np ./.
She/pps retreated/vbd by/in leaving/vbg the/at room/nn when/wrb we/ppss suggested/vbd that/cs our/pp$ meeting/nn might/md well/rb terminate/vb right/ql then/rb and/cc there/rb ./.
Unfortunately/rb she/pps returned/vbd later/rbr ,/, just/rb as/cs I/ppss had/hvd taken/vbn advantage/nn of/in the/at friendlier/jjr atmosphere/nn in/in the/at room/nn by/in stating/vbg that/cs perhaps/rb an/at unexpected/jj result/nn of/in the/at Cultural/jj-tl Exchange/nn-tl Program/nn-tl would/md be/be the/at re-emergence/nn of/in Abstract/jj-tl Art/nn-tl in/in Russia/np ,/, with/in Social/jj-tl Realism/nn-tl regaining/vbg dominance/nn in/in the/at U.S./np ./.
This/dt gave/vbd her/ppo an/at opportunity/nn to/to ring/vb down/rp the/at curtain/nn with/in the/at petulant/jj admonition/nn that/cs we/ppss should/md not/* presume/vb to/to lecture/vb her/ppo on/in Abstraction/nn-tl ./.
She/pps did/dod not/* go/vb so/ql far/rb as/cs to/to say/vb ,/, as/cs was/bedz done/vbn on/in other/ap occasions/nns ,/, that/cs Abstraction/nn-tl as/ql well/rb as/cs Impressionism/np were/bed a/at Russian/jj invention/nn that/wps had/hvd been/ben discarded/vbn as/cs unwanted/jj by/in the/at people/nns of/in the/at U.S.S.R./np 

	./.
Pozzatti/np and/cc I/ppss could/md not/* know/vb then/rb that/cs we/ppss would/md experience/vb this/dt sort/nn of/in treatment/nn more/ql often/rb in/in Moscow/np than/cs elsewhere/rb ./.
We/ppss were/bed to/to discover/vb ,/, in/in fact/nn ,/, that/cs quite/abl a/at number/nn of/in people/nns share/vb with/in us/ppo the/at impression/nn that/cs ,/, in/in contrast/nn to/in other/ap Soviet/np regions/nns ,/, Moscow's/np$ atmosphere/nn is/bez depressingly/rb subdued/vbn and/cc official/jj ./.
To/to have/hv one's/pn$ intentions/nns deliberately/rb or/cc unintentionally/rb misunderstood/vbn is/bez always/rb a/at waste/nn of/in time/nn ./.
Until/in our/pp$ Moscow/np experience/nn ,/, I/ppss had/hvd not/* considered/vbn it/ppo necessary/jj to/to prepare/vb any/dti argument/nn formally/rb or/cc informally/rb ./.
Artists/nns simply/rb do/do not/* talk/vb to/in each/dt other/ap in/in that/dt fashion/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc ,/, furthermore/rb ,/, I/ppss could/md not/* presume/vb the/at implication/nn that/cs I/ppss spoke/vbd for/in American/jj artists/nns as/cs a/at group/nn ./.
To/to save/vb time/nn ,/, some/dti clarification/nn seemed/vbd necessary/jj ./.
The/at following/vbg is/bez a/at statement/nn read/vbn to/in a/at large/jj and/cc friendly/jj group/nn of/in your/pp$ fellow/nn artists/nns in/in Leningrad/np :/: 

	``/`` We/ppss have/hv come/vbn to/in your/pp$ land/nn with/in the/at express/jj intention/nn of/in understanding/vbg and/cc respecting/vbg your/pp$ ideas/nns and/cc your/pp$ ways/nns ./.
Our/pp$ presence/nn here/rb should/md also/rb be/be considered/vbn further/ap ,/, sincere/jj evidence/nn of/in the/at attempts/nns by/in our/pp$ people/nns and/cc their/pp$ chosen/vbn government/nn to/to seek/vb any/dti and/cc all/abn possible/jj ways/nns to/to effect/vb closer/jjr ,/, peaceful/jj ties/nns among/in all/abn people/nns ./.
We/ppss are/ber quite/ql convinced/vbn that/cs one/cd of/in the/at main/jjs hopes/nns for/in the/at future/nn depends/vbz upon/in the/at informal/jj contacts/nns and/cc exchanges/nns of/in ideas/nns between/in individuals/nns ./.


	In/in spite/nn of/in the/at relatively/ql short/jj period/nn of/in time/nn that/cs we/ppss have/hv experienced/vbn among/in you/ppo ,/, we/ppss have/hv already/rb seen/vbn many/ap indications/nns of/in your/pp$ character/nn and/cc spirit/nn ./.
We/ppss are/ber acutely/rb aware/jj that/cs yours/pp$$ is/bez a/at society/nn which/wdt ,/, in/in spite/nn of/in several/ap wars/nns and/cc many/ap privations/nns ,/, has/hvz developed/vbn itself/ppl into/in one/cd of/in the/at foremost/jjs nations/nns of/in the/at world/nn ./.
Your/pp$ past/ap history/nn is/bez resplendent/jj with/in the/at fruits/nns of/in the/at intellect/nn ./.
Your/pp$ present/jj history/nn is/bez equally/rb admirable/jj for/in its/pp$ industrial/jj and/cc scientific/jj achievements/nns ./.


	We/ppss have/hv come/vbn to/in you/ppo to/to experience/vb something/pn of/in your/pp$ way/nn of/in life/nn while/cs also/rb attempting/vbg to/to acquaint/vb you/ppo with/in that/dt of/in ours/pp$$ ./.
While/cs we/ppss ,/, as/cs American/jj artists/nns ,/, believe/vb deeply/rb in/in the/at universal/jj character/nn of/in all/abn intellectual/jj activity/nn ,/, we/ppss would/md be/be less/ap than/cs honest/jj with/in you/ppo ,/, or/cc ourselves/ppls ,/, if/cs we/ppss failed/vbd to/to state/vb a/at specific/jj attitude/nn toward/in our/pp$ own/jj society/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at international/jj community/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn ./.
In/in stating/vbg this/dt position/nn ,/, we/ppss should/md like/vb to/to make/vb it/ppo clear/jj to/in you/ppo that/cs we/ppss cannot/md* expect/vb artists/nns and/cc intellectuals/nns in/in other/ap lands/nns to/to share/vb our/pp$ opinion/nn in/in every/at respect/nn ./.
As/cs a/at matter/nn of/in fact/nn ,/, we/ppss prize/vb the/at diversity/nn among/in our/pp$ own/jj people/nns so/ql much/rb that/cs we/ppss will/md not/* presume/vb to/to speak/vb for/in all/abn other/ap American/jj artists/nns ./.
But/cc certainly/rb ,/, all/abn will/md agree/vb that/cs it/pps is/bez not/* so/ql much/rb the/at knowledge/nn and/cc search/nn for/in similarities/nns between/in you/ppo and/cc us/ppo ,/, but/cc rather/rb the/at thoughtful/jj exploration/nn and/cc acceptance/nn of/in our/pp$ differences/nns which/wdt may/md lead/vb us/ppo to/in our/pp$ respective/jj and/cc desired/vbn goals/nns with/in a/at minimum/nn of/in misunderstanding/vbg ./.


	Like/cs yourselves/ppls ,/, we/ppss have/hv pride/nn and/cc love/nn for/in our/pp$ country/nn ./.
To/in many/ap of/in us/ppo ,/, this/dt is/bez a/at land/nn to/in which/wdt we/ppss or/cc our/pp$ parents/nns fled/vbd from/in totalitarian/jj terror/nn in/in order/nn to/to live/vb in/in dignified/vbn freedom/nn ./.
As/cs artists/nns we/ppss feel/vb the/at same/ap obligation/nn ,/, as/cs do/do other/ap individuals/nns ,/, in/in considering/vbg ourselves/ppls responsible/jj citizens/nns of/in a/at great/jj nation/nn ./.





The/at-tl Sane/jj-tl Society/nn-tl is/bez an/at ambitious/jj work/nn ./.
Its/pp$ scope/nn is/bez as/ql broad/jj as/cs the/at question/nn :/: What/wdt does/doz it/pps mean/vb to/to live/vb in/in modern/jj society/nn ?/. ?/.
A/at work/nn so/ql broad/jj ,/, even/rb when/wrb it/pps is/bez directed/vbn by/in a/at leading/vbg idea/nn and/cc informed/vbn by/in a/at moral/jj vision/nn ,/, must/md necessarily/rb ``/`` fail/vb ''/'' ./.
Even/rb a/at hasty/jj reader/nn will/md easily/rb find/vb in/in it/ppo numerous/jj blind/jj spots/nns ,/, errors/nns of/in fact/nn and/cc argument/nn ,/, important/jj exclusions/nns ,/, areas/nns of/in ignorance/nn and/cc prejudice/nn ,/, undue/jj emphases/nns on/in trivia/nns ,/, examples/nns of/in broad/jj positions/nns supported/vbn by/in flimsy/jj evidence/nn ,/, and/cc the/at like/jj ./.
Such/jj books/nns are/ber easy/jj prey/nn for/in critics/nns ./.
Nor/cc need/vb the/at critic/nn be/be captious/jj ./.
A/at careful/jj and/cc orderly/jj man/nn ,/, who/wps values/vbz precision/nn and/cc a/at kind/nn of/in tough/jj intellectual/jj responsibility/nn ,/, might/md easily/rb be/be put/vbn off/rp by/in such/abl a/at book/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at simple/jj matter/nn ,/, for/in one/pn so/rb disposed/vbn ,/, to/to take/vb a/at work/nn like/cs The/at-tl Sane/jj-tl Society/nn-tl and/cc shred/vb it/ppo into/in odds/nns and/cc ends/nns ./.
The/at thing/nn can/md be/be made/vbn to/to look/vb like/cs the/at cluttered/vbn attic/nn of/in a/at large/jj and/cc vigorous/jj family/nn --/-- a/at motley/jj jumble/nn of/in discarded/vbn objects/nns ,/, some/dti outworn/jj and/cc some/dti that/wps were/bed never/rb useful/jj ,/, some/dti once/rb whole/jj and/cc bright/jj but/cc now/rb chipped/vbn and/cc tarnished/vbn ,/, some/dti odd/jj pieces/nns whose/wp$ history/nn no/at one/pn remembers/vbz ,/, here/rb and/cc there/rb a/at gem/nn ,/, everything/pn fascinating/jj because/cs it/pps suggests/vbz some/dti part/nn of/in the/at human/jj condition/nn --/-- the/at whole/nn adding/vbg up/rp to/in nothing/pn more/ap than/cs a/at glimpse/nn into/in the/at disorderly/jj history/nn of/in the/at makers/nns and/cc users/nns ./.


	That/dt could/md be/be easily/rb done/vbn ,/, but/cc there/ex is/bez little/ap reason/nn in/in it/ppo ./.
It/pps would/md come/vb down/rp to/in saying/vbg that/cs Fromm/np paints/vbz with/in a/at broad/jj brush/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs ,/, after/in all/abn ,/, is/bez not/* a/at conclusion/nn one/pn must/md work/vb toward/in but/cc an/at impression/nn he/pps has/hvz from/in the/at outset/nn ./.
I/ppss mention/vb these/dts features/nns of/in the/at book/nn because/cs they/ppss are/ber inherent/jj in/in the/at book's/nn$ character/nn and/cc therefore/rb must/md be/be mentioned/vbn ./.
It/pps would/md be/be superfluous/jj to/to build/vb a/at critique/nn around/in them/ppo ./.
There/ex are/ber more/ql substantial/jj criticisms/nns to/to be/be made/vbn of/in Fromm's/np$ account/nn of/in capitalist/nn civilization/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez worthwhile/jj to/to recall/vb that/cs Fromm's/np$ treatment/nn has/hvz both/abx descriptive/jj and/cc normative/jj aspects/nns ./.
Since/cs I/ppss have/hv already/rb discussed/vbn his/pp$ moral/jj position/nn ,/, that/dt discussion/nn is/bez incorporated/vbn by/in reference/nn into/in the/at following/vbg pages/nns ,/, which/wdt will/md focus/vb on/in the/at empirical/jj and/cc analytic/jj side/nn of/in Fromm's/np$ treatment/nn ./.
I/ppss shall/md first/rb indicate/vb a/at couple/nn of/in weaknesses/nns in/in Fromm's/np$ analysis/nn ,/, then/rb argue/vb that/cs ,/, granted/vbn these/dts weaknesses/nns ,/, he/pps still/rb has/hvz much/ap left/vbn that/wps is/bez valuable/jj ,/, and/cc ,/, finally/rb ,/, raise/vb the/at general/jj question/nn of/in a/at philosophical/jj versus/in a/at sociological/jj approach/nn to/in the/at question/nn of/in alienation/nn ./.


	Almost/rb no/at empirical/jj work/nn has/hvz been/ben done/vbn on/in the/at problem/nn of/in alienation/nn ./.
Despite/in its/pp$ rather/ql long/jj intellectual/jj history/nn ,/, alienation/nn is/bez still/rb a/at promising/jj hypothesis/nn and/cc not/* a/at verified/vbn theory/nn ./.
The/at idea/nn has/hvz received/vbn much/ap attention/nn in/in philosophy/nn ,/, in/in literature/nn ,/, and/cc in/in a/at few/ap works/nns of/in general/jj social/jj criticism/nn ,/, such/jj as/cs The/at-tl Sane/jj-tl Society/nn-tl ./.
What/wdt is/bez missing/vbg is/bez work/nn that/wps would/md answer/vb ,/, presumably/rb by/in the/at use/nn of/in survey/nn methods/nns and/cc Guttman-type/jj attitude/nn scales/nns ,/, such/jj questions/nns as/cs these/dts :/: What/wdt are/ber the/at components/nns of/in the/at feeling-state/nn described/vbn as/cs alienation/nn ?/. ?/.
How/wql widespread/jj is/bez alienation/nn ?/. ?/.
What/wdt is/bez its/pp$ incidence/nn among/in the/at various/ap classes/nns and/cc subgroups/nns of/in the/at population/nn ?/. ?/.
Taking/vbg alienation/nn as/cs a/at dependent/jj variable/nn ,/, with/in what/wdt socio-structural/jj factors/nns is/bez it/pps most/ql highly/rb associated/vbn ?/. ?/.
Considered/vbn as/cs an/at independent/jj variable/nn ,/, how/wrb does/doz it/pps affect/vb behavior/nn in/in various/ap sectors/nns of/in life/nn ?/. ?/.
Until/cs such/jj work/nn is/bez done/vbn ,/, there/ex must/md remain/vb the/at nagging/vbg suspicion/nn that/cs alienation/nn may/md be/be little/ap more/ap than/cs an/at expression/nn of/in the/at malaise/nn of/in the/at intellectual/nn ,/, who/wps ,/, rejected/vbn by/in and/cc in/in turn/nn rejecting/vbg the/at larger/jjr society/nn ,/, projects/vbz his/pp$ own/jj fear/nn and/cc despair/nn onto/in the/at broader/jjr social/jj screen/nn ./.


	I/ppss am/bem not/* suggesting/vbg that/cs Fromm/np ought/md to/to do/do this/dt kind/nn of/in work/nn ./.
Nor/cc do/do I/ppss think/vb that/cs alienation/nn is/bez nothing/pn more/ap than/cs a/at projection/nn of/in the/at malaise/nn of/in the/at intellectual/nn ./.
I/ppss am/bem saying/vbg only/rb that/cs until/cs a/at fuller/jjr and/cc different/jj kind/nn of/in evidence/nn comes/vbz in/rp ,/, any/dti discussion/nn of/in alienation/nn must/md be/be understood/vbn to/to have/hv certain/ap important/jj limitations/nns ./.


	Until/cs such/jj evidence/nn appears/vbz ,/, we/ppss must/md make/vb do/do with/in the/at evidence/nn we/ppss have/hv ./.
Here/rb ,/, perhaps/rb ,/, Fromm/np is/bez vulnerable/jj ,/, for/cs he/pps does/doz not/* always/rb use/vb the/at best/jjt and/cc most/ql recent/jj evidence/nn available/jj ,/, and/cc he/pps sometimes/rb selects/vbz and/cc interprets/vbz the/at evidence/nn in/in rather/ql special/jj ways/nns ./.
Three/cd examples/nns follow/vb ./.


	Fromm's/np$ analysis/nn of/in alienation/nn in/in the/at sphere/nn of/in production/nn centers/vbz around/in the/at concepts/nns of/in the/at bureaucratization/nn of/in the/at corporation/nn ,/, the/at separation/nn of/in ownership/nn from/in control/nn ,/, and/cc the/at broad/jj (/( and/cc thus/rb from/in the/at point/nn of/in view/nn of/in corporate/jj control/nn ,/, ineffective/jj )/) dispersion/nn of/in stock/nn ownership/nn ./.
For/in all/abn these/dts points/nns he/pps relies/vbz exclusively/rb on/in Berle/np and/cc Means's/np$ study/nn of/in 1932/cd ,/, The/at-tl Modern/jj-tl Corporation/nn-tl And/cc-tl Private/jj-tl Property/nn-tl ./.
The/at broad/jj conclusions/nns of/in that/dt pioneering/vbg work/nn remain/vb undisturbed/jj ,/, but/cc subsequent/jj research/nn has/hvz expanded/vbn and/cc somewhat/rb altered/vbn their/pp$ empirical/jj support/nn ,/, has/hvz suggested/vbn important/jj revisions/nns in/in the/at general/jj analytic/jj frame/nn of/in reference/nn ,/, and/cc has/hvz sharpened/vbn the/at meaning/nn of/in particular/ap analytic/jj concepts/nns in/in this/dt area/nn ./.
Fromm/np seems/vbz unaware/jj of/in these/dts developments/nns ./.


	Another/dt example/nn is/bez his/pp$ very/ql infrequent/jj use/nn of/in the/at large/jj amount/nn of/in data/nn from/in surveys/nns designed/vbn to/to discover/vb what/wdt and/cc how/wrb people/nns actually/rb do/do feel/vb and/cc think/vb on/in a/at broad/jj range/nn of/in topics/nns :/: he/pps cites/vbz such/jj survey-type/jj findings/nns just/rb three/cd times/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at conclusions/nns he/pps draws/vbz from/in the/at findings/nns are/ber not/* always/rb the/at only/ap ones/nns possible/jj ./.
For/in example/nn ,/, he/pps cites/vbz the/at following/vbg data/nn from/in two/cd studies/nns on/in job/nn satisfaction/nn :/: in/in the/at first/od study/nn ,/, 85/cd per/in cent/nn of/in professionals/nns and/cc executives/nns ,/, 64/cd per/in cent/nn of/in white/jj collar/nn people/nns ,/, and/cc 41/cd per/in cent/nn of/in factory/nn workers/nns expressed/vbd satisfaction/nn with/in their/pp$ jobs/nns ;/. ;/.
in/in the/at second/od study/nn ,/, the/at percentages/nns were/bed 86/cd for/in professionals/nns ,/, 74/cd for/in managerial/jj persons/nns ,/, 42/cd for/in commercial/jj employees/nns ,/, 56/cd for/in skilled/jj workers/nns ,/, and/cc 48/cd for/in semi-skilled/jj workers/nns ./.
He/pps concludes/vbz that/cs these/dts data/nns show/vb a/at ``/`` remarkably/ql high/jj ''/'' percentage/nn of/in consciously/rb dissatisfied/vbn and/cc unhappy/jj persons/nns among/in factory/nn and/cc clerical/jj workers/nns ./.
Starting/vbg from/in other/ap value/nn premises/nns than/cs Fromm's/np$ ,/, some/dti analysts/nns might/md conclude/vb that/cs the/at percentages/nns really/rb tell/vb us/ppo very/ql little/ap at/in all/abn ,/, while/cs others/nns might/md even/rb conclude/vb that/cs the/at figures/nns are/ber remarkably/ql low/jj ./.
Eric/np Hoffer/np ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, once/rb said/vbd that/cs America/np was/bedz a/at paradise/nn --/-- the/at only/ap one/cd in/in the/at history/nn of/in the/at world/nn --/-- for/in workingmen/nns and/cc small/jj children/nns ./.
What/wdt matters/nns is/bez that/cs while/cs Fromm's/np$ reading/nn of/in the/at data/nns is/bez not/* the/at only/ap one/cd possible/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez precisely/rb the/at one/cd we/ppss would/md expect/vb from/in a/at writer/nn who/wps earnestly/rb believes/vbz that/cs every/at man/nn can/md and/cc ought/md to/to be/be happy/jj and/cc satisfied/vbn ./.
Fromm/np also/rb cites/vbz a/at poll/nn on/in attitudes/nns toward/in work/nn restriction/nn conducted/vbn by/in the/at Opinion/nn-tl Research/nn-tl Corporation/nn-tl in/in 1945/cd ,/, in/in which/wdt 49/cd per/in cent/nn of/in manual/jj workers/nns said/vbd a/at man/nn ought/md to/to turn/vb out/rp as/ql much/ap as/cs he/pps could/md in/in a/at day's/nn$ work/nn ,/, while/cs 41/cd per/in cent/nn said/vbd he/pps should/md not/* do/do his/pp$ best/jjt but/cc should/md turn/vb out/rp only/rb the/at average/jj amount/nn ./.
Fromm/np says/vbz these/dts data/nns show/vb that/dt job/nn dissatisfaction/nn and/cc resentment/nn are/ber widespread/jj ./.
That/dt is/bez one/cd way/nn to/to read/vb the/at findings/nns ,/, but/cc again/rb there/ex are/ber other/ap ways/nns ./.
One/pn might/md use/vb such/jj findings/nns to/to indicate/vb the/at strength/nn of/in informal/jj primary/jj associations/nns in/in the/at factory/nn ,/, an/at interpretation/nn which/wdt would/md run/vb counter/rb to/in Fromm's/np$ theory/nn of/in alienation/nn ./.
Or/cc ,/, he/pps might/md remind/vb Fromm/np that/cs the/at 41/cd per/in cent/nn figure/nn is/bez really/rb astonishingly/ql low/jj :/: after/in all/abn ,/, the/at medieval/jj guild/nn system/nn was/bedz dedicated/vbn to/in the/at proposition/nn that/cs 100/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at workers/nns ought/md to/to turn/vb out/rp only/rb the/at average/jj amount/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc today's/nr$ trade/nn unions/nns announce/vb pretty/ql much/rb the/at same/ap view/nn ./.


	In/in view/nn of/in these/dts shortcomings/nns in/in both/abx the/at amount/nn and/cc the/at interpretation/nn of/in survey-type/jj findings/nns on/in public/jj opinion/nn ,/, and/cc considering/in the/at criticisms/nns which/wdt can/md be/be brought/vbn against/in Fromm's/np$ philosophical/jj anthropology/nn ,/, such/abl a/at passage/nn as/cs the/at following/nn cannot/md* be/be taken/vbn seriously/rb ./.
``/`` Are/ber people/nns happy/jj ,/, are/ber they/ppss as/ql satisfied/vbn ,/, unconsciously/rb ,/, as/cs they/ppss believe/vb themselves/ppls to/to be/be ?/. ?/.
Considering/in the/at nature/nn of/in man/nn ,/, and/cc the/at conditions/nns for/in happiness/nn ,/, this/dt can/md hardly/rb be/be so/rb ''/'' ./.


	The/at ambiguities/nns suggested/vbn above/rb stem/vb from/in a/at more/ql basic/jj difficulty/nn in/in Fromm's/np$ style/nn of/in thought/nn ./.
He/pps seems/vbz to/to use/vb the/at term/nn alienation/nn-nc in/in two/cd different/jj ways/nns ./.
Sometimes/rb he/pps uses/vbz it/ppo as/cs a/at subjective/jj ,/, descriptive/jj term/nn ,/, and/cc sometimes/rb as/cs an/at objective/jj ,/, diagnostic/jj one/cd ./.
That/dt is/bez ,/, sometimes/rb it/pps is/bez used/vbn to/to describe/vb felt/vbn human/jj misery/nn ,/, and/cc other/ap times/nns it/pps is/bez postulated/vbn to/to explain/vb unfelt/jj anxiety/nn and/cc discontent/nn ./.
The/at failure/nn to/to keep/vb these/dts two/cd usages/nns distinct/jj presents/vbz hazards/nns to/in the/at reader/nn ./.
It/pps also/rb permits/vbz Fromm/np to/to do/do some/dti dubious/jj things/nns with/in empirical/jj findings/nns ./.
When/wrb alienation/nn is/bez used/vbn as/cs an/at objective/jj and/cc diagnostic/jj category/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, it/pps becomes/vbz clear/jj that/cs Fromm/np would/md have/hv to/to say/vb that/dt awareness/nn of/in alienation/nn goes/vbz far/rb toward/in conquering/vbg it/ppo ./.
(/( He/pps ,/, in/in effect/nn ,/, does/doz say/vb this/dt in/in his/pp$ discussion/nn of/in the/at pseudo-happiness/nn of/in the/at automaton/nn conformist/nn ./.
)/) Starting/vbg from/in this/dt ,/, and/cc accepting/vbg his/pp$ estimate/nn of/in the/at iniquities/nns of/in modern/jj society/nn ,/, it/pps would/md follow/vb that/cs the/at really/ql disturbing/jj evidence/nn of/in alienation/nn would/md be/be that/cs of/in a/at work-satisfaction/nn survey/nn which/wdt reported/vbd widespread/jj ,/, stated/vbn worker/nn satisfaction/nn ,/, rather/rb than/cs widespread/jj ,/, stated/vbn worker/nn dissatisfaction/nn ./.


	The/at point/nn is/bez that/cs in/in a/at system/nn such/jj as/cs Fromm's/np$ which/wdt recognizes/vbz unconscious/jj motivations/nns ,/, and/cc which/wdt rests/vbz on/in certain/ap ethical/jj absolutes/nns ,/, empirical/jj data/nns can/md be/be used/vbn to/to support/vb whatever/wdt proposition/nn the/at writer/nn is/bez urging/vbg at/in the/at moment/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, in/in the/at example/nn cited/vbn above/rb Fromm/np rests/vbz his/pp$ whole/jj case/nn on/in the/at premise/nn that/cs the/at workers/nns are/ber being/beg deprived/vbn unconsciously/rb ,/, unknowingly/rb ,/, of/in fulfillment/nn ,/, and/cc then/rb supports/vbz this/dt with/in survey/nn data/nns reporting/vbg conscious/jj ,/, experienced/vbn frustrations/nns ./.
He/pps has/hvz his/pp$ cake/nn and/cc eats/vbz it/ppo too/rb :/: if/cs the/at workers/nns say/vb they/ppss are/ber dissatisfied/vbn ,/, this/dt shows/vbz conscious/jj alienation/nn ;/. ;/.
if/cs they/ppss say/vb they/ppss are/ber satisfied/vbn ,/, this/dt shows/vbz unconscious/jj alienation/nn ./.
This/dt sort/nn of/in manipulation/nn is/bez especially/ql troublesome/jj in/in Fromm's/np$ work/nn because/cs ,/, although/cs his/pp$ system/nn is/bez derived/vbn largely/rb from/in certain/ap philosophic/jj convictions/nns ,/, he/pps asserts/vbz that/cs it/pps is/bez based/vbn on/in empirical/jj findings/nns drawn/vbn both/abx from/in social/jj science/nn and/cc from/in his/pp$ own/jj consulting/vbg room/nn ./.
While/cs the/at ``/`` empirical/jj psychoanalytic/jj ''/'' label/nn which/wdt Fromm/np claims/vbz sheds/vbz no/at light/nn on/in the/at validity/nn of/in his/pp$ underlying/vbg philosophy/nn ,/, it/pps does/doz increase/vb the/at marketability/nn of/in his/pp$ product/nn ./.


	The/at final/ap example/nn of/in the/at failure/nn to/to use/vb available/jj evidence/nn ,/, though/cs evidence/nn of/in a/at different/jj kind/nn from/in that/dt which/wdt has/hvz so/ql far/rb been/ben considered/vbn ,/, comes/vbz from/in Fromm's/np$ treatment/nn of/in some/dti other/ap writers/nns who/wps have/hv dealt/vbn with/in the/at same/ap themes/nns ./.
In/in a/at brief/jj chapter/nn dealing/vbg with/in ``/`` Various/jj-tl Other/ap-tl Diagnoses/nns-tl ''/'' ,/, he/pps quotes/vbz isolated/vbn passages/nns from/in some/dti writers/nns whose/wp$ views/nns seem/vb to/to corroborate/vb his/pp$ own/jj ,/, and/cc finds/vbz it/ppo ``/`` most/ql remarkable/jj that/cs a/at critical/jj view/nn of/in twentieth-century/nn society/nn was/bedz already/rb held/vbn by/in a/at number/nn of/in thinkers/nns living/vbg in/in the/at nineteenth/od ./.
''/'' He/pps finds/vbz it/ppo equally/rb ``/`` remarkable/jj that/cs their/pp$ critical/jj diagnosis/nn and/cc prognosis/nn should/md have/hv so/ql much/ap in/in common/jj among/in themselves/ppls and/cc with/in the/at critics/nns of/in the/at twentieth/od century/nn ''/'' ./.
There/ex is/bez nothing/pn remarkable/jj about/in this/dt at/in all/abn ./.
It/pps is/bez largely/rb a/at matter/nn of/in finding/vbg passages/nns that/wps suit/vb one's/pn$ purposes/nns ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at difference/nn between/in evidence/nn and/cc illustration/nn ,/, and/cc Fromm's/np$ citation/nn of/in the/at other/ap diagnosticians/nns fits/vbz the/at latter/ap category/nn ./.
Glance/vb at/in the/at list/nn :/: Burckhardt/np ,/, Tolstoy/np ,/, Proudhon/np ,/, Thoreau/np ,/, London/np ,/, Marx/np ,/, Tawney/np ,/, Mayo/np ,/, Durkheim/np ,/, Tannenbaum/np ,/, Mumford/np ,/, A./np R./np Heron/np ,/, Huxley/np ,/, Schweitzer/np ,/, and/cc Einstein/np ./.
This/dt is/bez a/at delightfully/ql motley/jj collection/nn ./.
One/pn can/md make/vb them/ppo say/vb the/at same/ap thing/nn only/rb by/in not/* listening/vbg to/in them/ppo very/ql carefully/rb and/cc hearing/vbg only/rb what/wdt one/pn wants/vbz to/to hear/vb ./.
The/at method/nn of/in selection/nn Fromm/np uses/vbz achieves/vbz exactly/rb that/dt ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at list/nn is/bez interesting/jj for/in its/pp$ omissions/nns ./.
It/pps omits/vbz ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, practically/rb the/at whole/jj line/nn of/in great/jj nineteenth/od century/nn English/jj social/jj critics/nns ,/, nearly/rb all/abn the/at great/jj writers/nns whose/wp$ basic/jj position/nn is/bez religious/jj ,/, and/cc all/abn those/dts who/wps are/ber with/in more/ap or/cc less/ap accuracy/nn called/vbn Existentialists/nns-tl ./.
Of/in course/nn ,/, the/at list/nn also/rb excludes/vbz all/abn writers/nns who/wps are/ber fairly/ql ``/`` optimistic/jj ''/'' about/in the/at modern/jj situation/nn ;/. ;/.
these/dts ,/, almost/rb by/in definition/nn ,/, are/ber spokesmen/nns for/in an/at alienated/vbn ideology/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez not/* hard/jj to/to find/vb that/dt concurrence/nn of/in opinion/nn which/wdt Fromm/np finds/vbz so/ql remarkable/jj when/wrb you/ppss ignore/vb all/abn who/wps hold/vb a/at different/jj opinion/nn ./.


	Turning/vbg from/in these/dts problems/nns of/in the/at use/nn of/in evidence/nn ,/, one/pn meets/vbz another/dt type/nn of/in difficulty/nn in/in Fromm's/np$ analysis/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez his/pp$ loose/jj and/cc ambiguous/jj use/nn of/in certain/ap important/jj terms/nns ./.
One/cd such/jj instance/nn has/hvz already/rb been/ben presented/vbn :/: his/pp$ use/nn of/in alienation/nn-nc ./.
The/at only/ap other/ap one/cd I/ppss shall/md mention/vb here/rb is/bez his/pp$ use/nn of/in the/at term/nn capitalism/nn-nc ./.


	For/in Fromm/np ,/, capitalism/nn is/bez the/at enemy/nn ,/, the/at root/nn of/in all/abn evil/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez of/in course/nn useful/jj to/to have/hv a/at sovereign/jj cause/nn on/in one's/pn$ social/jj criticism/nn ,/, for/cs it/pps makes/vbz diagnosis/nn and/cc prescription/nn much/ql easier/jjr than/cs they/ppss might/md otherwise/rb be/be ./.



	If/cs one/cd characteristic/nn distinguishes/vbz Boris/np-tl Godunov/np-tl ,/, it/pps is/bez the/at consistency/nn with/in which/wdt every/at person/nn on/in the/at stage/nn --/-- including/in the/at chorus/nn --/-- comes/vbz alive/jj in/in the/at music/nn ./.
Much/ap of/in this/dt lifelike/jj quality/nn results/vbz from/in Mussorgsky's/np$ care/nn in/in basing/vbg his/pp$ vocal/jj line/nn on/in natural/jj speech/nn inflections/nns ./.
In/in this/dt he/pps followed/vbd a/at path/nn that/wps led/vbd back/rb to/in the/at very/ap source/nn of/in opera/nn ;/. ;/.
such/jj composers/nns as/cs Monteverdi/np ,/, Lully/np and/cc Purcell/np ,/, with/in the/at same/ap goal/nn in/in mind/nn ,/, had/hvd developed/vbn styles/nns of/in recitative/nn sensitively/rb attuned/vbn to/in their/pp$ own/jj languages/nns ./.
Through/in long/jj experimentation/nn in/in his/pp$ songs/nns ,/, Mussorgsky/np developed/vbd a/at Russian/jj recitative/nn as/ql different/jj from/in others/nns as/cs the/at language/nn itself/ppl ./.
Giving/vbg most/ap of/in his/pp$ musical/jj continuity/nn to/in the/at orchestra/nn ,/, he/pps lets/vbz the/at speech/nn fall/vb into/in place/nn as/cs if/cs by/in coincidence/nn ,/, but/cc controlling/vbg the/at pace/nn and/cc emphasis/nn of/in the/at words/nns ./.


	The/at moments/nns of/in sung/vbn melody/nn ,/, in/in the/at usual/jj sense/nn ,/, come/vb most/ql often/rb when/wrb the/at character/nn is/bez actually/rb supposed/vbn to/to be/be singing/vbg ,/, as/cs in/in folk/nn songs/nns and/cc liturgical/jj chants/nns ./.
Otherwise/rb Mussorgsky/np reserves/vbz his/pp$ vocal/jj melodies/nns for/in prolonged/vbn expressions/nns of/in emotion/nn --/-- Boris'/np$ first/od monologue/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ./.
Even/rb then/rb ,/, the/at flexibility/nn of/in the/at phrasing/nn suggests/vbz that/cs the/at word/nn comes/vbz first/rb in/in importance/nn ./.


	Aside/rb from/in Boris/np himself/ppl ,/, one/pn need/vb but/cc examine/vb the/at secondary/jj roles/nns to/to place/vb Mussorgsky/np among/in the/at masters/nns of/in musical/jj portraiture/nn ./.
Even/rb those/dts who/wps appear/vb in/in only/ap one/cd or/cc two/cd scenes/nns are/ber full/jj personalities/nns ,/, defined/vbn with/in economical/jj precision/nn ./.
Consider/vb the/at four/cd monks/nns who/wps figure/vb prominently/rb in/in the/at action/nn :/: Pimen/np ,/, Varlaam/np ,/, Missail/np and/cc the/at Jesuit/np Rangoni/np ./.
Under/in no/at circumstances/nns could/md we/ppss mistake/vb one/cd for/in the/at other/ap ;/. ;/.
each/dt musical/nn setting/nn has/hvz an/at individual/jj touch/nn ./.


	Pimen/np is/bez an/at old/jj man/nn ,/, weak/jj in/in body/nn --/-- his/pp$ voice/nn rarely/rb rises/vbz to/in a/at full/jj forte/nn --/-- but/cc firm/jj and/cc clear/jj of/in mind/nn ./.
His/pp$ calmness/nn offers/vbz contrast/nn to/in Grigori's/np$ youthful/jj excitement/nn ./.
A/at quiet/jj but/cc sturdy/jj theme/nn ,/, somewhat/ql folklike/jj in/in character/nn ,/, appears/vbz whenever/wrb the/at old/jj monk/nn speaks/vbz of/in the/at history/nn he/pps is/bez recording/vbg or/cc of/in his/pp$ own/jj past/ap life/nn :/: 

	This/dt theme/nn comes/vbz to/to represent/vb the/at outer/jj world/nn ,/, the/at realm/nn of/in battles/nns and/cc banquets/nns --/-- seen/vbn from/in a/at distance/nn ,/, quite/ql distinct/jj from/in the/at quieter/jjr spiritual/jj life/nn in/in the/at monastery/nn ./.
It/pps changes/vbz and/cc develops/vbz according/rb to/in the/at text/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps introduces/vbz Pimen/np when/wrb he/pps comes/vbz before/in Boris/np in/in the/at last/ap act/nn ./.
Once/cs he/pps has/hvz been/ben identified/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, a/at new/jj melody/nn is/bez used/vbn to/to accompany/vb his/pp$ narrative/nn ,/, a/at bleak/jj motif/nn with/in barren/jj octaves/nns creating/vbg a/at rather/ql ancient/jj effect/nn :/: 

	An/at imaginative/jj storyteller/nn ,/, Pimen/np takes/vbz on/rp the/at character/nn he/pps describes/vbz ,/, as/cs if/cs he/pps were/bed experiencing/vbg the/at old/jj shepherd's/nn$ blindness/nn and/cc miraculous/jj cure/nn ./.
Here/rb the/at composer/nn uses/vbz a/at favorite/jj device/nn of/in his/pp$$ ,/, the/at intensification/nn of/in the/at mood/nn through/in key/jjs relationships/nns ./.
The/at original/jj D/nn minor/jj seems/vbz to/to symbolize/vb blindness/nn ,/, inescapable/jj in/in spite/nn of/in all/abn attempts/nns to/to move/vb away/rb from/in it/ppo ./.
As/cs the/at child/nn addresses/vbz the/at shepherd/nn in/in a/at dream/nn ,/, light/nn --/-- in/in the/at form/nn of/in the/at major/jj mode/nn --/-- begins/vbz to/to appear/vb ,/, and/cc at/in the/at moment/nn of/in the/at miracle/nn we/ppss hear/vb a/at clear/jj and/cc shining/vbg D/nn major/jj ./.


	Varlaam/np and/cc Missail/np always/rb appear/vb together/rb and/cc often/rb sing/vb together/rb ,/, in/in a/at straightforward/jj ,/, rhythmically/rb vigorous/jj idiom/nn that/wps distinguishes/vbz them/ppo from/in the/at more/ql subtle/jj and/cc well-educated/jj Pimen/np ./.
Their/pp$ begging/vbg song/nn might/md easily/rb be/be a/at folk/nn melody/nn :/: 

	The/at same/ap could/md be/be said/vbn for/in the/at song/nn to/in which/wdt they/ppss make/vb their/pp$ entrance/nn in/in the/at final/ap scene/nn ./.
Apparently/rb their/pp$ origin/nn is/bez humble/jj ,/, their/pp$ approach/nn to/in life/nn direct/jj and/cc unsophisticated/jj ./.
Whatever/wdt learning/nn they/ppss may/md have/hv had/hvn in/in their/pp$ order/nn doesn't/doz* disturb/vb them/ppo now/rb ./.


	Missail/np is/bez the/at straight/jj man/nn ,/, not/* very/ql talkative/jj ,/, mild-mannered/jj when/wrb he/pps does/doz speak/vb ./.
Varlaam/np is/bez loud/jj ,/, rowdy/jj ,/, uninhibited/jj in/in his/pp$ pleasures/nns and/cc impatient/jj with/in anyone/pn who/wps is/bez not/* the/at same/ap ./.
A/at rough/jj ostinato/fw-jj figure/nn ,/, heard/vbn first/rb in/in the/at introduction/nn to/in the/at inn/nn scene/nn ,/, characterizes/vbz him/ppo amusingly/rb and/cc reappears/vbz whenever/wrb he/pps comes/vbz into/in the/at action/nn :/: 

	The/at-tl Song/nn-tl Of/in-tl Kazan/np-tl ,/, in/in which/wdt this/dt figure/nn becomes/vbz a/at wild-sounding/jj accompaniment/nn ,/, fills/vbz in/rp the/at picture/nn of/in undisciplined/jj high/jj spirits/nns ./.
The/at phrasing/nn is/bez irregular/jj ,/, and/cc the/at abrupt/jj key/nn changes/nns have/hv a/at primitive/jj forcefulness/nn ./.
(/( We/ppss can/md imagine/vb how/wrb they/ppss startled/vbd audiences/nns of/in the/at 1870's/nns ./.
)/) 

	Varlaam's/np$ music/nn begins/vbz to/to ramble/vb as/cs he/pps feels/vbz the/at effects/nns of/in the/at wine/nn ,/, but/cc he/pps pulls/vbz himself/ppl together/rb when/wrb the/at need/nn arises/vbz ./.
Both/abx monks/nns respond/vb to/in the/at guard's/nn$ challenge/nn with/in a/at few/ap phrases/nns of/in their/pp$ begging/vbg song/nn ;/. ;/.
a/at clever/jj naturalistic/jj touch/nn is/bez Varlaam's/np$ labored/vbn reading/nn of/in the/at warrant/nn ./.
As/cs the/at knack/nn gradually/rb comes/vbz back/rb to/in him/ppo ,/, his/pp$ rhythm/nn becomes/vbz steadier/jjr ,/, with/in the/at rigid/jj monotony/nn of/in an/at unskilled/jj reader/nn ./.
For/in the/at only/ap time/nn in/in the/at opera/nn ,/, words/nns are/ber not/* set/vbn according/rb to/in their/pp$ natural/jj inflection/nn ;/. ;/.
to/to do/do so/rb would/md have/hv spoiled/vbn the/at dramatic/jj point/nn of/in the/at scene/nn ./.


	Musically/rb and/cc dramatically/rb ,/, Rangoni/np is/bez as/ql far/rb removed/vbn from/in the/at conventional/jj monk/nn as/cs Varlaam/np ./.
His/pp$ music/nn shows/vbz a/at sensuality/nn coupled/vbn with/in an/at eerie/jj quality/nn that/wps suggest/vb somehow/rb a/at blood-kinship/nn with/in Dappertutto/np in/in Offenbach's/np$ Hoffman/np-tl ./.
His/pp$ speech/nn shows/vbz none/pn of/in the/at native/jj accent/nn of/in the/at Russian/jj characters/nns ;/. ;/.
in/in spite/nn of/in the/at Italian/jj name/nn ,/, he/pps sounds/vbz French/jj ./.
His/pp$ personality/nn appears/vbz more/ql striking/jj by/in contrast/nn with/in Marina/np ,/, who/wps is/bez --/-- perhaps/rb purposely/rb --/-- rather/ql superficially/rb characterized/vbn ./.


	Rangoni's/np$ first/od entrance/nn is/bez a/at musical/jj shock/nn ,/, a/at sudden/jj open/jj fifth/od in/in a/at key/nn totally/ql unrelated/jj to/in what/wdt has/hvz preceded/vbn it/ppo ./.
The/at effect/nn is/bez as/cs if/cs he/pps had/hvd materialized/vbn out/rp of/in nowhere/rb ./.
He/pps speaks/vbz quietly/rb ,/, concealing/vbg his/pp$ authority/nn beneath/in a/at smooth/jj humility/nn ,/, just/rb as/cs the/at shifting/vbg harmonies/nns that/wps accompany/vb him/ppo all/abn but/in hide/vb the/at firm/jj pedal/nn point/nn beneath/in them/ppo ./.
He/pps addresses/vbz Marina/np with/in great/jj deference/nn ,/, calling/vbg her/pp$ ``/`` Princess/nn-tl ''/'' at/in first/rb ;/. ;/.
it/pps is/bez only/rb after/cs he/pps has/hvz involved/vbn her/pp$ emotions/nns in/in his/pp$ scheme/nn that/cs he/pps uses/vbz her/pp$ given/vbn name/nn ,/, placing/vbg himself/ppl by/in implication/nn in/in the/at position/nn of/in a/at solicitous/jj father/nn ./.


	Curiously/rb ,/, this/dt scene/nn is/bez a/at close/jj parallel/nn to/in one/cd that/wps Verdi/np was/bedz writing/vbg at/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, the/at scene/nn between/in Amonasro/np and/cc Aida/np ./.
Rangoni/np and/cc Amonasro/np have/hv the/at same/ap purpose/nn --/-- forcing/vbg the/at girl/nn to/to charm/vb the/at man/nn she/pps loves/vbz into/in serving/vbg her/pp$ country's/nn$ cause/nn --/-- and/cc their/pp$ tactics/nns are/ber much/rb the/at same/ap ./.
Rangoni/np begins/vbz by/in describing/vbg the/at sad/jj state/nn of/in the/at Church/nn-tl ;/. ;/.
this/dt brings/vbz a/at reaction/nn of/in distress/nn from/in Marina/np ./.
The/at music/nn becomes/vbz ethereal/jj as/cs he/pps calls/vbz up/rp a/at vision/nn of/in her/pp$ own/jj sainthood/nn :/: it/pps is/bez she/pps ,/, he/pps tells/vbz her/ppo ,/, who/wps can/md bring/vb the/at truth/nn to/in Russia/np and/cc convert/vb the/at heretics/nns ./.
As/cs if/cs in/in a/at trance/nn ,/, she/pps repeats/vbz his/pp$ words/nns --/-- then/rb realizes/vbz ,/, with/in a/at shock/nn ,/, her/pp$ own/jj audacity/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez no/at assignment/nn for/in a/at frivolous/jj girl/nn ,/, she/pps assures/vbz him/ppo ./.


	Now/rb Rangoni/np comes/vbz to/in the/at point/nn ,/, and/cc we/ppss hear/vb ,/, for/in the/at first/od time/nn ,/, a/at long/jj ,/, downward/jj chromatic/jj scale/nn that/wps will/md become/vb the/at characteristic/jj motif/nn of/in his/pp$ sinister/jj power/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at phrase/nn as/ql arresting/jj as/cs a/at magician's/nn$ gesture/nn ,/, with/in a/at piquant/jj turn/nn of/in harmony/nn giving/vbg an/at effect/nn of/in strangeness/nn ./.
Another/dt theme/nn ,/, sinuously/rb chromatic/jj ,/, appears/vbz as/cs he/pps directs/vbz her/ppo to/to gain/vb power/nn over/in Grigori/np by/in any/dti means/nns ,/, even/rb at/in the/at cost/nn of/in her/pp$ honor/nn ./.
Coming/vbg from/in a/at priest/nn ,/, the/at music/nn sounds/vbz as/ql odd/jj as/cs the/at advice/nn :/: 

	Marina/np rebels/vbz at/in this/dt suggestion/nn ./.
Her/pp$ pride/nn is/bez as/ql much/rb at/in stake/nn as/cs her/pp$ virtue/nn ;/. ;/.
she/pps is/bez the/at unattainable/jj beauty/nn ,/, the/at princess/nn who/wps turns/vbz away/rb suitors/nns by/in the/at dozen/nn ./.
Indignantly/rb she/pps denounces/vbz Rangoni/np for/in his/pp$ evil/jj thoughts/nns and/cc orders/vbz him/ppo to/to leave/vb her/ppo ./.


	At/in once/rb the/at Jesuit/np pulls/vbz out/rp all/abn the/at stops/nns ./.
To/in music/nn of/in a/at menacing/vbg darkness/nn ,/, he/pps describes/vbz the/at powers/nns of/in Satan/np gaining/vbg control/nn of/in the/at girl/nn ,/, poisoning/vbg her/pp$ soul/nn with/in pride/nn and/cc destroying/vbg her/pp$ beauty/nn ./.
The/at combined/vbn threat/nn of/in hell-fire/nn and/cc ugliness/nn is/bez too/ql much/ap for/in her/ppo ,/, and/cc she/pps falls/vbz terrified/vbn at/in his/pp$ feet/nns ./.
With/in another/dt sudden/jj change/nn of/in mood/nn ,/, he/pps is/bez again/rb calm/jj and/cc protective/jj ,/, exhorting/vbg her/ppo to/to trust/vb and/cc obey/vb him/ppo as/cs God's/np$ spokesman/nn --/-- and/cc the/at chromatic/jj scale/nn descends/vbz in/in ominous/jj contradiction/nn ./.
Whatever/wdt the/at source/nn of/in Rangoni's/np$ power/nn ,/, Marina/np is/bez his/pp$ captive/nn now/rb ;/. ;/.
we/ppss are/ber reminded/vbn of/in this/dt at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at next/ap scene/nn ,/, when/wrb his/pp$ theme/nn cuts/vbz through/in the/at warmth/nn of/in the/at love/nn duet/nn ,/, again/rb throwing/vbg a/at chill/nn over/in the/at atmosphere/nn ./.


	The/at most/ql unusual/jj feature/nn of/in Boris/np ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez the/at use/nn of/in the/at greatest/jjt character/nn of/in all/abn ,/, the/at chorus/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at real/jj protagonist/nn of/in the/at drama/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at conflict/nn is/bez not/* Boris/np versus/in Grigori/np or/cc Shuiski/np or/cc even/rb the/at ghost/nn of/in the/at murdered/vbn child/nn ,/, but/cc Boris/np versus/in the/at Russian/jj people/nns ./.
Mussorgsky/np makes/vbz this/dt quite/ql clear/jj by/in the/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt choral/jj scenes/nns propel/vb the/at action/nn ./.
Boris'/np$ first/od entrance/nn seems/vbz almost/rb a/at footnote/nn to/in the/at splendor/nn of/in the/at Coronation/nn-tl Scene/nn-tl ,/, with/in its/pp$ dazzling/vbg confusion/nn of/in tonalities/nns ./.
We/ppss have/hv a/at brief/jj glimpse/nn of/in the/at Tsar's/np$ public/jj personality/nn ,/, the/at ``/`` official/jj Boris/np ''/'' ,/, but/cc our/pp$ real/jj focus/nn is/bez on/in the/at excitement/nn of/in the/at crowd/nn --/-- a/at significant/jj contrast/nn with/in its/pp$ halfhearted/jj acclamation/nn in/in the/at opening/vbg scene/nn ,/, its/pp$ bitter/jj resentment/nn and/cc fury/nn in/in the/at final/ap act/nn ./.


	One/cd reason/nn for/in the/at unique/jj vitality/nn of/in the/at chorus/nn is/bez its/pp$ great/jj variety/nn in/in expression/nn ./.
It/pps rarely/rb speaks/vbz as/cs a/at unit/nn ./.
Even/rb in/in its/pp$ most/ql conventional/jj appearance/nn ,/, the/at guests'/nns$ song/nn of/in praise/nn to/in Marina/np ,/, there/ex are/ber a/at few/ap female/jj dissenters/nns criticizing/vbg the/at princess/nn for/in her/pp$ coldness/nn ./.
In/in many/ap passages/nns --/-- for/in example/nn ,/, the/at council/nn of/in boyars/nns --/-- each/dt section/nn of/in the/at chorus/nn becomes/vbz a/at character/nn group/nn with/in a/at particular/ap opinion/nn ./.
Hot/jj arguments/nns arise/vb between/in tenors/nns and/cc basses/nns ,/, who/wps will/md sing/vb in/in harmony/nn only/rb when/wrb they/ppss agree/vb on/in an/at idea/nn ./.


	The/at opening/vbg scene/nn shows/vbz this/dt method/nn at/in its/pp$ most/ql individual/jj ./.
Mussorgsky/np paints/vbz a/at telling/jj picture/nn of/in the/at common/jj people/nns ,/, those/dts who/wps must/md suffer/vb the/at effects/nns of/in their/pp$ rulers'/nns$ struggle/nn for/in power/nn without/in understanding/vbg the/at causes/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber held/vbn in/in control/nn by/in force/nn ,/, but/cc barely/rb ./.
They/ppss will/md kneel/vb and/cc plead/vb for/in Boris'/np$ leadership/nn in/in a/at strangely/rb intense/jj song/nn ,/, its/pp$ phrases/nns irregularly/rb broken/vbn as/cs if/cs gasping/vbg for/in breath/nn ,/, but/cc when/wrb the/at police/nns with/in their/pp$ cudgels/nns move/vb away/rb ,/, they/ppss mock/vb and/cc grumble/vb and/cc fight/vb among/in themselves/ppls ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at quick/jj change/nn from/in the/at plaintive/jj song/nn to/in a/at conversational/jj tone/nn ./.
``/`` Hey/uh ,/, Mityukh/np ''/'' ,/, asks/vbz one/cd group/nn ,/, ``/`` what/wdt are/ber we/ppss shouting/vbg about/in ''/'' ?/. ?/.
And/cc Mityukh/np ,/, apparently/rb the/at intellectual/jj leader/nn of/in the/at crowd/nn ,/, replies/vbz that/cs he/pps has/hvz no/at notion/nn ./.
The/at jokes/nns and/cc arguments/nns grow/vb louder/jjr until/cs the/at police/nns return/vb ;/. ;/.
then/rb the/at people/nns strike/vb up/rp their/pp$ song/nn with/in even/ql more/ap fervor/nn than/cs before/rb ,/, ending/vbg it/ppo with/in a/at wail/nn of/in despair/nn ./.


	Mussorgsky/np frequently/rb uses/vbz liturgical/jj music/nn with/in considerable/jj dramatic/jj force/nn ./.
In/in Pimen's/np$ cell/nn the/at soft/jj prayers/nns of/in the/at monks/nns ,/, heard/vbn from/in offstage/rb ,/, not/* only/rb help/vb to/to set/vb the/at scene/nn but/cc emphasize/vb the/at contrast/nn between/in young/jj Grigori's/np$ thoughts/nns and/cc his/pp$ situation/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez especially/ql striking/jj between/in Pimen's/np$ quiet/jj exit/nn and/cc Grigori's/np$ vehement/jj outburst/nn against/in Boris/np ./.


	Again/rb ,/, as/cs Boris/np feels/vbz himself/ppl nearing/vbg death/nn ,/, a/at procession/nn files/vbz into/in the/at hall/nn singing/vbg a/at hymn/nn ,/, its/pp$ modal/jj harmonies/nns adding/vbg a/at churchly/jj touch/nn to/in the/at grim/jj atmosphere/nn :/: The/at words/nns are/ber hardly/rb calculated/vbn to/to put/vb the/at Tsar's/np$ mind/nn at/in ease/nn ./.
They/ppss echo/vb the/at words/nns with/in which/wdt he/pps has/hvz described/vbn his/pp$ own/jj vision/nn of/in the/at dying/vbg child/nn who/wps ``/`` trembles/vbz and/cc begs/vbz for/in mercy/nn --/-- and/cc there/ex is/bez no/at mercy/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at living/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at dead/jj now/rb accuse/vb him/ppo ;/. ;/.
this/dt final/ap reminder/nn of/in his/pp$ guilt/nn is/bez the/at fatal/jj one/cd ./.


	One/cd of/in the/at outstanding/jj assets/nns of/in the/at present/jj production/nn is/bez the/at restoration/nn of/in the/at St./nn-tl Basil's/np$ scene/nn ,/, usually/rb omitted/vbn from/in performances/nns and/cc rarely/rb included/vbn in/in a/at published/vbn score/nn ./.
Though/cs brief/jj ,/, it/pps has/hvz a/at sharp/jj dramatic/jj edge/nn and/cc great/jj poignancy/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez an/at important/jj link/nn in/in the/at plot/nn ,/, giving/vbg us/ppo a/at revealing/vbg glimpse/nn of/in the/at people's/nns$ attitude/nn toward/in Boris/np and/cc the/at false/jj Dimitri/np ./.
The/at mayhem/nn in/in the/at forest/nn of/in Kromy/np is/bez a/at natural/jj sequel/nn ./.


	The/at St./nn-tl Basil's/np$ scene/nn opens/vbz with/in little/jj groups/nns of/in beggars/nns milling/vbg around/in the/at square/nn ,/, the/at ever/rb present/jj police/nns keeping/vbg them/ppo under/in scrutiny/nn ./.
In/in the/at orchestra/nn we/ppss hear/vb first/rb a/at hushed/vbn ,/, hesitant/jj pizzicato/nn figure/nn ,/, then/rb the/at insistent/jj ``/`` police/nns ''/'' motif/nn as/cs it/pps appeared/vbd in/in the/at opening/vbg scene/nn ./.


	The/at service/nn is/bez over/jj ,/, and/cc a/at number/nn of/in people/nns come/vb from/in the/at church/nn with/in their/pp$ spokesman/nn Mityukh/np in/in the/at lead/nn ./.
They/ppss bring/vb the/at news/nn that/cs the/at Pretender/nn-tl has/hvz been/ben excommunicated/vbn ;/. ;/.
this/dt is/bez met/vbn with/in scorn/nn by/in the/at hearers/nns ,/, who/wps claim/vb that/cs Mityukh/np is/bez lying/vbg or/cc drunk/jj ./.
(/( Mussorgsky/np cleverly/rb contrasts/vbz the/at two/cd groups/nns by/in their/pp$ orchestral/jj accompaniment/nn ,/, solemn/jj chords/nns or/cc mocking/vbg staccatos/nns ./.
)/) There/ex is/bez still/rb more/ap news/nn ,/, Mityukh/np announces/vbz :/: they/ppss have/hv prayed/vbn for/in the/at soul/nn of/in the/at Tsarevich/np ./.

So/ql far/rb these/dts remarks/nns ,/, like/cs most/ap criticisms/nns of/in Hardy/np ,/, have/hv tacitly/rb assumed/vbn that/cs his/pp$ poetry/nn is/bez all/abn of/in a/at piece/nn ,/, one/cd solid/jj mass/nn of/in verse/nn expressing/vbg a/at sensibility/nn at/in a/at single/ap stage/nn of/in development/nn ./.
For/in critics/nns ,/, Hardy/np has/hvz had/hvn no/at poetic/jj periods/nns --/-- one/pn does/doz not/* speak/vb of/in early/jj Hardy/np or/cc late/jj Hardy/np ,/, or/cc of/in the/at London/np or/cc Max/np-tl Gate/nn-tl period/nn ,/, but/cc simply/rb of/in Hardy/np ,/, as/cs of/in a/at poetic/jj monolith/nn ./.
This/dt seems/vbz odd/jj when/wrb one/pn recalls/vbz that/cs he/pps wrote/vbd poetry/nn longer/rbr than/cs any/dti other/ap major/jj English/jj poet/nn :/: ``/`` Domicilium/np-tl ''/'' is/bez dated/vbn ``/`` between/in 1857/cd and/cc 1860/cd ''/'' ;/. ;/.
``/`` Seeing/vbg-tl The/at-tl Moon/nn-tl Rise/vb-tl ''/'' is/bez dated/vbn August/np ,/, 1927/cd ./.
One/pn might/md expect/vb that/cs in/in a/at poetic/jj career/nn of/in seventy-odd/cd years/nns ,/, some/dti changes/nns in/in style/nn and/cc method/nn would/md have/hv occurred/vbn ,/, some/dti development/nn taken/vbn place/nn ./.


	This/dt is/bez not/* ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at case/nn ,/, and/cc development/nn is/bez a/at term/nn which/wdt we/ppss can/md apply/vb to/in Hardy/np only/rb in/in a/at very/ql limited/vbn sense/nn ./.
In/in a/at time/nn when/wrb poetic/jj style/nn ,/, and/cc poetic/jj belief/nn as/ql well/rb ,/, seem/vb in/in a/at state/nn of/in continual/jj flux/nn ,/, Hardy/np stands/vbz out/rp as/cs a/at poet/nn of/in almost/ql perverse/jj consistency/nn ./.
Though/cs he/pps struggled/vbd with/in philosophy/nn all/abn his/pp$ life/nn ,/, he/pps never/rb got/vbd much/rb beyond/in the/at pessimism/nn of/in his/pp$ twenties/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at ``/`` sober/jj opinion/nn ''/'' of/in his/pp$ letter/nn to/in Noyes/np ,/, written/vbn when/wrb Hardy/np was/bedz eighty/cd years/nns old/jj ,/, is/bez essentially/rb that/dt of/in his/pp$ first/od ``/`` philosophical/jj ''/'' notebook/nn entry/nn ,/, made/vbn when/wrb he/pps was/bedz twenty-five/cd :/: ``/`` The/at world/nn does/doz not/* despise/vb us/ppo :/: it/pps only/rb neglects/vbz us/ppo ''/'' (/( Early/jj-tl Life/nn-tl ,/, p./nn 63/cd )/) ./.
And/cc though/cs in/in his/pp$ later/jjr years/nns he/pps revised/vbd his/pp$ poems/nns many/ap times/nns ,/, the/at revisions/nns did/dod not/* alter/vb the/at essential/jj nature/nn of/in the/at style/nn which/wdt he/pps had/hvd established/vbn before/cs he/pps was/bedz thirty/cd ;/. ;/.
so/cs that/cs ,/, while/cs it/pps usually/rb is/bez easy/jj to/to recognize/vb a/at poem/nn by/in Hardy/np ,/, it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to date/vb one/cd ./.


	There/ex is/bez only/ap one/cd sense/nn in/in which/wdt it/pps is/bez valid/jj to/to talk/vb about/in Hardy's/np$ development/nn :/: he/pps did/dod develop/vb toward/in a/at more/ql consistent/jj and/cc more/ql effective/jj control/nn of/in that/dt tone/nn which/wdt we/ppss recognize/vb as/cs uniquely/rb his/pp$$ ./.
There/ex is/bez only/ap one/cd Hardy/np style/nn ,/, but/cc in/in the/at earlier/jjr poems/nns that/dt style/nn is/bez only/rb intermittently/rb evident/jj ,/, and/cc when/wrb it/pps is/bez not/* ,/, the/at style/nn is/bez the/at style/nn of/in another/dt poet/nn ,/, or/cc of/in the/at fashion/nn of/in the/at time/nn ./.
In/in the/at later/jjr poems/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, the/at personal/jj tone/nn predominates/vbz ./.
The/at bad/jj early/jj poems/nns are/ber bad/jj Shakespeare/np or/cc bad/jj Swinburne/np ;/. ;/.
the/at bad/jj late/jj poems/nns are/ber bad/jj Hardy/np ./.


	There/ex are/ber two/cd ways/nns of/in getting/vbg at/in a/at poet's/nn$ development/nn :/: through/in his/pp$ dated/vbn poems/nns ,/, and/cc through/in the/at revisions/nns which/wdt he/pps made/vbd in/in later/jjr editions/nns of/in his/pp$ work/nn ./.
About/rb a/at quarter/nn of/in Hardy's/np$ poems/nns carry/vb an/at appended/vbn date/nn line/nn ,/, usually/rb the/at year/nn of/in completion/nn ,/, but/cc sometimes/rb inclusive/jj years/nns (/( ``/`` 1908/cd -/in 1910/cd ''/'' )/) or/cc two/cd separate/jj dates/nns when/wrb Hardy/np worked/vbd on/in the/at poem/nn (/( ``/`` 1905/cd and/cc 1926/cd ''/'' )/) or/cc an/at approximate/jj date/nn (/( ``/`` During/in the/at War/nn-tl ''/'' )/) ./.
These/dts dates/nns are/ber virtually/rb the/at only/ap clues/nns we/ppss have/hv to/in the/at chronology/nn of/in the/at poems/nns ,/, since/cs the/at separate/jj volumes/nns are/ber neither/cc chronological/jj within/in themselves/ppls nor/cc in/in relation/nn to/in each/dt other/ap ./.
With/in the/at exception/nn of/in Satires/nns-tl Of/in-tl Circumstance/nn-tl ,/, each/dt volume/nn contains/vbz dated/vbn poems/nns ranging/vbg over/in several/ap decades/nns (/( Winter/nn-tl Words/nns-tl spans/vbz sixty-one/cd years/nns )/) ;/. ;/.
the/at internal/jj organization/nn rarely/rb has/hvz any/dti chronological/jj order/nn ,/, except/in in/in obvious/jj groups/nns like/cs the/at ``/`` Poems/nns-tl of/in-tl Pilgrimage/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, the/at ``/`` Poems/nns-tl of/in-tl 1912/cd-tl -/in-tl 13/cd-tl ''/'' ,/, and/cc the/at war/nn poems/nns ./.


	From/in the/at dated/vbn poems/nns we/ppss can/md venture/vb certain/ap conclusions/nns about/in Hardy's/np$ career/nn in/in poetry/nn ,/, always/rb remembering/vbg that/cs conclusions/nns based/vbn on/in a/at fraction/nn of/in the/at whole/nn must/md remain/vb tentative/jj ./.
The/at dated/vbn poems/nns suggest/vb that/cs while/cs Hardy's/np$ concern/nn with/in poetry/nn may/md have/hv been/ben constant/jj ,/, his/pp$ production/nn was/bedz not/* ./.
He/pps had/hvd two/cd productive/jj periods/nns ,/, one/cd in/in the/at late/jj 1860's/nns ,/, the/at other/ap in/in the/at decade/nn from/in 1910/cd to/in 1920/cd (/( half/nn of/in the/at dated/vbn poems/nns are/ber from/in the/at latter/ap period/nn ,/, and/cc these/dts alone/rb total/vb about/rb one-tenth/nn of/in all/abn Hardy's/np$ poems/nns )/) ./.
There/ex was/bedz one/cd sterile/jj period/nn :/: only/rb one/cd poem/nn is/bez dated/vbn between/in 1872/cd and/cc 1882/cd and/cc ,/, except/in for/in the/at poems/nns written/vbn on/in the/at trip/nn to/in Italy/np in/in 1887/cd ,/, very/ql few/ap from/in 1882/cd to/in 1890/cd ./.


	The/at dated/vbn poems/nns also/rb give/vb us/ppo an/at idea/nn of/in the/at degree/nn to/in which/wdt Hardy/np drew/vbd upon/in past/ap productions/nns for/in his/pp$ various/ap volumes/nns ,/, and/cc therefore/rb probably/rb are/ber an/at indication/nn of/in the/at amount/nn of/in poetry/nn he/pps was/bedz writing/vbg at/in the/at time/nn ./.
Poems/nns-tl Of/in-tl The/at-tl Past/nn-tl And/cc-tl The/at-tl Present/nn-tl and/cc-tl Time's/nn$-tl Laughing/vbg-tl Stocks/nns-tl ,/, both/abx published/vbn while/cs Hardy/np was/bedz at/in work/nn on/in The/at-tl Dynasts/nns-tl ,/, draw/vb heavily/rb on/in poems/nns written/vbn before/in 1900/cd ./.
Satires/nns-tl Of/in-tl Circumstance/nn-tl and/cc Moments/nns-tl Of/in-tl Vision/nn-tl ,/, coming/vbg during/in his/pp$ most/ql productive/jj decade/nn ,/, are/ber relatively/ql self-contained/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at former/ap contains/vbz no/at poem/nn dated/vbn before/in 1909/cd -/in 10/cd --/-- that/dt is/bez ,/, no/at poem/nn from/in a/at period/nn covered/vbn by/in a/at previous/ap volume/nn --/-- and/cc the/at latter/ap has/hvz only/rb a/at few/ap such/jj ./.
The/at last/ap three/cd volumes/nns are/ber again/rb more/ql dependent/jj on/in the/at past/ap ,/, as/cs Hardy's/np$ creative/jj powers/nns declined/vbd in/in his/pp$ old/jj age/nn ./.


	These/dts observations/nns about/in Hardy's/np$ productivity/nn tally/vb with/in the/at details/nns of/in his/pp$ life/nn as/cs we/ppss know/vb them/ppo ./.
The/at first/od productive/jj period/nn came/vbd when/wrb he/pps was/bedz considering/vbg poetry/nn as/cs a/at vocation/nn ,/, before/cs he/pps had/hvd decided/vbn to/to write/vb fiction/nn for/in a/at living/nn (/( in/in his/pp$ note/nn for/in Who's/wps+bez-tl Who/wps-tl he/pps wrote/vbd that/cs he/pps ``/`` wrote/vbd verses/nns 1865/cd -/in 1868/cd ;/. ;/.
gave/vbd up/rp verse/nn for/in prose/nn ,/, 1868/cd -/in 70/cd ;/. ;/.
but/cc resumed/vbd it/ppo later/rbr ''/'' )/) ./.
During/in the/at poetically/rb sterile/jj years/nns he/pps was/bedz writing/vbg novels/nns at/in the/at rate/nn of/in almost/rb one/cd a/at year/nn and/cc was/bedz ,/, in/in addition/nn ,/, burdened/vbn with/in bad/jj health/nn (/( he/pps spent/vbd six/cd months/nns in/in bed/nn in/in 1881/cd ,/, too/ql ill/jj to/to do/do more/ap than/cs work/nn slowly/rb and/cc painfully/rb at/in A/at-tl Laodicean/np-tl )/) ./.
Two/cd entries/nns in/in The/at-tl Early/jj-tl Life/nn-tl support/vb the/at assumption/nn that/cs during/in this/dt period/nn Hardy/np had/hvd virtually/rb suspended/vbn the/at writing/nn of/in poetry/nn ./.
Mrs./np Hardy/np records/vbz that/cs ``/`` at/in the/at end/nn of/in November/np (/( 1881/cd )/) he/pps makes/vbz a/at note/nn of/in an/at intention/nn to/to resume/vb poetry/nn as/ql soon/rb as/cs possible/jj ''/'' (/( Early/jj-tl Life/nn-tl ,/, p./nn 188/cd-tl )/) ;/. ;/.
and/cc on/in Christmas/np-tl Day/nn-tl ,/, 1890/cd ,/, Hardy/np wrote/vbd :/: ``/`` While/cs thinking/vbg of/in resuming/vbg '/' the/at-tl viewless/jj Wings/nns-tl Of/in-tl Poesy/np-tl before/in dawn/nn this/dt morning/nn ,/, new/jj horizons/nns seemed/vbd to/to open/vb ,/, and/cc worrying/vbg pettinesses/nns to/to disappear/vb ''/'' (/( Early/jj-tl Life/nn-tl ,/, p./nn 302/np )/) ./.
There/ex are/ber more/ap poems/nns dated/vbn in/in the/at 1890's/nns than/cs in/in the/at '80's/nns --/-- Hardy/np had/hvd apparently/rb resumed/vbn the/at viewless/jj wings/nns as/cs he/pps decreased/vbd the/at volume/nn of/in his/pp$ fiction/nn --/-- but/cc none/pn in/in 1891/cd ,/, the/at year/nn of/in Tess/np ,/, and/cc only/rb one/cd in/in 1895/cd ,/, the/at year/nn of/in Jude/np-tl ./.
After/in 1895/cd the/at number/nn increases/vbz ,/, and/cc in/in the/at next/ap thirty/cd years/nns there/ex is/bez only/rb one/cd year/nn for/in which/wdt there/ex is/bez no/at dated/vbn poem/nn --/-- 1903/cd ,/, when/wrb Hardy/np was/bedz at/in work/nn on/in The/at-tl Dynasts/nns-tl ./.


	The/at second/od productive/jj period/nn ,/, the/at decade/nn from/in 1910/cd to/in 1920/cd ,/, can/md be/be related/vbn to/in three/cd events/nns :/: the/at completion/nn of/in The/at-tl Dynasts/nns-tl in/in 1909/cd ,/, which/wdt left/vbd Hardy/np free/jj of/in pressure/nn for/in the/at first/od time/nn in/in forty/cd years/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at death/nn of/in Emma/np Hardy/np in/in 1912/cd ,/, which/wdt had/hvd a/at profound/jj emotional/jj effect/nn on/in Hardy/np for/in which/wdt he/pps found/vbd release/nn in/in poetry/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc the/at First/od-tl World/nn-tl War/nn-tl ./.
It/pps may/md seem/vb strange/jj that/cs a/at poet/nn should/md come/vb to/in full/jj fruition/nn in/in his/pp$ seventies/nns ,/, but/cc we/ppss have/hv it/ppo on/in Hardy's/np$ own/jj authority/nn that/cs ``/`` he/pps was/bedz a/at child/nn till/cs he/pps was/bedz sixteen/cd ,/, a/at youth/nn till/cs he/pps was/bedz five-and-twenty/cd ,/, and/cc a/at young/jj man/nn till/cs he/pps was/bedz nearly/rb fifty/cd ''/'' (/( Early/jj-tl Life/nn-tl ,/, p./nn 42/cd )/) ./.
We/ppss may/md carry/vb this/dt sequence/nn one/cd step/nn further/rbr and/cc say/vb that/cs at/in seventy/cd he/pps was/bedz a/at poet/nn at/in the/at height/nn of/in his/pp$ powers/nns ,/, wanting/vbg only/rb the/at impetus/nn of/in two/cd tragedies/nns ,/, one/cd personal/jj ,/, the/at other/ap national/jj ,/, to/to loose/vb those/dts powers/nns in/in poetry/nn ./.


	Hardy's/np$ two/cd productive/jj decades/nns were/bed separated/vbn by/in forty/cd years/nns ,/, yet/cc between/in them/ppo he/pps developed/vbd only/rb in/in that/cs he/pps became/vbd more/ql steadily/rb himself/ppl --/-- it/pps was/bedz a/at narrowing/vbg ,/, not/* an/at expanding/vbg process/nn ./.
Like/cs a/at wise/jj gardener/nn ,/, Hardy/np pruned/vbd away/rb the/at Shakespearian/jj sonnets/nns and/cc songs/nns ,/, and/cc the/at elements/nns of/in meter/nn and/cc poetic/jj diction/nn to/in which/wdt his/pp$ personal/jj style/nn was/bedz not/* suited/vbn ,/, and/cc let/vbd the/at main/jjs stock/nn of/in his/pp$ talent/nn flourish/vb ./.
The/at range/nn of/in the/at later/jjr poetry/nn is/bez considerably/ql narrower/jjr ,/, but/cc the/at number/nn of/in successful/jj poems/nns is/bez far/ql greater/jjr ./.


	We/ppss can/md see/vb the/at general/jj characteristics/nns of/in the/at earlier/jjr decade/nn if/cs we/ppss look/vb at/in two/cd poems/nns of/in very/ql different/jj qualities/nns :/: ``/`` Revulsion/nn-tl ''/'' (/( 1866/cd )/) and/cc ``/`` Neutral/jj-tl Tones/nns-tl ''/'' (/( 1867/cd )/) ./.
There/ex is/bez not/* much/ap to/to be/be said/vbn for/in ``/`` Revulsion/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
Like/cs about/rb half/abn of/in the/at 1860/cd -/in 70/cd poems/nns ,/, it/pps is/bez a/at sonnet/nn on/in a/at conventional/jj theme/nn --/-- the/at unhappiness/nn of/in love/nn ./.
Almost/rb anyone/pn could/md have/hv written/vbn it/ppo ;/. ;/.
it/pps is/bez competent/jj in/in the/at sense/nn that/cs it/pps makes/vbz a/at coherent/jj statement/nn without/in violating/vbg the/at rules/nns of/in the/at sonnet/nn form/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez entirely/ql undistinguished/jj and/cc entirely/rb unlike/in Hardy/np ./.
The/at language/nn is/bez the/at conventional/jj language/nn of/in the/at form/nn ;/. ;/.
there/ex is/bez no/at phrase/nn or/cc image/nn that/wps sounds/vbz like/cs Hardy/np or/cc that/wps is/bez striking/jj enough/qlp to/to give/vb individuality/nn to/in the/at poem/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez smoother/jjr than/cs Hardy/np usually/rb is/bez ,/, but/cc with/in the/at smoothness/nn of/in anonymity/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez obviously/rb a/at young/jj man's/nn$ poem/nn ,/, written/vbn out/rp of/in books/nns and/cc not/* out/rp of/in experience/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps asserts/vbz emotion/nn without/in evoking/vbg it/ppo --/-- that/dt is/bez to/to say/vb ,/, it/pps is/bez sentimental/jj ./.
There/ex are/ber many/ap such/jj competently/rb anonymous/jj performances/nns among/in the/at earlier/jjr poems/nns ./.


	``/`` Neutral/jj-tl Tones/nns-tl ''/'' we/ppss immediately/rb recognize/vb as/cs a/at fine/jj poem/nn in/in Hardy's/np$ most/ql characteristic/jj style/nn :/: the/at plain/jj but/cc not/* quite/ql colloquial/jj language/nn ,/, the/at hard/jj ,/, particular/jj ,/, colorless/jj images/nns ,/, the/at slightly/ql odd/jj stanza-form/nn ,/, the/at dramatic/jj handling/nn of/in the/at occasion/nn ,/, the/at refusal/nn to/to resolve/vb the/at issue/nn --/-- all/abn these/dts we/ppss have/hv seen/vbn in/in Hardy's/np$ best/jjt poems/nns ./.
The/at poem/nn does/doz not/* distort/vb the/at syntax/nn of/in ordinary/jj speech/nn nor/cc draw/vb on/in exotic/jj sources/nns of/in diction/nn ,/, yet/cc it/pps is/bez obviously/rb not/* ordinary/jj speech/nn --/-- only/ap Hardy/np would/md say/vb ``/`` a/at grin/nn of/in bitterness/nn swept/vbd thereby/rb ;/. ;/.
like/cs an/at ominous/jj bird/nn a-wing/rb ''/'' ,/, or/cc ``/`` wrings/vbz with/in wrong/jj ''/'' ,/, or/cc would/md describe/vb a/at winter/nn sun/nn as/cs ``/`` God-curst/jj ''/'' ./.


	The/at details/nns of/in the/at setting/nn of/in ``/`` Neutral/jj-tl Tones/nns-tl ''/'' are/ber not/* ,/, strictly/rb speaking/vbg ,/, metaphorical/jj ,/, but/cc they/ppss combine/vb to/to create/vb a/at mood/nn which/wdt is/bez appropriate/jj both/abx to/in a/at dismal/jj winter/nn day/nn and/cc to/in the/at end/nn of/in love/nn ,/, and/cc in/in this/dt way/nn love/nn and/cc weather/nn ,/, the/at emotions/nns and/cc the/at elements/nns ,/, symbolize/vb each/dt other/ap in/in a/at way/nn that/wps is/bez common/jj to/in many/ap of/in Hardy's/np$ best/jjt poems/nns (/( ``/`` Weathers/nns-tl ''/'' ,/, ``/`` The/at-tl Darkling/jj-tl Thrush/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, and/cc ``/`` During/in-tl Wind/nn-tl and/cc Rain/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, for/in example/nn )/) and/cc to/in some/dti moving/jj passages/nns in/in the/at novels/nns as/ql well/rb (/( Far/rb-tl From/in-tl The/at-tl Madding/jj-tl Crowd/nn-tl is/bez full/jj of/in scenes/nns constructed/vbn in/in this/dt way/nn )/) ./.


	``/`` Neutral/jj-tl Tones/nns-tl ''/'' is/bez an/at excellent/jj example/nn of/in Hardy's/np$ mature/jj style/nn ,/, drawn/vbn from/in his/pp$ earliest/jjt productive/jj period/nn ;/. ;/.
I/ppss cite/vb it/ppo as/cs evidence/nn that/cs he/pps did/dod not/* develop/vb through/in new/jj styles/nns as/cs he/pps grew/vbd older/jjr (/( as/cs Yeats/np did/dod )/) ,/, but/cc that/cs he/pps simply/rb learned/vbd to/to use/vb better/rbr what/wdt he/pps already/rb had/hvd ./.
In/in the/at poem/nn we/ppss recognize/vb and/cc acknowledge/vb one/cd man's/nn$ sense/nn of/in the/at world/nn ;/. ;/.
if/cs it/pps is/bez somber/jj ,/, it/pps is/bez also/rb precise/jj ,/, and/cc the/at precision/nn lends/vbz authority/nn to/in the/at vision/nn ./.
In/in ``/`` Revulsion/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, on/in the/at other/ap hand/nn ,/, the/at pessimism/nn is/bez a/at case/nn not/* proven/vbn ;/. ;/.
the/at poem/nn offers/vbz nothing/pn to/to persuade/vb us/ppo of/in the/at speaker's/nn$ right/nn to/to speak/vb as/cs he/pps does/doz ./.
In/in the/at 1860/cd -/in 70/cd decade/nn there/ex are/ber many/ap poems/nns like/cs ``/`` Revulsion/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, but/cc there/ex is/bez only/rb one/cd ``/`` Neutral/jj-tl Tones/nns-tl ''/'' ./.
Hardy/np was/bedz not/* Hardy/np very/ql often/rb ./.


	The/at ``/`` Poems/nns-tl of/in-tl 1912/cd-tl -/in-tl 13/cd-tl ''/'' offer/vb a/at good/jj example/nn of/in Hardy's/np$ style/nn as/cs it/pps was/bedz manifested/vbn in/in the/at later/jjr productive/jj decade/nn ./.
These/dts are/ber the/at poems/nns Hardy/np wrote/vbd after/in the/at death/nn of/in his/pp$ first/od wife/nn ;/. ;/.
they/ppss compose/vb a/at painful/jj elegy/nn to/in what/wdt might/md have/hv been/ben ,/, to/in a/at marriage/nn that/wps began/vbd with/in a/at promise/nn of/in happiness/nn ,/, and/cc ended/vbd in/in long/jj years/nns of/in suffering/vbg and/cc hatred/nn ./.
Hardy/np obviously/rb felt/vbd that/cs these/dts poems/nns were/bed peculiarly/ql personal/jj and/cc private/jj ;/. ;/.
he/pps sometimes/rb called/vbd them/ppo ``/`` an/at expiation/nn ''/'' ,/, and/cc he/pps would/md not/* allow/vb them/ppo to/to be/be published/vbn in/in periodicals/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber the/at only/ap poems/nns that/wpo he/pps rearranged/vbd as/cs a/at group/nn between/in their/pp$ first/od appearance/nn (/( in/in Satires/nns-tl Of/in-tl Circumstance/nn-tl )/) and/cc the/at publication/nn of/in the/at Collected/vbn-tl Poems/nns-tl ./.


	The/at elegiac/jj tone/nn is/bez Hardy's/np$ natural/jj tone/nn of/in voice/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez not/* surprising/jj that/cs the/at 1912/cd -/in 13/cd poems/nns are/ber consistently/rb and/cc unmistakably/rb his/pp$$ ./.
The/at view/nn is/bez always/rb toward/in the/at past/nn ;/. ;/.
but/cc the/at mood/nn is/bez not/* quite/ql nostalgic/jj --/-- Hardy/np would/md not/* allow/vb sentiment/nn to/to soften/vb his/pp$ sense/nn of/in the/at irredeemable/jj pastness/nn of/in the/at past/nn ,/, and/cc the/at eternal/jj deadness/nn of/in the/at dead/jj ./.
The/at poems/nns are/ber ,/, the/at epigraph/nn tells/vbz us/ppo ,/, the/at ``/`` traces/nns of/in an/at ancient/jj flame/nn ''/'' ;/. ;/.
the/at fire/nn of/in love/nn is/bez dead/jj ,/, and/cc Hardy/np stands/vbz ,/, as/cs the/at speaker/nn does/doz in/in the/at last/ap poem/nn of/in the/at sequence/nn ,/, over/in the/at burnt/vbn circle/nn of/in charred/vbn sticks/nns ,/, and/cc thinks/vbz of/in past/ap happiness/nn and/cc present/jj grief/nn ,/, honest/jj and/cc uncomforted/jj ./.

Critically/rb invisible/jj ,/, modern/jj revolt/nn ,/, like/cs X-rays/nns-tl and/cc radioactivity/nn ,/, is/bez perceived/vbn only/rb by/in its/pp$ effects/nns at/in more/ql materialistic/jj social/jj levels/nns ,/, where/wrb it/pps is/bez called/vbn delinquency/nn ./.


	``/`` Disaffiliation/nn-nc ''/'' ,/, by/in the/at way/nn ,/, is/bez the/at term/nn used/vbn by/in the/at critic/nn and/cc poet/nn ,/, Lawrence/np Lipton/np ,/, who/wps has/hvz written/vbn several/ap articles/nns on/in this/dt subject/nn ,/, the/at first/od of/in which/wdt ,/, in/in The/at-tl Nation/nn-tl ,/, quoted/vbn as/cs Epigraph/nn-tl :/: ``/`` We/ppss disaffiliate/vb ./.
''/'' --/-- John/np L./np Lewis/np ./.


	Like/cs the/at pillars/nns of/in Hercules/np ,/, like/cs two/cd ruined/vbn Titans/nps guarding/vbg the/at entrance/nn to/in one/cd of/in Dante's/np$ circles/nns ,/, stand/vb two/cd great/jj dead/jj juvenile/jj delinquents/nns --/-- the/at heroes/nns of/in the/at post-war/jj generation/nn :/: the/at great/jj saxophonist/nn ,/, Charlie/np Parker/np ,/, and/cc Dylan/np Thomas/np ./.
If/cs the/at word/nn deliberate/jj-nc means/vbz anything/pn ,/, both/abx of/in them/ppo certainly/rb deliberately/rb destroyed/vbd themselves/ppls ./.


	Both/abx of/in them/ppo were/bed overcome/vbn by/in the/at horror/nn of/in the/at world/nn in/in which/wdt they/ppss found/vbd themselves/ppls ,/, because/cs at/in last/ap they/ppss could/md no/ql longer/rbr overcome/vb that/dt world/nn with/in the/at weapon/nn of/in a/at purely/ql lyrical/jj art/nn ./.
Both/abx of/in them/ppo were/bed my/pp$ friends/nns ./.
Living/vbg in/in San/np Francisco/np I/ppss saw/vbd them/ppo seldom/rb enough/qlp to/to see/vb them/ppo with/in a/at perspective/nn which/wdt was/bedz not/* distorted/vbn by/in exasperation/nn or/cc fatigue/nn ./.
So/rb as/cs the/at years/nns passed/vbd ,/, I/ppss saw/vbd them/ppo each/dt time/nn in/in the/at light/nn of/in an/at accelerated/vbn personal/jj conflagration/nn ./.


	The/at last/ap time/nn I/ppss saw/vbd Bird/np ,/, at/in Jimbo's/np$ Bob/np-tl City/nn-tl ,/, he/pps was/bedz so/ql gone/vbn --/-- so/ql blind/jj to/in the/at world/nn --/-- that/cs he/pps literally/rb sat/vbd down/rp on/in me/ppo before/cs he/pps realized/vbd I/ppss was/bedz there/rb ./.
``/`` What/wdt happened/vbd ,/, man/nn ''/'' ?/. ?/.
I/ppss said/vbd ,/, referring/vbg to/in the/at pretentious/jj ``/`` Jazz/nn-tl Concert/nn-tl ''/'' ./.
``/`` Evil/jj ,/, man/nn ,/, evil/jj ''/'' ,/, he/pps said/vbd ,/, and/cc that's/dt+bez all/abn he/pps said/vbd for/in the/at rest/nn of/in the/at night/nn ./.
About/rb dawn/nn he/pps got/vbd up/rp to/to blow/vb ./.
The/at rowdy/jj crowd/nn chilled/vbd into/in stillness/nn and/cc the/at fluent/jj melody/nn spiraled/vbd through/in it/ppo ./.


	The/at last/ap time/nn I/ppss saw/vbd Dylan/np ,/, his/pp$ self-destruction/nn had/hvd not/* just/rb passed/vbn the/at limits/nns of/in rationality/nn ./.
It/pps had/hvd assumed/vbn the/at terrifying/vbg inertia/nn of/in inanimate/jj matter/nn ./.
Being/beg with/in him/ppo was/bedz like/cs being/beg swept/vbn away/rb by/in a/at torrent/nn of/in falling/vbg stones/nns ./.


	Now/rb Dylan/np Thomas/np and/cc Charlie/np Parker/np have/hv a/at great/jj deal/nn more/ap in/in common/jj than/cs the/at same/ap disastrous/jj end/nn ./.
As/cs artists/nns ,/, they/ppss were/bed very/ql similar/jj ./.
They/ppss were/bed both/abx very/ql fluent/jj ./.
But/cc this/dt fluent/jj ,/, enchanting/jj utterance/nn had/hvd ,/, compared/vbn with/in important/jj artists/nns of/in the/at past/nn ,/, relatively/ql little/ap content/nn ./.
Neither/dtx of/in them/ppo got/vbd very/ql far/rb beyond/in a/at sort/nn of/in entranced/vbn rapture/nn at/in his/pp$ own/jj creativity/nn ./.
The/at principal/jjs theme/nn of/in Thomas's/np$ poetry/nn was/bedz the/at ambivalence/nn of/in birth/nn and/cc death/nn --/-- the/at pain/nn of/in blood-stained/jj creation/nn ./.
Music/nn ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, is/bez not/* so/ql explicit/jj an/at art/nn ,/, but/cc anybody/pn who/wps knew/vbd Charlie/np Parker/np knows/vbz that/cs he/pps felt/vbd much/rb the/at same/ap way/nn about/in his/pp$ own/jj gift/nn ./.
Both/abx of/in them/ppo did/dod communicate/vb one/cd central/jj theme/nn :/: Against/in the/at ruin/nn of/in the/at world/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez only/rb one/cd defense/nn --/-- the/at creative/jj act/nn ./.
This/dt ,/, of/in course/nn ,/, is/bez the/at theme/nn of/in much/ap art/nn --/-- perhaps/rb most/ap poetry/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at theme/nn of/in Horace/np ,/, who/wps certainly/rb otherwise/rb bears/vbz little/ap resemblance/nn to/in Parker/np or/cc Thomas/np ./.
The/at difference/nn is/bez that/cs Horace/np accepted/vbd his/pp$ theme/nn with/in a/at kind/nn of/in silken/jj assurance/nn ./.
To/in Dylan/np and/cc Bird/np it/pps was/bedz an/at agony/nn and/cc terror/nn ./.
I/ppss do/do not/* believe/vb that/cs this/dt is/bez due/jj to/in anything/pn especially/ql frightful/jj about/in their/pp$ relationship/nn to/in their/pp$ own/jj creativity/nn ./.
I/ppss believe/vb rather/rb that/cs it/pps is/bez due/jj to/in the/at catastrophic/jj world/nn in/in which/wdt that/dt creativity/nn seemed/vbd to/to be/be the/at sole/jj value/nn ./.
Horace's/np$ column/nn of/in imperishable/jj verse/nn shines/vbz quietly/rb enough/qlp in/in the/at lucid/jj air/nn of/in Augustan/jj Rome/np ./.
Art/nn may/md have/hv been/ben for/in him/ppo the/at most/ql enduring/vbg ,/, orderly/jj ,/, and/cc noble/jj activity/nn of/in man/nn ./.
But/cc the/at other/ap activities/nns of/in his/pp$ life/nn partook/vbd of/in these/dts values/nns ./.
They/ppss did/dod not/* actively/rb negate/vb them/ppo ./.
Dylan/np Thomas's/np$ verse/nn had/hvd to/to find/vb endurance/nn in/in a/at world/nn of/in burning/vbg cities/nns and/cc burning/vbg Jews/nps ./.
He/pps was/bedz able/jj to/to find/vb meaning/nn in/in his/pp$ art/nn as/ql long/rb as/cs it/pps was/bedz the/at answer/nn to/in air/nn raids/nns and/cc gas/nn ovens/nns ./.
As/cs the/at world/nn began/vbd to/to take/vb on/rp the/at guise/nn of/in an/at immense/jj air/nn raid/nn or/cc gas/nn oven/nn ,/, I/ppss believe/vb his/pp$ art/nn became/vbd meaningless/jj to/in him/ppo ./.
I/ppss think/vb all/abn this/dt could/md apply/vb to/in Parker/np just/ql as/ql well/rb ,/, although/cs ,/, because/rb of/in the/at nature/nn of/in music/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez not/* demonstrable/jj --/-- at/in least/ap not/* conclusively/rb ./.


	Thomas/np and/cc Parker/np have/hv more/ap in/in common/jj than/cs theme/nn ,/, attitude/nn ,/, life/nn pattern/nn ./.
In/in the/at practice/nn of/in their/pp$ art/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez an/at obvious/jj technical/jj resemblance/nn ./.
Contrary/jj to/in popular/jj belief/nn ,/, they/ppss were/bed not/* great/jj technical/jj innovators/nns ./.
Their/pp$ effects/nns are/ber only/rb superficially/rb startling/jj ./.
Thomas/np is/bez a/at regression/nn from/in the/at technical/jj originality/nn and/cc ingenuity/nn of/in writers/nns like/cs Pierre/np Reverdy/np or/cc Apollinaire/np ./.
Similarly/rb ,/, the/at innovations/nns of/in bop/nn ,/, and/cc of/in Parker/np particularly/rb ,/, have/hv been/ben vastly/rb overrated/vbn by/in people/nns unfamiliar/jj with/in music/nn ,/, especially/rb by/in that/dt ignoramus/nn ,/, the/at intellectual/jj jitterbug/nn ,/, the/at jazz/nn aficionado/nn ./.
The/at tonal/jj novelties/nns consist/vb in/in the/at introduction/nn of/in a/at few/ap chords/nns used/vbn in/in classical/jj music/nn for/in centuries/nns ./.
And/cc there/ex is/bez less/ap rhythmic/jj difference/nn between/in progressive/jj jazz/nn ,/, no/at matter/nn how/wql progressive/jj ,/, and/cc Dixieland/np ,/, than/cs there/ex is/bez between/in two/cd movements/nns of/in many/ap conventional/jj symphonies/nns ./.


	What/wdt Parker/np and/cc his/pp$ contemporaries/nns --/-- Gillespie/np ,/, Davis/np ,/, Monk/np ,/, Roach/np (/( Tristano/np is/bez an/at anomaly/nn )/) ,/, etc./rb --/-- did/dod was/bedz to/to absorb/vb the/at musical/jj ornamentation/nn of/in the/at older/jjr jazz/nn into/in the/at basic/jj structure/nn ,/, of/in which/wdt it/pps then/rb became/vbd an/at integral/jj part/nn ,/, and/cc with/in which/wdt it/pps then/rb developed/vbd ./.
This/dt is/bez true/jj of/in the/at melodic/jj line/nn which/wdt could/md be/be put/vbn together/rb from/in selected/vbn passages/nns of/in almost/rb anybody/pn --/-- Benny/np Carter/np ,/, Johnny/np Hodges/np ./.
It/pps is/bez true/jj of/in the/at rhythmic/jj pattern/nn in/in which/wdt the/at beat/nn shifts/vbz continuously/rb ,/, or/cc at/in least/ap is/bez continuously/rb sprung/vbn ,/, so/cs that/cs it/pps becomes/vbz ambiguous/jj enough/qlp to/to allow/vb the/at pattern/nn to/to be/be dominated/vbn by/in the/at long/jj pulsations/nns of/in the/at phrase/nn or/cc strophe/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez exactly/rb what/wdt happened/vbd in/in the/at transition/nn from/in baroque/jj to/in rococo/jj music/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at difference/nn between/in Bach/np and/cc Mozart/np ./.


	It/pps is/bez not/* a/at farfetched/jj analogy/nn to/to say/vb that/cs this/dt is/bez what/wdt Thomas/np did/dod to/in poetry/nn ./.
The/at special/jj syntactical/jj effects/nns of/in a/at Rimbaud/np or/cc an/at Edith/np Sitwell/np --/-- actually/rb ornaments/nns --/-- become/vb the/at main/jjs concern/nn ./.
The/at metaphysical/jj conceits/nns ,/, which/wdt fascinate/vb the/at Reactionary/jj-tl Generation/nn-tl still/rb dominant/jj in/in backwater/jj American/jj colleges/nns ,/, were/bed embroideries/nns ./.
Thomas's/np$ ellipses/nns and/cc ambiguities/nns are/ber ends/nns in/in themselves/ppls ./.
The/at immediate/jj theme/nn ,/, if/cs it/pps exists/vbz ,/, is/bez incidental/jj ,/, and/cc his/pp$ main/jjs theme/nn --/-- the/at terror/nn of/in birth/nn --/-- is/bez simply/rb reiterated/vbn ./.


	This/dt is/bez one/cd difference/nn between/in Bird/np and/cc Dylan/np which/wdt should/md be/be pointed/vbn out/rp ./.
Again/rb ,/, contrary/jj to/in popular/jj belief/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez nothing/pn crazy/jj or/cc frantic/jj about/in Parker/np either/cc musically/rb or/cc emotionally/rb ./.
His/pp$ sinuous/jj melody/nn is/bez a/at sort/nn of/in naive/jj transcendence/nn of/in all/abn experience/nn ./.
Emotionally/rb it/pps does/doz not/* resemble/vb Berlioz/np or/cc Wagner/np ;/. ;/.
it/pps resembles/vbz Mozart/np ./.
This/dt is/bez true/jj also/rb of/in a/at painter/nn like/cs Jackson/np Pollock/np ./.
He/pps may/md have/hv been/ben eccentric/jj in/in his/pp$ behavior/nn ,/, but/cc his/pp$ paintings/nns are/ber as/ql impassive/jj as/cs Persian/jj tiles/nns ./.
Partly/rb this/dt difference/nn is/bez due/jj to/in the/at nature/nn of/in verbal/jj communication/nn ./.
The/at insistent/jj talk-aboutiveness/nn of/in the/at general/jj environment/nn obtrudes/vbz into/in even/rb the/at most/ql idyllic/jj poetry/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez much/ql more/ap a/at personal/jj difference/nn ./.
Thomas/np certainly/rb wanted/vbd to/to tell/vb people/nns about/in the/at ruin/nn and/cc disorder/nn of/in the/at world/nn ./.
Parker/np and/cc Pollock/np wanted/vbd to/to substitute/vb a/at work/nn of/in art/nn for/in the/at world/nn ./.


	Technique/nn pure/jj and/cc simple/jj ,/, rendition/nn ,/, is/bez not/* of/in major/jj importance/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez interesting/jj that/cs Parker/np ,/, following/vbg Lester/np Young/np ,/, was/bedz one/cd of/in the/at leaders/nns of/in the/at so-called/jj saxophone/nn revolution/nn ./.
In/in modern/jj jazz/nn ,/, the/at saxophone/nn is/bez treated/vbn as/cs a/at woodwind/nn and/cc played/vbn with/in conventional/jj embouchure/nn ./.
Metrically/rb ,/, Thomas's/np$ verse/nn was/bedz extremely/ql conventional/jj ,/, as/cs was/bedz ,/, incidentally/rb ,/, the/at verse/nn of/in that/dt other/ap tragic/jj enrage/nn ,/, Hart/np Crane/np ./.


	I/ppss want/vb to/to make/vb clear/jj what/wdt I/ppss consider/vb the/at one/cd technical/jj development/nn in/in the/at first/od wave/nn of/in significant/jj post-war/jj arts/nns ./.
Ornament/nn is/bez confabulation/nn in/in the/at interstices/nns of/in structure/nn ./.
A/at poem/nn by/in Dylan/np Thomas/np ,/, a/at saxophone/nn solo/nn by/in Charles/np Parker/np ,/, a/at painting/nn by/in Jackson/np Pollock/np --/-- these/dts are/ber pure/jj confabulations/nns as/cs ends/nns in/in themselves/ppls ./.
Confabulation/nn has/hvz come/vbn to/to determine/vb structure/nn ./.
Uninhibited/jj lyricism/nn should/md be/be distinguished/vbn from/in its/pp$ exact/jj opposite/nn --/-- the/at sterile/jj ,/, extraneous/jj invention/nn of/in the/at corn-belt/nn metaphysicals/nns ,/, or/cc present/jj blight/nn of/in poetic/jj professors/nns ./.


	Just/rb as/cs Hart/np Crane/np had/hvd little/ap influence/nn on/in anyone/pn except/in very/ql reactionary/jj writers/nns --/-- like/cs Allen/np Tate/np ,/, for/in instance/nn ,/, to/in whom/wpo Valery/np was/bedz the/at last/ap word/nn in/in modern/jj poetry/nn and/cc the/at felicities/nns of/in an/at Apollinaire/np ,/, let/vb alone/rb a/at Paul/np Eluard/np were/bed nonsense/nn --/-- so/rb Dylan/np Thomas's/np$ influence/nn has/hvz been/ben slight/jj indeed/qlp ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, his/pp$ only/ap disciple/nn --/-- the/at only/ap person/nn to/to imitate/vb his/pp$ style/nn --/-- was/bedz W./np S./np Graham/np ,/, who/wps seems/vbz to/to have/hv imitated/vbn him/ppo without/in much/ap understanding/nn ,/, and/cc who/wps has/hvz since/rb moved/vbd on/rp to/in other/ap methods/nns ./.
Thomas's/np$ principal/jjs influence/nn lay/vbd in/in the/at communication/nn of/in an/at attitude/nn --/-- that/dt of/in the/at now/rb extinct/jj British/jj romantic/jj school/nn of/in the/at New/jj-tl Apocalypse/nn-tl --/-- Henry/np Treece/np ,/, J./np F./np Hendry/np ,/, and/cc others/nns --/-- all/abn of/in whom/wpo were/bed quite/ql conventional/jj poets/nns ./.


	Parker/np certainly/rb had/hvd much/ql more/ap of/in an/at influence/nn ./.
At/in one/cd time/nn it/pps was/bedz the/at ambition/nn of/in every/at saxophone/nn player/nn in/in every/at high/jj school/nn band/nn in/in America/np to/to blow/vb like/cs Bird/np ./.
Even/rb before/in his/pp$ death/nn this/dt influence/nn had/hvd begun/vbn to/to ebb/vb ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, the/at whole/jj generation/nn of/in the/at founding/vbg fathers/nns of/in bop/nn --/-- Gillespie/np ,/, Monk/np ,/, Davis/np ,/, Blakey/np ,/, and/cc the/at rest/nn --/-- are/ber just/rb now/rb at/in a/at considerable/jj discount/nn ./.
The/at main/jjs line/nn of/in development/nn today/nr goes/vbz back/rb to/in Lester/np Young/np and/cc by-passes/vbz them/ppo ./.


	The/at point/nn is/bez that/cs many/ap of/in the/at most/ql impressive/jj developments/nns in/in the/at arts/nns nowadays/rb are/ber aberrant/jj ,/, idiosyncratic/jj ./.
There/ex is/bez no/ql longer/rbr any/dti sense/nn of/in continuing/vbg development/nn of/in the/at sort/nn that/wps can/md be/be traced/vbn from/in Baudelaire/np to/in Eluard/np ,/, or/cc for/in that/dt matter/nn ,/, from/in Hawthorne/np through/in Henry/np James/np to/in Gertrude/np Stein/np ./.
The/at cubist/jj generation/nn before/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, ,/, and/cc ,/, on/in a/at lower/jjr level/nn ,/, the/at surrealists/nns of/in the/at period/nn between/in the/at wars/nns ,/, both/abx assumed/vbd an/at accepted/vbn universe/nn of/in discourse/nn ,/, in/in which/wdt ,/, to/to quote/vb Andre/np Breton/np ,/, it/pps was/bedz possible/jj to/to make/vb definite/jj advances/nns ,/, exactly/rb as/cs in/in the/at sciences/nns ./.
I/ppss doubt/vb if/cs anyone/pn holds/vbz such/jj ideas/nns today/nr ./.
Continuity/nn exits/vbz ,/, but/cc like/cs the/at neo-swing/nn music/nn developed/vbn from/in Lester/np Young/np ,/, it/pps is/bez a/at continuity/nn sustained/vbn by/in popular/jj demand/nn ./.


	In/in the/at plastic/jj arts/nns ,/, a/at very/ql similar/jj situation/nn exists/vbz ./.
Surrealists/nns like/cs Hans/np Arp/np and/cc Max/np Ernst/np might/md talk/vb of/in creation/nn by/in hazard/nn --/-- of/in composing/vbg pictures/nns by/in walking/vbg on/in them/ppo with/in painted/vbn soles/nns ,/, or/cc by/in tossing/vbg bits/nns of/in paper/nn up/rp in/in the/at air/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps is/bez obvious/jj that/cs they/ppss were/bed self-deluded/jj ./.
Nothing/pn looks/vbz anything/pn like/cs an/at Ernst/np or/cc an/at Arp/np but/cc another/dt Ernst/np or/cc Arp/np ./.
Nothing/pn looks/vbz less/rbr like/cs their/pp$ work/nn than/cs the/at happenings/nns of/in random/jj occasion/nn ./.
Many/ap of/in the/at post-World/jj War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, abstract/jj expressionists/nns ,/, apostles/nns of/in the/at discipline/nn of/in spontaneity/nn and/cc hazard/nn ,/, look/vb alike/jj ,/, and/cc do/do look/vb like/cs accidents/nns ./.
The/at aesthetic/jj appeal/nn of/in pure/jj paint/nn laid/vbn on/rp at/in random/nn may/md exist/vb ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez a/at very/ql impoverished/jj appeal/nn ./.
Once/rb again/rb what/wdt has/hvz happened/vbn is/bez an/at all-consuming/jj confabulation/nn of/in the/at incidentals/nns ,/, the/at accidents/nns of/in painting/vbg ./.
It/pps is/bez curious/jj that/cs at/in its/pp$ best/jjt ,/, the/at work/nn of/in this/dt school/nn of/in painting/vbg --/-- Mark/np Rothko/np ,/, Jackson/np Pollock/np ,/, Clyfford/np Still/np ,/, Robert/np Motherwell/np ,/, Willem/np De-Kooning/np ,/, and/cc the/at rest/nn --/-- resembles/vbz nothing/pn so/ql much/rb as/cs the/at passage/nn painting/nn of/in quite/ql unimpressive/jj painters/nns :/: the/at mother-of-pearl/nn shimmer/nn in/in the/at background/nn of/in a/at Henry/np McFee/np ,/, itself/ppl a/at formula/nn derived/vbn from/in Renoir/np ;/. ;/.
the/at splashes/nns of/in light/nn and/cc black/nn which/wdt fake/vb drapery/nn in/in the/at fashionable/jj imitators/nns of/in Hals/np and/cc Sargent/np ./.
Often/rb work/nn of/in this/dt sort/nn is/bez presented/vbn as/cs calligraphy/nn --/-- the/at pure/jj utterance/nn of/in the/at brush/nn stroke/nn seeking/vbg only/ap absolute/jj painteresque/jj values/nns ./.
You/ppss have/hv only/rb to/to compare/vb such/jj painting/nn with/in the/at work/nn of/in ,/, say/uh ,/, Sesshu/np ,/, to/to realize/vb that/cs someone/pn is/bez using/vbg words/nns and/cc brushes/nns carelessly/rb ./.


	At/in its/pp$ best/jjt the/at abstract/jj expressionists/nns achieve/vb a/at simple/jj rococo/jj decorative/jj surface/nn ./.
Its/pp$ poverty/nn shows/vbz up/rp immediately/rb when/wrb compared/vbn with/in Tiepolo/np ,/, where/wrb the/at rococo/nn rises/vbz to/in painting/vbg of/in extraordinary/jj profundity/nn and/cc power/nn ./.
A/at Tiepolo/np painting/nn ,/, however/wql confabulated/vbn ,/, is/bez a/at universe/nn of/in tensions/nns in/in vast/jj depths/nns ./.
A/at Pollock/np is/bez an/at object/nn of/in art/nn --/-- bijouterie/fw-nn --/-- disguised/vbn only/rb by/in its/pp$ great/jj size/nn ./.
In/in fact/nn ,/, once/cs the/at size/nn is/bez big/jj enough/qlp to/to cover/vb a/at whole/jj wall/nn ,/, it/pps turns/vbz into/in nothing/pn more/ap than/cs extremely/ql expensive/jj wallpaper/nn ./.
Now/rb there/ex is/bez nothing/pn wrong/jj with/in complicated/vbn wallpaper/nn ./.
There/ex is/bez just/rb more/ap to/in Tiepolo/np ./.
The/at great/jj Ashikaga/np brush/nn painters/nns painted/vbd wallpapers/nns ,/, too/rb --/-- at/in least/ap portable/jj ones/nns ,/, screens/nns ./.


	A/at process/nn of/in elimination/nn which/wdt leaves/vbz the/at artist/nn with/in nothing/pn but/in the/at play/nn of/in his/pp$ materials/nns themselves/ppls cannot/md* sustain/vb interest/nn in/in either/cc artist/nn or/cc public/nn for/in very/ql long/rb ./.
So/rb ,/, in/in the/at last/ap couple/nn of/in years/nns ,/, abstract/jj expressionism/nn has/hvz tended/vbn toward/in romantic/jj suggestion/nn --/-- indications/nns of/in landscape/nn or/cc living/vbg figures/nns ./.



	Anglo-Saxon/jj and/cc Greek/jj epic/nn each/dt provide/vb on/in two/cd occasions/nns a/at seemingly/rb authentic/jj account/nn of/in the/at narration/nn of/in verse/nn in/in the/at heroic/jj age/nn ./.
Hrothgar's/np$ court/nn bard/nn sings/vbz of/in the/at encounters/nns at/in Finnsburg/np (/( lines/nns 1068/cd -/in 1159/cd )/) ,/, and/cc improvises/vbz the/at tale/nn of/in Beowulf's/np$ exploits/nns in/in a/at complimentary/jj comparison/nn of/in the/at Geatish/jj visitor/nn with/in Sigemund/np (/( lines/nns 871/cd -/in 892/cd )/) ;/. ;/.
Alcinous'/np$ court/nn bard/nn sings/vbz of/in the/at discovered/vbn adultery/nn of/in Ares/np and/cc Aphrodite/np (/( Odyssey/np 8/cd 266-366/cd )/) ,/, and/cc takes/vbz up/rp a/at tale/nn of/in Odysseus/np while/cs the/at Ithacan/jj wanderer/nn listens/vbz on/rp (/( Odyssey/np 8/cd 499-520/cd )/) ./.
Nothing/pn in/in all/abn this/dt is/bez autobiographical/jj :/: unlike/in the/at poets/nns of/in Deor/np-tl and/cc Widsith/np-tl ,/, the/at poet/nn of/in Beowulf/np-tl is/bez not/* concerned/vbn with/in his/pp$ own/jj identity/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at poet/nn of/in The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl ,/, reputed/vbn blind/jj ,/, reveals/vbz himself/ppl not/* at/in all/abn in/in singing/vbg of/in the/at blind/jj minstrel/nn Demodocus/np ./.
Since/cs none/pn of/in these/dts glimpses/nns of/in poetizing/vbg without/in writing/vbg is/bez intended/vbn to/to incorporate/vb a/at signature/nn into/in the/at epic/nn matter/nn ,/, there/ex is/bez prima-facie/jj evidence/nn that/cs Beowulf/np and/cc the/at Homeric/jj poems/nns each/dt derive/vb from/in an/at oral/jj tradition/nn ./.
That/cs such/abl a/at tradition/nn lies/vbz behind/in The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl ,/, at/in least/ap ,/, is/bez hard/jj to/to deny/vb ./.
Milman/np Parry/np rigorously/rb defended/vbd the/at observation/nn that/cs the/at extant/jj Homeric/jj poems/nns are/ber largely/rb formulaic/jj ,/, and/cc was/bedz led/vbn to/to postulate/vb that/cs they/ppss could/md be/be shown/vbn entirely/rb formulaic/jj if/cs the/at complete/jj corpus/nn of/in Greek/jj epic/nn survived/vbd ;/. ;/.
he/pps further/rbr reasoned/vbd that/cs frequent/jj formulas/nns in/in epic/nn verse/nn indicate/vb oral/jj composition/nn ,/, and/cc assumed/vbd the/at slightly/ql less/ql likely/jj corollary/nn that/cs oral/jj epic/nn is/bez inclined/vbn towards/in the/at use/nn of/in formulas/nns ./.
Proceeding/vbg from/in Parry's/np$ conclusions/nns and/cc adopting/vbg one/cd of/in his/pp$ schemata/nns ,/, Francis/np P./np Magoun/np ,/, Jr./np ,/, argues/vbz that/cs Beowulf/np-tl likewise/rb was/bedz created/vbn from/in a/at legacy/nn of/in oral/jj formulas/nns inherited/vbn and/cc extended/vbn by/in bards/nns of/in successive/jj generations/nns ,/, and/cc the/at thesis/nn is/bez striking/jj and/cc compelling/jj ./.
Yet/cc a/at fresh/jj inspection/nn will/md indicate/vb one/cd crucial/jj amendment/nn :/: Beowulf/np-tl and/cc the/at Homeric/jj poems/nns are/ber not/* at/in all/abn formulaic/jj to/in the/at same/ap extent/nn ./.


	The/at bondage/nn endurable/jj by/in an/at oral/jj poet/nn is/bez to/to be/be estimated/vbn only/rb by/in a/at very/ql skilful/jj oral/jj poet/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps appears/vbz safe/jj to/to assume/vb that/cs no/at sustained/vbn narrative/nn in/in rhyme/nn could/md be/be composed/vbn without/in extreme/jj difficulty/nn ,/, even/rb in/in a/at language/nn of/in many/ap terminal/jj inflections/nns ./.
Assonance/nn seems/vbz nearly/rb as/ql severe/jj a/at curb/nn ,/, although/cs in/in a/at celebrated/vbn passage/nn William/np of/in-tl Malmesbury/np declares/vbz that/cs A/at-tl Song/nn-tl Of/in-tl Roland/np-tl was/bedz intoned/vbd before/cs the/at battle/nn commenced/vbd at/in Hastings/np ./.
The/at Anglo-Saxon/jj alliterative/jj line/nn and/cc the/at Homeric/jj hexameter/nn probably/rb imposed/vbd less/ap of/in a/at restraint/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at verse/nn of/in Beowulf/np-tl or/cc of/in The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl was/bedz not/* easy/jj to/to create/vb but/cc was/bedz not/* impossible/jj for/in poets/nns who/wps had/hvd developed/vbn their/pp$ talents/nns perforce/rb in/in earning/vbg a/at livelihood/nn ./.
Yet/cc certain/ap aids/nns were/bed valuable/jj and/cc quite/ql credibly/rb necessary/jj for/in reciting/vbg long/jj stretches/nns of/in verse/nn without/in a/at pause/nn ./.
The/at poet/nn in/in a/at written/vbn tradition/nn who/wps generally/rb never/rb blots/vbz a/at line/nn may/md once/rb in/in a/at while/nn pause/vb and/cc polish/vb without/in incurring/vbg blame/nn ./.
But/cc the/at oral/jj poet/nn cannot/md* pause/vb ;/. ;/.
he/pps must/md improvise/vb continuously/rb with/in no/at apparent/jj effort/nn ./.
Even/rb though/cs the/at bondage/nn of/in his/pp$ verse/nn is/bez not/* so/ql great/jj as/cs the/at writing/vbg poet/nn can/md manage/vb ,/, it/pps is/bez still/rb great/jj enough/qlp for/cs him/ppo often/rb to/to be/be seriously/rb impeded/vbn unless/cs he/pps has/hvz aids/nns to/to facilitate/vb rapid/jj composition/nn ./.
The/at Germanic/jj poet/nn had/hvd such/jj aids/nns in/in the/at kennings/nns ,/, which/wdt provided/vbd for/in the/at difficulties/nns of/in alliteration/nn ;/. ;/.
the/at Homeric/jj poet/nn had/hvd epithets/nns ,/, which/wdt provided/vbd for/in recurring/vbg needs/nns in/in the/at hexameter/nn ./.
Either/dtx poet/nn could/md quickly/rb and/cc easily/rb select/vb words/nns or/cc phrases/nns to/to supply/vb his/pp$ immediate/jj requirements/nns as/cs he/pps chanted/vbd out/rp his/pp$ lines/nns ,/, because/cs the/at kennings/nns and/cc the/at epithets/nns made/vbd possible/jj the/at construction/nn of/in systems/nns of/in numerous/jj synonyms/nns for/in the/at chief/jjs common/jj and/cc proper/jj nouns/nns ./.
Other/ap synonyms/nns could/md of/in course/nn serve/vb the/at same/ap function/nn ,/, and/cc for/in the/at sake/nn of/in ease/nn I/ppss shall/md speak/vb of/in kennings/nns and/cc epithets/nns in/in the/at widest/jjt and/cc loosest/jjt possible/jj sense/nn ,/, and/cc name/vb ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, Gar-Dene/nps-nc a/at kenning/nn for/in the/at Danes/nps ./.
Verbal/jj and/cc adverbial/jj elements/nns too/rb participated/vbd in/in each/dt epic/nn diction/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps is/bez for/in the/at present/nn sufficient/jj to/to mark/vb the/at large/jj nominal/jj and/cc adjectival/jj supply/nn of/in semantic/jj near-equivalents/nns ,/, and/cc to/to designate/vb the/at members/nns of/in any/dti system/nn of/in equivalents/nns as/cs basic/jj formulas/nns of/in the/at poetic/jj language/nn ./.
Limited/vbn to/in a/at few/ap thousand/cd lines/nns of/in heroic/jj verse/nn in/in Anglo-Saxon/jj as/cs in/in the/at other/ap Germanic/jj dialects/nns ,/, we/ppss cannot/md* say/vb how/wql frequently/rb the/at kennings/nns in/in Beowulf/np-tl recurred/vbd in/in contemporary/jj epic/nn on/in the/at same/ap soil/nn ./.
But/cc we/ppss can/md say/vb that/cs since/cs a/at writing/vbg poet/nn ,/, with/in leisure/nn before/in him/ppo ,/, would/md seem/vb unlikely/jj to/to invent/vb a/at technique/nn based/vbn upon/in frequent/jj and/cc substantial/jj circumlocution/nn ,/, the/at kennings/nns like/cs the/at epithets/nns must/md reasonably/rb be/be ascribed/vbn to/in an/at oral/jj tradition/nn ./.


	One/cd of/in the/at greatest/jjt Homerists/nps of/in our/pp$ time/nn ,/, Frederick/np M./np Combellack/np ,/, argues/vbz that/cs when/wrb it/pps is/bez assumed/vbn The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl are/ber oral/jj poems/nns ,/, the/at postulated/vbn single/ap redactor/nn called/vbn Homer/np cannot/md* be/be either/cc credited/vbn with/in or/cc denied/vbn originality/nn in/in choice/nn of/in phrasing/vbg ./.
Any/dti example/nn of/in grand/jj or/cc exquisite/jj diction/nn may/md have/hv been/ben created/vbn by/in the/at poet/nn who/wps compiled/vbd numerous/jj lays/nns into/in the/at two/cd works/nns we/ppss possess/vb or/cc may/md be/be due/jj to/in one/cd of/in his/pp$ completely/ql unknown/jj fellow-craftsmen/nns ./.
The/at quest/nn of/in the/at historical/jj Homer/np is/bez likely/jj never/rb to/to have/hv further/ap success/nn ;/. ;/.
no/at individual/ap word/nn in/in The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl or/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl can/md be/be credited/vbn to/in any/dti one/cd man/nn ;/. ;/.
no/at strikingly/rb effective/jj element/nn of/in speech/nn in/in the/at extant/jj poems/nns can/md with/in assurance/nn be/be said/vbn not/* to/to have/hv been/ben a/at commonplace/nn in/in the/at vaster/jjr epic/nn corpus/nn that/wps may/md have/hv existed/vbn at/in the/at beginning/nn of/in the/at first/od millennium/nn before/in Christ/np ./.
This/dt observation/nn is/bez of/in interest/nn not/* only/rb to/in students/nns of/in Homeric/jj poetry/nn but/cc to/in students/nns of/in Anglo-Saxon/jj poetry/nn as/ql well/rb ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs a/at tale/nn is/bez twice/rb told/vbn ,/, its/pp$ final/ap author/nn must/md be/be suspect/jj ,/, although/cs plagiarism/nn in/in an/at oral/jj tradition/nn is/bez less/ap a/at misdemeanor/nn than/cs the/at standard/jj modus/fw-nn dicendi/fw-vbg ./.


	Combellack/np argues/vbz further/rbr ,/, and/cc here/rb he/pps makes/vbz his/pp$ main/jjs point/nn ,/, that/cs once/cs The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl are/ber thought/vbn formulaic/jj poems/nns composed/vbn for/in an/at audience/nn accustomed/vbn to/in formulaic/jj poetry/nn ,/, Homeric/jj critics/nns are/ber deprived/vbn of/in an/at entire/jj domain/nn they/ppss previously/rb found/vbd arable/jj ./.
With/in a/at few/ap important/jj and/cc a/at few/ap more/ql unimportant/jj exceptions/nns ,/, no/at expression/nn can/md be/be deemed/vbn le/fw-at mot/fw-nn juste/fw-jj for/in its/pp$ context/nn ,/, because/cs each/dt was/bedz very/ql probably/rb the/at only/ap expression/nn that/wpo long-established/jj practice/nn and/cc ease/nn of/in rapid/jj recitation/nn would/md allow/vb ./.
Words/nns or/cc phrases/nns that/wpo connoisseurs/nns have/hv admired/vbn as/cs handsome/jj or/cc ironic/jj or/cc humorous/jj must/md therefore/rb lose/vb merit/nn and/cc become/vb regarded/vbn as/cs mere/jj inevitable/jj time-servers/nns ,/, sometimes/rb accurate/jj and/cc sometimes/rb not/* ./.
This/dt observation/nn too/rb may/md have/hv reference/nn to/in Anglo-Saxon/jj poetry/nn ./.
To/in the/at extent/nn that/cs a/at language/nn is/bez formulaic/jj ,/, its/pp$ individual/ap components/nns must/md be/be regarded/vbn as/cs no/ql more/ql distinguished/vbn than/cs other/ap cliches/nns ./.


	W./np F./np Bryan/np suggests/vbz that/cs certain/ap kennings/nns in/in Beowulf/np-tl were/bed selected/vbn sometimes/rb for/in appropriateness/nn and/cc sometimes/rb for/in ironic/jj inappropriateness/nn ,/, but/cc such/abl a/at view/nn would/md appear/vb untenable/jj unless/cs it/pps is/bez denied/vbn that/cs the/at language/nn of/in Beowulf/np-tl is/bez formulaic/jj ./.
If/cs the/at master/nn of/in scops/nns who/wps was/bedz most/ql responsible/jj for/in the/at poem/nn ever/rb used/vbd kennings/nns that/wps were/bed traditional/jj ,/, he/pps was/bedz at/in least/ap partly/rb deprived/vbn of/in free/jj will/nn and/cc not/* inclined/vbn towards/in shrewd/jj and/cc sophisticated/jj misuse/nn of/in speech/nn elements/nns ./.
Once/cs many/ap significant/jj phrases/nns are/ber found/vbn in/in theory/nn or/cc in/in recurrent/jj practice/nn to/to provide/vb for/in prosodic/jj necessity/nn ,/, they/ppss are/ber not/* to/to be/be defended/vbn for/in their/pp$ semantic/jj properties/nns in/in isolated/vbn contexts/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez false/jj to/to be/be certain/jj of/in having/hvg discovered/vbn in/in the/at language/nn of/in Beowulf/np-tl such/jj effects/nns as/cs intentional/jj irony/nn ./.


	Yet/rb ,/, if/cs the/at argument/nn is/bez turned/vbn awry/jj ,/, there/ex may/md be/be found/vbn a/at great/jj deal/nn in/in Bryan's/np$ view/nn ,/, after/in all/abn ./.
A/at formulaic/jj element/nn need/md not/* be/be held/vbn meaningless/jj merely/rb because/cs it/pps was/bedz selected/vbn with/in little/ap conscious/jj reflection/nn ./.
Time-servers/nns ,/, though/cs the/at periphrastic/jj expressions/nns are/ber ,/, they/ppss may/md nevertheless/rb be/be handsome/jj or/cc ironic/jj or/cc humorous/jj ./.
A/at long/jj evolution/nn in/in an/at oral/jj tradition/nn caused/vbd the/at poetic/jj language/nn of/in the/at heroic/jj age/nn to/to be/be based/vbn upon/in formulas/nns that/wps show/vb the/at important/jj qualities/nns of/in things/nns ,/, and/cc these/dts formulas/nns are/ber therefore/rb potentially/rb rather/rb than/cs always/rb actually/rb accurate/jj ./.
True/rb ,/, we/ppss do/do not/* know/vb how/wrb they/ppss were/bed regarded/vbn in/in their/pp$ day/nn ,/, but/cc we/ppss need/md not/* believe/vb the/at epic/nn audience/nn to/to have/hv been/ben more/ql insensitive/jj to/in the/at formulas/nns than/cs the/at numerous/jj scholars/nns of/in modern/jj times/nns who/wps have/hv read/vbn Germanic/jj or/cc Homeric/jj poetry/nn all/abn their/pp$ lives/nns and/cc still/rb found/vbd much/ap to/to admire/vb in/in occasional/jj occurrences/nns of/in the/at most/ql familiar/jj phrases/nns ./.
Nouns/nns and/cc adjectives/nns in/in a/at written/vbn tradition/nn are/ber chosen/vbn for/in the/at nonce/nn ;/. ;/.
in/in an/at oral/jj tradition/nn they/ppss may/md be/be chosen/vbn for/in the/at entire/jj epic/nn corpus/nn ,/, and/cc tend/vb towards/in idealization/nn rather/rb than/cs distinctive/jj delineation/nn ./.
Reliance/nn is/bez therefore/rb not/* to/to be/be placed/vbn upon/in the/at archaeological/jj particulars/nns in/in an/at oral/jj poem/nn ;/. ;/.
no-one/pn today/nr would/md hope/vb to/to discover/vb the/at unmistakable/jj ruins/nns of/in Heorot/np or/cc the/at palace/nn of/in Priam/np ./.
A/at ship/nn at/in dry-dock/nn could/md be/be called/vbn a/at foamy-necked/jj floater/nn in/in Anglo-Saxon/np or/cc a/at swift/jj ship/nn in/in Greek/np ./.
Even/rb when/wrb defenseless/jj of/in weapons/nns the/at Danes/nps would/md be/be Gar-Dene/nps (/( as/cs their/pp$ king/nn is/bez Hrothgar/np )/) and/cc Priam/np would/md be/be EUMMELIHS/fw-jj ./.
Achilles/np ,/, like/cs Siegfried/np in/in The/at-tl Nibelungenlied/np-tl ,/, is/bez potentially/rb the/at swiftest/jjt of/in men/nns and/cc may/md accordingly/rb be/be called/vbn swift-footed/jj even/rb when/wrb he/pps stands/vbz idle/jj ./.
In/in Coriolanus/np-tl the/at agnomen/nn of/in Marcius/np is/bez used/vbn deliberately/rb and/cc pointedly/rb ,/, but/cc the/at Homeric/jj epithets/nns and/cc the/at Anglo-Saxon/jj kennings/nns are/ber used/vbn casually/rb and/cc recall/vb to/in the/at hearer/nn ``/`` a/at familiar/jj story/nn or/cc situation/nn or/cc a/at useful/jj or/cc pleasant/jj quality/nn of/in the/at referent/nn ''/'' ./.
The/at epic/nn language/nn was/bedz not/* entirely/rb the/at servant/nn of/in the/at poet/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps was/bedz partly/rb his/pp$ master/nn ./.
The/at poet's/nn$ intentions/nns are/ber difficult/jj to/to discern/vb and/cc ,/, except/in to/in biographers/nns ,/, unimportant/jj ;/. ;/.
the/at language/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez a/at proper/jj object/nn of/in scrutiny/nn ,/, and/cc the/at effects/nns of/in the/at language/nn are/ber palpable/jj even/rb if/cs sometimes/rb inevitable/jj ./.


	Beowulf/np-tl and/cc the/at Homeric/jj poems/nns appear/vb oral/jj compositions/nns ./.
Yet/cc they/ppss are/ber written/vbn ;/. ;/.
at/in some/dti stage/nn in/in their/pp$ evolution/nn they/ppss were/bed transcribed/vbn ./.
Albert/np B./np Lord/np suggests/vbz that/cs the/at Homeric/jj poems/nns were/bed dictated/vbn to/in a/at scribe/nn by/in a/at minstrel/nn who/wps held/vbd in/in his/pp$ mind/nn the/at poems/nns fully/rb matured/vbn but/cc did/dod not/* himself/ppl possess/vb the/at knowledge/nn of/in writing/vbg since/cs it/pps would/md be/be useless/jj to/in his/pp$ guild/nn ,/, and/cc Magoun/np argues/vbz that/cs the/at Beowulf/np-tl poet/nn and/cc Cynewulf/np may/md have/hv dictated/vbn their/pp$ verse/nn in/in the/at same/ap fashion/nn ./.
This/dt explanation/nn is/bez attractive/jj ,/, but/cc is/bez vitiated/vbn at/in least/ap in/in part/nn by/in the/at observation/nn that/cs Cynewulf/np ,/, though/cs he/pps used/vbd kennings/nns in/in the/at traditional/jj manner/nn ,/, was/bedz a/at literate/jj man/nn who/wps four/cd times/nns inscribed/vbd his/pp$ name/nn by/in runes/nns into/in his/pp$ works/nns ./.
If/cs Cynewulf/np was/bedz literate/jj ,/, the/at Beowulf/np-tl poet/nn may/md have/hv been/ben also/rb ,/, and/cc so/rb may/md the/at final/ap redactor/nn of/in The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl ./.
In/in lieu/nn of/in the/at amanuensis/nn to/in the/at blind/jj or/cc illiterate/jj bard/nn ,/, one/pn may/md conceive/vb of/in a/at man/nn who/wps heard/vbd a/at vast/jj store/nn of/in oral/jj poetry/nn recited/vbn ,/, and/cc became/vbd intimately/rb familiar/jj with/in the/at established/vbn aids/nns to/in poetizing/vbg ,/, and/cc himself/ppl wrote/vbd his/pp$ own/jj compositions/nns or/cc his/pp$ edition/nn of/in the/at compositions/nns of/in the/at past/nn ./.
Other/ap theories/nns of/in origin/nn are/ber compatible/jj with/in the/at formulaic/jj theory/nn :/: Beowulf/np-tl may/md contain/vb a/at design/nn for/in terror/nn ,/, and/cc The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl may/md have/hv a/at vast/jj hysteron-proteron/nn pattern/nn answering/vbg to/in a/at ceramic/jj pattern/nn produced/vbn during/in the/at Geometric/jj-tl Period/nn-tl in/in pottery/nn ./.
The/at account/nn of/in the/at growth/nn and/cc final/ap transcription/nn of/in these/dts epics/nns rests/vbz partly/rb ,/, however/rb ,/, upon/in the/at degree/nn to/in which/wdt they/ppss were/bed formulaic/jj ./.


	Carl/np Eduard/np Schmidt/np counted/vbd 1804/cd different/jj lines/nns repeated/vbn exactly/rb in/in the/at two/cd Homeric/jj poems/nns ,/, and/cc by/in increasing/vbg this/dt figure/nn so/cs as/cs to/to include/vb lines/nns repeated/vbn with/in very/ql slight/jj modifications/nns he/pps counted/vbd 2118/cd different/jj lines/nns used/vbn a/at total/nn of/in 5612/cd times/nns ./.
Thus/rb one/cd line/nn in/in five/cd from/in The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl and/cc The/at-tl Odyssey/np-tl is/bez to/to be/be found/vbn somewhere/rb else/rb in/in the/at two/cd poems/nns ./.
The/at ratio/nn is/bez thoroughly/ql remarkable/jj ,/, because/cs the/at lines/nns are/ber so/ql long/jj --/-- half/abn again/rb as/ql long/jj as/cs those/dts of/in Beowulf/np-tl ./.
Anglo-Saxon/jj poetry/nn appears/vbz to/to have/hv no/at comparable/jj amount/nn of/in repetition/nn ;/. ;/.
there/ex is/bez no/at reason/nn to/to think/vb that/cs the/at scop/nn used/vbd and/cc re-used/vbd whole/jj lines/nns and/cc even/rb lengthy/jj passages/nns after/in the/at manner/nn of/in his/pp$ Homeric/jj colleague/nn ./.
In/in determining/vbg the/at extent/nn to/in which/wdt any/dti poem/nn is/bez formulaic/jj it/pps is/bez idle/jj ,/, however/rb ,/, to/to inspect/vb nothing/pn besides/in lines/nns repeated/vbn in/in their/pp$ entirety/nn ,/, for/cs a/at stock/nn of/in line-fragments/nns would/md be/be sufficient/jj to/to permit/vb the/at poet/nn to/to extemporize/vb with/in deftness/nn if/cs they/ppss provided/vbd for/in prosodic/jj needs/nns ./.
The/at closest/jjt scrutiny/nn is/bez owed/vbn to/in the/at Anglo-Saxon/jj kennings/nns and/cc the/at Homeric/jj epithets/nns ;/. ;/.
if/cs any/dti words/nns or/cc phrases/nns are/ber formulaic/jj ,/, they/ppss will/md be/be ./.


	The/at-tl Iliad/np-tl has/hvz two/cd words/nns for/in the/at shield/nn ,/, ASPIS/fw-nn-nc and/cc SAKOS/fw-nn-nc ./.

Recent/jj criticism/nn of/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl has/hvz tended/vbn to/to emphasize/vb its/pp$ symbolic/jj and/cc mythic/jj content/nn ,/, to/to show/vb ,/, as/cs M./np D./np Zabel/np has/hvz said/vbn of/in Dickens/np generally/rb ,/, that/cs much/ap of/in the/at novel's/nn$ impact/nn resides/vbz in/in its/pp$ ``/`` allegoric/jj insight/nn and/cc moral/jj metaphor/nn ''/'' ./.
J./np H./np Miller's/np$ excellent/jj chapter/nn on/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl has/hvz lately/rb illustrated/vbn how/wql fruitfully/rb that/dt novel/nn can/md be/be read/vbn from/in such/abl a/at perspective/nn ./.
In/in his/pp$ analysis/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, he/pps touches/vbz upon/in but/cc fails/vbz to/to explore/vb an/at idea/nn ,/, generally/rb neglected/vbn in/in discussions/nns of/in the/at book/nn ,/, which/wdt I/ppss believe/vb is/bez central/jj to/in its/pp$ art/nn --/-- the/at importance/nn of/in human/jj hands/nns as/cs a/at recurring/vbg feature/nn of/in the/at narrative/nn ./.
This/dt essay/nn seeks/vbz to/to make/vb that/dt exploration/nn ./.


	Dickens/np was/bedz not/* for/in nothing/pn the/at most/ql theatrical/jj of/in the/at great/jj Victorian/jj writers/nns ./.
He/pps knew/vbd instinctively/rb that/cs next/rb to/in voice/nn and/cc face/nn an/at actor's/nn$ hands/nns are/ber his/pp$ most/ql useful/jj possession/nn --/-- that/cs in/in fiction/nn as/cs in/in the/at theatre/nn ,/, gesture/nn is/bez an/at indispensable/jj shorthand/nn for/in individualizing/vbg character/nn and/cc dramatizing/vbg action/nn and/cc response/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez hardly/ql accidental/jj ,/, therefore/rb ,/, that/cs many/ap of/in his/pp$ most/ql vivid/jj figures/nns do/do suggestive/jj or/cc eccentric/jj things/nns with/in their/pp$ hands/nns ./.
In/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl the/at hands/nns become/vb almost/rb an/at obsession/nn ./.
Mr./np Jaggers/np habitually/rb bites/vbz his/pp$ forefinger/nn ,/, a/at gesture/nn which/wdt conveys/vbz both/abx contempt/nn and/cc the/at inscrutable/jj abstractedness/nn that/wps half/rb fascinates/vbz ,/, half/rb terrifies/vbz all/abn who/wps have/hv dealings/nns with/in him/ppo ./.
Miss/np Havisham's/np$ withered/vbn hands/nns ,/, heavy/jj as/cs if/cs her/pp$ unhappiness/nn were/bed somehow/rb concentrated/vbn in/in them/ppo ,/, move/vb in/in restless/jj self-pity/nn between/in her/pp$ broken/vbn heart/nn and/cc her/pp$ walking/vbg stick/nn ./.
Pumblechook's/np$ ``/`` signature/nn ''/'' is/bez the/at perpetually/rb extended/vbn glad/jj hand/nn ./.
Wemmick/np reveals/vbz his/pp$ self-satisfaction/nn by/in regularly/rb rubbing/vbg his/pp$ hands/nns together/rb ./.
Old/jj Mr./np Pocket's/np$ frantic/jj response/nn to/in life/nn imprisonment/nn with/in a/at useless/jj ,/, social-climbing/jj wife/nn is/bez to/to ``/`` put/vb his/pp$ two/cd hands/nns into/in his/pp$ disturbed/vbn hair/nn ''/'' and/cc ``/`` make/vb an/at extraordinary/jj effort/nn to/to lift/vb himself/ppl up/rp by/in it/ppo ''/'' ,/, whereas/cs Joe/np Gargery/np endures/vbz the/at shrewish/jj onslaughts/nns of/in Mrs./np Joe/np by/in apologetically/rb drawing/vbg ``/`` the/at back/nn of/in his/pp$ hand/nn across/in and/cc across/in his/pp$ nose/nn ''/'' ./.


	Such/jj mannerisms/nns would/md be/be less/ql worthy/jj of/in remark/nn ,/, were/bed it/pps not/* that/cs in/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl ,/, as/cs in/in no/at other/ap of/in Dickens'/np$ novels/nns ,/, hands/nns serve/vb as/cs a/at leitmotif/nn of/in plot/nn and/cc theme/nn --/-- a/at kind/nn of/in unifying/vbg symbol/nn or/cc natural/jj metaphor/nn for/in the/at book's/nn$ complex/nn of/in human/jj interrelationships/nns and/cc the/at values/nns and/cc attitudes/nns that/wps motivate/vb them/ppo ./.
Dickens/np not/* only/rb reveals/vbz character/nn through/in gesture/nn ,/, he/pps makes/vbz hands/nns a/at crucial/jj element/nn of/in the/at plot/nn ,/, a/at means/nn of/in clarifying/vbg the/at structure/nn of/in the/at novel/nn by/in helping/vbg to/to define/vb the/at hero's/nn$ relations/nns with/in all/abn the/at major/jj characters/nns ,/, and/cc a/at device/nn for/in ordering/vbg such/jj diverse/jj themes/nns as/cs guilt/nn ,/, pursuit/nn ,/, crime/nn ,/, greed/nn ,/, education/nn ,/, materialism/nn ,/, enslavement/nn (/( by/in both/abx people/nns and/cc institutions/nns )/) ,/, friendship/nn ,/, romantic/jj love/nn ,/, forgiveness/nn ,/, and/cc redemption/nn ./.
We/ppss have/hv only/rb to/to think/vb of/in Lady/nn-tl Macbeth/np or/cc the/at policeman-murderer/nn in/in Thomas/np Burke's/np$ famous/jj story/nn ,/, ``/`` The/at-tl Hands/nns-tl Of/in-tl Mr./np-tl Ottermole/np-tl ''/'' ,/, to/to realize/vb that/cs hands/nns often/rb call/vb up/rp ideas/nns of/in crime/nn and/cc punishment/nn ./.
So/rb it/pps is/bez with/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl ,/, whether/cs the/at hands/nns be/be Orlick's/np$ as/cs he/pps strikes/vbz down/rp Mrs./np Gargery/np or/cc Pip's/np$ as/cs he/pps steals/vbz a/at pie/nn from/in her/pp$ pantry/nn ./.
Such/jj associations/nns suit/vb well/rb with/in the/at gothic/jj or/cc mystery-story/nn aspects/nns of/in Dickens'/np$ novel/nn ,/, but/cc ,/, on/in a/at deeper/jjr plane/nn ,/, they/ppss relate/vb to/in the/at themes/nns of/in sin/nn ,/, guilt/nn ,/, and/cc pursuit/nn that/wps have/hv recently/rb been/ben analyzed/vbn by/in other/ap critics/nns ./.


	The/at novel/nn opens/vbz with/in a/at fugitive/nn convict/nn frantically/rb trying/vbg to/to avoid/vb the/at nemesis/nn of/in being/beg ``/`` laid/vbn hands/nns on/in ''/'' --/-- a/at mysterious/jj figure/nn who/wps looks/vbz into/in Pip's/np$ frightened/vbn eyes/nns in/in the/at churchyard/nn ``/`` as/cs if/cs he/pps were/bed eluding/vbg the/at hands/nns of/in the/at dead/jj people/nns ,/, stretching/vbg up/rp cautiously/rb out/rp of/in their/pp$ graves/nns ,/, to/to get/vb a/at twist/nn upon/in his/pp$ ankle/nn and/cc pull/vb him/ppo in/rp ''/'' ./.
Magwitch/np terrifies/vbz Pip/np into/in stealing/vbg a/at pork/nn pie/nn for/in him/ppo by/in creating/vbg the/at image/nn in/in the/at boy's/nn$ imagination/nn of/in a/at bogy/nn man/nn who/wps may/md ``/`` softly/rb creep/vb his/pp$ way/nn to/in him/ppo and/cc tear/vb him/ppo open/jj ''/'' ,/, ``/`` imbruing/vbg his/pp$ hands/nns ''/'' in/in him/ppo ./.
As/cs Pip/np agonizes/vbz over/in the/at theft/nn that/wps his/pp$ own/jj hands/nns have/hv committed/vbn ,/, his/pp$ guilty/jj conscience/nn projects/vbz itself/ppl upon/in the/at wooden/jj finger/nn of/in a/at local/jj signpost/nn ,/, transforming/vbg it/ppo into/in ``/`` a/at phantom/nn devoting/vbg me/ppo to/in the/at Hulks/nns-tl ''/'' ./.
Held/vbn upside/rb down/rp in/in the/at graveyard/nn ,/, Pip/np clings/vbz in/in terror/nn ``/`` with/in both/abx hands/nns ''/'' to/in his/pp$ convict/nn ;/. ;/.
later/rbr he/pps flees/vbz in/in panic/nn from/in the/at family/nn table/nn just/rb as/cs his/pp$ theft/nn is/bez about/rb to/to be/be discovered/vbn and/cc is/bez blocked/vbn at/in the/at front/jj door/nn by/in a/at soldier/nn who/wps accusingly/rb holds/vbz out/rp a/at pair/nn of/in handcuffs/nns which/wdt he/pps has/hvz brought/vbn to/in Gargery's/np$ forge/nn for/in mending/vbg ./.
Through/in such/jj details/nns Dickens/np indicates/vbz at/in the/at outset/nn that/cs guilt/nn is/bez a/at part/nn of/in the/at ironic/jj bond/nn between/in Pip/np and/cc Magwitch/np which/wdt is/bez so/ql unpredictably/rb to/to alter/vb both/abx their/pp$ lives/nns ./.


	Since/cs they/ppss commonly/rb translate/vb thoughts/nns and/cc feelings/nns into/in deeds/nns ,/, hands/nns naturally/rb represent/vb action/nn ,/, and/cc since/cs nearly/rb half/abn the/at characters/nns in/in Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl are/ber of/in the/at underworld/nn or/cc closely/rb allied/vbn to/in it/ppo ,/, the/at linking/nn of/in hands/nns with/in crime/nn or/cc violence/nn is/bez not/* to/to be/be wondered/vbn at/in ./.
Dickens/np ,/, for/in excellent/jj psychological/jj reasons/nns ,/, never/rb fully/rb reveals/vbz Magwitch's/np$ felonious/jj past/nn ,/, but/cc Pip/np ,/, at/in the/at convict's/nn$ climactic/jj reappearance/nn in/in London/np ,/, shrinks/vbz from/in clasping/vbg a/at hand/nn which/wdt he/pps fears/vbz ``/`` might/md be/be stained/vbn with/in blood/nn ''/'' ./.
Orlick/np slouches/vbz about/in the/at forge/nn ``/`` like/cs Cain/np ''/'' with/in ``/`` his/pp$ hands/nns in/in his/pp$ pockets/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc when/wrb he/pps shouts/vbz abuse/nn at/in Mrs./np Joe/np for/in objecting/vbg to/in his/pp$ holiday/nn ,/, she/pps claps/vbz her/pp$ hands/nns in/in a/at tantrum/nn ,/, beats/vbz them/ppo ``/`` upon/in her/pp$ bosom/nn and/cc upon/in her/pp$ knees/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc clenches/vbz them/ppo in/in her/pp$ husband's/nn$ hair/nn ./.
This/dt last/ap ``/`` rampage/nn ''/'' is/bez only/rb the/at prelude/nn to/in the/at vicious/jj blow/nn upon/in her/pp$ head/nn ,/, ``/`` dealt/vbn by/in some/dti unknown/jj hand/nn ''/'' whose/wp$ identity/nn is/bez later/rbr revealed/vbn not/* verbally/rb but/cc through/in a/at manual/jj action/nn --/-- the/at tracing/nn of/in Orlick's/np$ hammer/nn upon/in a/at slate/nn ./.
Pip/np himself/ppl is/bez to/to feel/vb the/at terror/nn of/in Orlick's/np$ ``/`` murderous/jj hand/nn ''/'' in/in his/pp$ secret/jj rendezvous/nn at/in the/at sluicehouse/nn on/in the/at marshes/nns ./.
Dickens/np lays/vbz great/jj emphasis/nn on/in the/at hands/nns in/in this/dt scene/nn ./.
Orlick/np shakes/vbz his/pp$ hand/nn at/in Pip/np ,/, bangs/vbz the/at table/nn with/in his/pp$ fist/nn ,/, draws/vbz his/pp$ unclenched/vbn hand/nn ``/`` across/in his/pp$ mouth/nn as/cs if/cs his/pp$ mouth/nn watered/vbd ''/'' for/in his/pp$ victim/nn ,/, lets/vbz his/pp$ hands/nns hang/vb ``/`` loose/jj and/cc heavy/jj at/in his/pp$ sides/nns ''/'' ,/, and/cc Pip/np observes/vbz him/ppo so/ql intensely/rb that/cs he/pps knows/vbz ``/`` of/in the/at slightest/jjt action/nn of/in his/pp$ fingers/nns ''/'' ./.
Orlick/np might/md almost/rb be/be Magwitch's/np$ bogy/nn man/nn come/vbn alive/jj ,/, a/at figure/nn of/in nemesis/nn from/in Pip's/np$ phantasy/nn of/in guilt/nn ./.


	The/at scarred/vbn ,/, disfigured/vbn wrists/nns of/in Mr./np Jaggers'/np$ housekeeper/nn are/ber the/at tell-tale/jj marks/nns of/in her/pp$ sinister/jj past/nn ,/, for/cs her/pp$ master/nn ,/, coolly/rb exhibiting/vbg them/ppo to/in his/pp$ dinner/nn guests/nns ,/, makes/vbz a/at point/nn of/in the/at ``/`` force/nn of/in grip/nn there/ex is/bez in/in these/dts hands/nns ''/'' ./.
Jaggers'/np$ iron/jj control/nn over/in her/ppo (/( ``/`` she/pps would/md remove/vb her/pp$ hands/nns from/in any/dti dish/nn she/pps put/vbd before/in him/ppo ,/, hesitatingly/rb ,/, as/cs if/cs she/pps dreaded/vbd his/pp$ calling/vbg her/ppo back/rb )/) ''/'' )/) rests/vbz on/in his/pp$ having/hvg once/rb got/vbn her/ppo acquitted/vbn of/in a/at murder/nn charge/nn by/in cleverly/rb contriving/vbg her/pp$ sleeves/nns at/in the/at trial/nn to/to conceal/vb her/pp$ strength/nn and/cc by/in passing/vbg off/rp the/at lacerations/nns on/in the/at backs/nns of/in her/pp$ hands/nns as/cs the/at scratches/nns of/in brambles/nns rather/rb than/cs of/in human/jj fingernails/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez the/at similarity/nn between/in Estella's/np$ hands/nns and/cc Molly's/np$ (/( ``/`` The/at action/nn of/in her/pp$ fingers/nns was/bedz like/cs the/at action/nn of/in knitting/vbg ''/'' )/) that/wps provides/vbz Pip/np with/in a/at vital/jj clue/nn to/in the/at real/jj identity/nn of/in both/abx and/cc establishes/vbz a/at symbolic/jj connection/nn between/in the/at underworld/nn of/in crime/nn and/cc the/at genteel/jj cruelty/nn of/in Satis/np-tl House/nn-tl ./.
Finally/rb ,/, Magwitch's/np$ pursuit/nn of/in Compeyson/np ,/, his/pp$ archenemy/nn and/cc betrayer/nn ,/, begins/vbz by/in his/pp$ holding/nn him/ppo in/in a/at vicelike/jj grip/nn on/in the/at river/nn flats/nns to/to frustrate/vb his/pp$ escape/nn and/cc culminates/vbz in/in his/pp$ ``/`` laying/nn his/pp$ hand/nn on/in his/pp$ cloak/nn to/to identify/vb him/ppo ''/'' ,/, thus/rb precipitating/vbg the/at death-locked/jj struggle/nn in/in the/at water/nn during/in which/wdt Compeyson/np drowns/vbz ./.
Magwitch's/np$ hand/nn here/rb ironically/rb becomes/vbz the/at agent/nn of/in justice/nn ./.


	But/cc only/rb in/in one/cd of/in its/pp$ aspects/nns is/bez Great/jj-tl Expectations/nns-tl a/at tale/nn of/in violence/nn ,/, revenge/nn ,/, and/cc retribution/nn ./.
Money/nn ,/, so/ql important/jj a/at theme/nn elsewhere/rb in/in Dickens/np ,/, is/bez here/rb central/jj ,/, and/cc hands/nns are/ber often/rb associated/vbn in/in some/dti way/nn with/in the/at false/jj values/nns --/-- acquisitiveness/nn ,/, snobbery/nn ,/, self-interest/nn ,/, hypocrisy/nn ,/, toadyism/nn ,/, irresponsibility/nn ,/, injustice/nn --/-- that/wps attach/vb to/in a/at society/nn based/vbn upon/in the/at pursuit/nn of/in wealth/nn ./.
Dickens/np suggests/vbz the/at economic/jj evils/nns of/in such/abl a/at society/nn on/in the/at first/od page/nn of/in his/pp$ novel/nn in/in the/at description/nn of/in Pip's/np$ five/cd little/jj dead/jj brothers/nns ``/`` who/wps gave/vbd up/rp trying/vbg to/to get/vb a/at living/nn exceedingly/ql early/rb in/in that/dt universal/jj struggle/nn ''/'' ,/, who/wps seemed/vbd to/to have/hv ``/`` all/abn been/ben born/vbn on/in their/pp$ backs/nns with/in their/pp$ hands/nns in/in their/pp$ trousers-pockets/nns ,/, and/cc had/hvd never/rb taken/vbn them/ppo out/rp in/in this/dt state/nn of/in existence/nn ''/'' ./.
Pip's/np$ great/jj expectations/nns ,/, his/pp$ progress/nn through/in illusion/nn and/cc disillusionment/nn ,/, turn/vb ,/, somewhat/rb as/cs they/ppss do/do for/in the/at naive/jj hero/nn of/in Dreiser's/np$ American/jj-tl Tragedy/nn-tl ,/, upon/in the/at lure/nn of/in genteel/jj prosperity/nn through/in unearned/jj income/nn --/-- what/wdt Wemmick/np calls/vbz ``/`` portable/jj property/nn ''/'' and/cc what/wdt Jaggers/np reproaches/vbz Pip/np for/in letting/vbg ``/`` slip/nn through/in (/( his/pp$ )/) fingers/nns ''/'' ./.


	Since/cs a/at gentleman/nn must/md ,/, if/cs possible/jj ,/, avoid/vb sullying/vbg them/ppo by/in work/nn ,/, his/pp$ hands/nns ,/, as/ql importantly/rb as/cs his/pp$ accent/nn ,/, become/vb the/at index/nn of/in social/jj status/nn ./.
Almost/rb the/at first/od step/nn in/in the/at corruption/nn of/in Pip's/np$ values/nns is/bez the/at unworthy/jj shame/nn he/pps feels/vbz when/wrb Estella/np cruelly/rb remarks/vbz the/at coarseness/nn of/in his/pp$ hands/nns :/: ``/`` They/ppss had/hvd never/rb troubled/vbn me/ppo before/rb ,/, but/cc they/ppss troubled/vbd me/ppo now/rb ,/, as/cs vulgar/jj appendages/nns ''/'' ./.
Pip/np imagines/vbz how/wrb Estella/np would/md look/vb down/rp upon/in Joe's/np$ hands/nns ,/, roughened/vbn by/in work/nn in/in the/at smithy/nn ,/, and/cc the/at deliberate/jj contrast/nn between/in her/pp$ white/jj hands/nns and/cc his/pp$ blackened/vbn ones/nns is/bez made/vbn to/to symbolize/vb the/at opposition/nn of/in values/nns between/in which/wdt Pip/np struggles/vbz --/-- idleness/nn and/cc work/nn ,/, artificiality/nn and/cc naturalness/nn ,/, gentility/nn and/cc commonness/nn ,/, coldness/nn and/cc affection/nn --/-- in/in fact/nn ,/, between/in Satis/np-tl House/nn-tl and/cc the/at forge/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at snobbery/nn that/wps alienates/vbz Pip/np from/in Joe/np finally/rb gives/vbz way/nn before/in the/at deeper/jjr and/cc stronger/jjr force/nn of/in love/nn ,/, the/at reunion/nn is/bez marked/vbn by/in an/at embarrassed/vbn handshake/nn at/in which/wdt Pip/np exclaims/vbz :/: ``/`` No/rb ,/, don't/do* wipe/vb it/ppo off/rp --/-- for/in God's/np$ sake/nn ,/, give/vb me/ppo your/pp$ blackened/vbn hand/nn ''/'' !/. !/.


	Pip's/np$ abject/jj leave-taking/nn of/in Miss/np Havisham/np ,/, during/in which/wdt he/pps kneels/vbz to/to kiss/vb her/pp$ hand/nn ,/, signalizes/vbz his/pp$ homage/nn to/in a/at supposed/vbn patroness/nn who/wps seems/vbz to/to be/be opening/vbg up/rp for/in him/ppo a/at new/jj world/nn of/in glamour/nn ;/. ;/.
when/wrb ,/, on/in the/at journey/nn to/in London/np that/wps immediately/rb follows/vbz ,/, he/pps pauses/vbz nostalgically/rb to/to lay/vb his/pp$ hand/nn upon/in the/at finger-post/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at village/nn ,/, the/at wooden/jj pointer/nn symbolically/rb designates/vbz a/at spiritual/jj frontier/nn between/in innocence/nn and/cc the/at corruption/nn of/in worldly/jj vanity/nn ./.
Incidentally/rb ,/, one/pn cannot/md* miss/vb the/at significance/nn of/in this/dt gesture/nn ,/, for/cs Dickens/np reintroduces/vbz it/ppo associatively/rb in/in Pip's/np$ mind/nn at/in another/dt moral/jj and/cc psychological/jj crisis/nn --/-- his/pp$ painful/jj recognition/nn ,/, in/in a/at talk/nn with/in Herbert/np Pocket/np ,/, that/cs his/pp$ hopeless/jj attachment/nn to/in Estella/np is/bez as/ql self-destructive/jj as/cs it/pps is/bez romantic/jj ./.
In/in both/abx cases/nns the/at finger-post/nn represents/vbz Pip's/np$ heightened/vbn awareness/nn of/in contrary/jj magnetisms/nns ./.


	A/at variety/nn of/in hand/nn movements/nns helps/vbz dramatize/vb the/at moral/jj climate/nn of/in the/at fallen/vbn world/nn Pip/np encounters/vbz beyond/in the/at forge/nn ./.
The/at vulture-like/jj attendance/nn of/in the/at Pocket/np family/nn upon/in Miss/np Havisham/np is/bez summed/vbn up/rp in/in the/at hypocritical/jj gestures/nns of/in Miss/np Camilla/np Pocket/np ,/, who/wps puts/vbz her/pp$ hand/nn to/in her/pp$ throat/nn in/in a/at feigned/vbn spasm/nn of/in grief-stricken/jj choking/nn ,/, then/rb lays/vbz it/ppo ``/`` upon/in her/pp$ heaving/vbg bosom/nn ''/'' with/in ``/`` an/at unnatural/jj fortitude/nn of/in manner/nn ''/'' ,/, and/cc finally/rb kisses/vbz it/ppo to/in Miss/np Havisham/np in/in a/at parody/nn of/in the/at lady's/nn$ own/jj mannerism/nn toward/in Estella/np ./.
Pumblechook's/np$ hands/nns throughout/in the/at novel/nn serve/vb to/to travesty/vb greed/nn and/cc hypocritical/jj self-aggrandizement/nn ./.
We/ppss first/rb see/vb him/ppo shaking/vbg Mrs./np Joe's/np$ hand/nn on/in discovering/vbg the/at sizable/jj amount/nn of/in the/at premium/nn paid/vbn to/in her/pp$ husband/nn for/in Pip's/np$ indenture/nn as/cs an/at apprentice/nn and/cc later/rbr pumping/vbg Pip's/np$ hands/nns ``/`` for/in the/at hundredth/od time/nn at/in least/ap ''/'' (/( ``/`` May/md I/ppss --/-- may/md I/ppss --/-- ''/'' ?/. ?/.
)/) in/in effusive/jj congratulation/nn to/in Pip/np on/in his/pp$ expectations/nns ./.
We/ppss take/vb leave/nn of/in Pumblechook/np as/cs he/pps gloats/vbz over/in Pip's/np$ loss/nn of/in fortune/nn ,/, extending/vbg his/pp$ hand/nn ``/`` with/in a/at magnificently/rb forgiving/jj air/nn ''/'' and/cc exhibiting/vbg ``/`` the/at same/ap fat/jj five/cd fingers/nns ''/'' ,/, one/cd of/in which/wdt he/pps identifies/vbz with/in ``/`` the/at finger/nn of/in Providence/np ''/'' and/cc shakes/vbz at/in Pip/np in/in a/at canting/vbg imputation/nn of/in the/at latter's/nn$ ``/`` ingratitoode/nn ''/'' and/cc his/pp$ own/jj generosity/nn as/cs Pip's/np$ ``/`` earliest/jjt benefactor/nn ''/'' ./.


	Pip/np first/rb learns/vbz ``/`` the/at stupendous/jj power/nn of/in money/nn ''/'' from/in the/at sycophantic/jj tailor/nn ,/, Mr./np Trabb/np ,/, whose/wp$ brutality/nn to/in his/pp$ boy/nn helper/nn exactly/rb matches/vbz the/at financial/jj resource/nn of/in each/dt new/jj customer/nn ,/, and/cc whose/wp$ fawning/vbg hands/nns touch/vb ``/`` the/at outside/nn of/in each/dt elbow/nn ''/'' and/cc ``/`` rub/vb ''/'' Pip/np out/rp of/in the/at shop/nn ./.
The/at respectability/nn which/wdt money/nn confers/vbz implies/vbz a/at different/jj etiquette/nn ,/, and/cc ,/, upon/in taking/vbg up/rp the/at life/nn of/in a/at London/np gentleman/nn ,/, Pip/np must/md learn/vb from/in Herbert/np Pocket/np that/cs ``/`` the/at spoon/nn is/bez not/* generally/rb used/vbn over-hand/rb ,/, but/cc under/rb ''/'' ./.

The/at following/vbg items/nns may/md be/be specified/vbn in/in actual/jj or/cc symbolic/jj form/nn in/in the/at operands/nns of/in those/dts instructions/nns which/wdt refer/vb to/in the/at particular/ap items/nns :/: channel/nn ,/, unit/nn ,/, combined/vbn channel/nn and/cc unit/nn ,/, combined/vbn arm/nn and/cc file/nn ,/, unit/nn record/nn synchronizers/nns ,/, inquiry/nn synchronizers/nns ,/, and/cc alteration/nn switches/nns ./.
The/at declarative/jj operation/nn EQU/nn is/bez used/vbn to/to equate/vb symbolic/jj names/nns to/in item/nn numbers/nns (/( see/vb page/nn 85/cd )/) ./.
Continuation/nn-hl cards/nns-hl 
Certain/ap Autocoder/np statements/nns make/vb provision/nn for/in more/ap parameters/nns than/cs may/md be/be contained/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn (/( columns/nns 21/cd -/in 75/cd )/) of/in a/at single/ap line/nn on/in the/at Autocoder/np coding/vbg sheet/nn ./.
When/wrb this/dt is/bez the/at case/nn ,/, the/at appropriate/jj section/nn of/in this/dt manual/nn will/md indicate/vb that/cs ``/`` Continuation/nn-tl Cards/nns-tl ''/'' may/md be/be used/vbn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, when/wrb specifically/rb permitted/vbn ,/, the/at operand/nn of/in a/at given/vbn line/nn on/in the/at Autocoder/np coding/vbg sheet/nn may/md be/be continued/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn of/in from/in one/cd to/in four/cd additional/jj lines/nns which/wdt immediately/rb follow/vb ./.


	The/at label/nn and/cc operation/nn columns/nns must/md be/be blank/jj and/cc the/at continuation/nn of/in the/at operand/nn must/md begin/vb in/in column/nn 21/cd ;/. ;/.
i.e./rb ,/, it/pps must/md be/be left-justified/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn column/nn of/in the/at coding/vbg sheet/nn ./.
The/at operand/nn need/md not/* extend/vb across/in the/at entire/jj operand/nn column/nn of/in either/cc the/at header/nn card/nn or/cc continuation/nn cards/nns but/cc may/md end/vb with/in the/at comma/nn following/vbg any/dti parameter/nn ./.
Remarks/nns may/md appear/vb to/in the/at right/nr of/in the/at last/ap parameter/nn on/in each/dt card/nn provided/vbd they/ppss are/ber separated/vbn from/in the/at operand/nn by/in at/in least/ap two/cd blank/jj spaces/nns ./.


	Illustrations/nns of/in the/at use/nn of/in continuation/nn cards/nns are/ber included/vbn throughout/in the/at examples/nns illustrating/vbg the/at various/ap statements/nns ./.


	If/cs a/at continuation/nn card/nn follows/vbz a/at statement/nn that/wps does/doz not/* permit/vb continuation/nn cards/nns ,/, the/at compiler/nn will/md generate/vb a/at NOP/nn and/cc issue/vb an/at error/nn message/nn ./.
Additional/jj restrictions/nns regarding/in the/at use/nn of/in continuation/nn cards/nns with/in macro-instructions/nns appear/vb on/in page/nn 106/cd ./.



Reservation/nn-hl of/in-hl index/nn-hl words/nns-hl and/cc-hl electronic/jj-hl switches/nns-hl 
The/at assignment/nn of/in actual/jj addresses/nns to/in symbolic/jj index/nn word/nn and/cc electronic/jj switch/nn names/nns occurs/vbz in/in Phase/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, of/in the/at Autocoder/np processor/nn ./.
The/at initial/jj availability/nn of/in index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns is/bez determined/vbn by/in a/at table/nn which/wdt is/bez included/vbn in/in the/at Compiler/nn-tl Systems/nns-tl Tape/nn-tl ./.
This/dt table/nn originally/rb indicates/vbz that/cs index/nn words/nns 1/cd through/in 96/cd and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns 1/cd through/in 30/cd are/ber available/jj for/in assignment/nn to/in symbolic/jj references/nns ;/. ;/.
index/nn words/nns 97/cd through/in 99/cd are/ber not/* available/jj ./.
The/at initial/jj setting/nn of/in this/dt table/nn may/md be/be altered/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, as/cs described/vbn in/in the/at 7070/7074/cd Data/nns-tl Processing/vbg-tl System/nn-tl Bulletin/nn-tl ``/`` IBM/np-tl 7070/7074/cd-tl Compiler/nn-tl System/nn-tl :/: Operating/vbg-tl Procedure/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, form/nn Aj/nn ./.


	During/in the/at first/od pass/nn of/in Phase/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, ,/, references/nns to/in the/at actual/jj addresses/nns of/in index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns are/ber collected/vbn and/cc the/at availability/nn table/nn is/bez updated/vbn ./.
At/in the/at end/nn of/in this/dt pass/nn ,/, the/at table/nn indicates/vbz which/wdt index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns are/ber not/* available/jj for/in assignment/nn to/in symbolic/jj references/nns ./.


	Both/abx index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns may/md have/hv been/ben made/vbn unavailable/jj before/in the/at start/nn of/in assignment/nn in/in one/cd of/in the/at following/vbg ways/nns ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at initial/jj setting/nn of/in the/at availability/nn table/nn indicated/vbd that/cs the/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn was/bedz not/* available/jj for/in assignment/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at one-/cd or/cc two-digit/jj number/nn of/in the/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn was/bedz used/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn of/in a/at symbolic/jj machine/nn instruction/nn to/to specify/vb indexing/vbg or/cc as/cs a/at parameter/nn which/wdt is/bez always/rb an/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, 3/cd-hl ./.-hl

The/at one-/cd or/cc two-digit/jj number/nn of/in the/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn was/bedz used/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn of/in an/at EQU/nn statement/nn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, 

	When/wrb the/at index/nn words/nns or/cc electronic/jj switches/nns are/ber reserved/vbn because/rb of/in actual/jj usage/nn in/in the/at statements/nns described/vbn above/rb ,/, the/at position/nn or/cc order/nn of/in the/at statements/nns within/in the/at program/nn is/bez not/* important/jj ;/. ;/.
any/dti such/jj reference/nn will/md make/vb the/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn unavailable/jj at/in the/at end/nn of/in this/dt pass/nn ./.


	During/in the/at assignment/nn pass/nn of/in Phase/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, ,/, index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns are/ber reserved/vbn as/cs they/ppss are/ber encountered/vbn during/in assignment/nn ./.
Index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns may/md be/be reserved/vbn in/in the/at following/vbg ways/nns ./.
The/at first/od two/cd methods/nns apply/vb to/in both/abx index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at third/od applies/vbz only/rb to/in index/nn words/nns ./.
1/cd-hl ./.-hl

During/in the/at assignment/nn pass/nn ,/, each/dt instruction/nn is/bez examined/vbn for/in reference/nn to/in the/at symbolic/jj name/nn of/in an/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn ./.
When/wrb such/abl a/at reference/nn is/bez found/vbn ,/, an/at actual/jj address/nn is/bez assigned/vbn and/cc the/at availability/nn table/nn is/bez changed/vbn so/cs that/cs the/at assigned/vbn index/nn word/nn or/cc switch/nn is/bez no/ql longer/rbr available/jj for/in later/jjr assignment/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

If/cs the/at one-/cd or/cc two-digit/jj address/nn of/in an/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn is/bez used/vbn or/cc is/bez included/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn of/in an/at XRESERVE/nn or/cc SRESERVE/nn statement/nn (/( see/vb page/nn 99/cd )/) ,/, the/at corresponding/jj index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn is/bez reserved/vbn ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

If/cs a/at statement/nn has/hvz been/ben assigned/vbn an/at address/nn in/in the/at index/nn word/nn area/nn 
by/in means/nns of/in an/at actual/jj label/nn or/cc 
by/in means/nns of/in an/at origin/nn statement/nn which/wdt refers/vbz to/in an/at actual/jj address/nn ,/, the/at corresponding/jj index/nn word/nn will/md be/be reserved/vbn ./.
These/dts entries/nns should/md normally/rb appear/vb at/in the/at beginning/nn of/in the/at program/nn or/cc immediately/rb following/vbg each/dt LITORIGIN/nn statement/nn ./.
Otherwise/rb ,/, symbolic/jj names/nns may/md have/hv previously/rb been/ben assigned/vbn to/in these/dts same/ap index/nn words/nns ./.
(/( This/dt method/nn does/doz not/* apply/vb to/in electronic/jj switches/nns ./.
)/) 

	The/at preceding/vbg methods/nns allow/vb efficient/jj use/nn of/in index/nn words/nns and/cc electronic/jj switches/nns during/in a/at sectionalized/vbn or/cc multi-phase/jj program/nn ,/, particularly/rb when/wrb used/vbn in/in conjunction/nn with/in the/at LITORIGIN/nn statement/nn ./.
Extreme/jj caution/nn should/md be/be used/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, to/to avoid/vb the/at conflicting/vbg usage/nn of/in an/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn which/wdt may/md result/vb from/in the/at assignment/nn of/in more/ap than/in one/cd name/nn or/cc function/nn to/in the/at same/ap address/nn ./.


	If/cs the/at symbolic/jj name/nn or/cc actual/jj address/nn of/in an/at index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn appears/vbz or/cc is/bez included/vbn in/in the/at operand/nn of/in an/at XRELEASE/nn or/cc SRELEASE/nn statement/nn (/( see/vb page/nn 101/cd )/) ,/, the/at specified/vbn index/nn word/nn or/cc electronic/jj switch/nn will/md again/rb be/be made/vbn available/jj ,/, regardless/rb of/in the/at method/nn by/in which/wdt it/pps was/bedz reserved/vbn ./.
It/pps will/md not/* ,/, however/rb ,/, be/be used/vbn for/in symbolic/jj assignment/nn until/cs all/abn other/ap index/nn words/nns or/cc electronic/jj switches/nns have/hv been/ben assigned/vbn for/in the/at first/od time/nn ./.


	If/cs ,/, at/in any/dti time/nn during/in the/at assignment/nn pass/nn ,/, the/at compiler/nn finds/vbz that/cs there/ex are/ber no/at more/ap index/nn words/nns available/jj for/in assignment/nn ,/, the/at warning/vbg message/nn ``/`` No/at-tl More/ap-tl Index/nn-tl Words/nns-tl Available/jj-tl ''/'' will/md be/be placed/vbn in/in the/at object/nn program/nn listing/nn ,/, the/at table/nn will/md be/be altered/vbn to/to show/vb that/cs index/nn words/nns 1/cd through/in 96/cd are/ber available/jj ,/, and/cc the/at assignment/nn will/md continue/vb as/cs before/rb ./.
If/cs the/at compiler/nn finds/vbz that/cs there/ex are/ber no/at more/ap electronic/jj switches/nns available/jj for/in assignment/nn ,/, the/at warning/vbg message/nn ``/`` No/at-tl More/ap-tl Electronic/jj-tl Switches/nns Available/jj-tl ''/'' will/md be/be placed/vbn in/in the/at object/nn program/nn listing/nn ,/, the/at table/nn will/md be/be altered/vbn to/to show/vb that/cs electronic/jj switches/nns 1/cd through/in 30/cd are/ber available/jj ,/, and/cc assignment/nn will/md continue/vb as/cs before/rb ./.
The/at resultant/jj conflicting/vbg usage/nn of/in index/nn words/nns or/cc electronic/jj switches/nns may/md be/be avoided/vbn by/in reducing/vbg the/at number/nn of/in symbolic/jj names/nns used/vbn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, through/in the/at proper/jj use/nn of/in the/at EQU/nn ,/, XRELEASE/nn ,/, or/cc SRELEASE/nn statements/nns ./.


	As/cs noted/vbn in/in Appendix/nn-tl C/np-tl ,/, index/nn words/nns 97/cd through/in 99/cd are/ber never/rb available/jj for/in assignment/nn to/in symbolic/jj names/nns by/in the/at compiler/nn ;/. ;/.
also/rb ,/, index/nn words/nns 93/cd through/in 96/cd may/md have/hv been/ben made/vbn unavailable/jj for/in assignment/nn ./.



Declarative/jj-hl statements/nns-hl 
Autocoder/np declarative/jj statements/nns provide/vb the/at processor/nn with/in the/at necessary/jj information/nn to/to complete/vb the/at imperative/jj operations/nns properly/rb ./.
Declarative/jj statements/nns are/ber never/rb executed/vbn in/in the/at object/nn program/nn and/cc should/md be/be separated/vbn from/in the/at program/nn instruction/nn area/nn ,/, placed/vbn preferably/rb at/in its/pp$ beginning/nn or/cc end/nn ./.
Otherwise/rb ,/, special/jj care/nn must/md be/be taken/vbn to/to branch/vb around/in them/ppo so/cs that/cs the/at program/nn will/md not/* attempt/vb to/to execute/vb something/pn in/in a/at data/nn area/nn as/cs an/at instruction/nn ./.
If/cs the/at compiler/nn does/doz encounter/vb such/jj statements/nns ,/, a/at warning/vbg message/nn will/md be/be issued/vbn ./.
7070/7074/cd Autocoder/np includes/vbz the/at following/vbg declarative/jj statements/nns :/: DA/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Area/nn-tl )/) ,/, DC/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Constant/nn-tl )/) ,/, DRDW/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Record/nn-tl Definition/nn-tl Word/nn-tl )/) ,/, DSW/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Switch/nn-tl )/) ,/, DLINE/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Line/nn-tl )/) ,/, EQU/nn (/( Equate/vb-tl )/) ,/, CODE,DTF/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Tape/nn-tl File/nn-tl )/) ,/, DIOCS/nn (/( Define/vb-tl Input/Output/jj-tl Control/nn-tl System/nn-tl )/) ,/, and/cc DUF/nn (/( Descriptive/jj-tl Entry/nn-tl For/in-tl Unit/nn-tl Records/nns-tl )/) ./.
DA/nn ,/, DC/nn ,/, DTF/nn ,/, and/cc DLINE/nn require/vb more/ap than/in one/cd entry/nn ./.


	The/at DA/nn statement/nn is/bez used/vbn to/to name/vb and/cc define/vb the/at positions/nns and/cc length/nn of/in fields/nns within/in an/at area/nn ./.
The/at DC/nn statement/nn is/bez used/vbn to/to name/vb and/cc enter/vb constants/nns into/in the/at object/nn program/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at 7070/cd and/cc 7074/cd make/vb use/nn of/in record/nn definition/nn words/nns (/( RDWS/np )/) to/to read/vb ,/, write/vb ,/, move/vb ,/, and/cc otherwise/rb examine/vb blocks/nns of/in storage/nn ,/, the/at DA/nn and/cc DC/nn statements/nns provide/vb the/at option/nn of/in generating/vbg RDWS/nn automatically/rb ./.
When/wrb so/rb instructed/vbn ,/, Autocoder/np will/md generate/vb one/cd or/cc more/ap RDWS/nn and/cc assign/vb them/ppo successive/jj locations/nns immediately/rb preceding/vbg the/at area/nn with/in which/wdt they/ppss are/ber to/to be/be associated/vbn ./.
An/at RDW/nn will/md be/be of/in the/at form/nn Af/nn ,/, where/wrb xxxx/nn is/bez the/at starting/vbg location/nn of/in the/at area/nn and/cc yyyy/nn is/bez its/pp$ ending/vbg location/nn ./.
These/dts addresses/nns are/ber calculated/vbn automatically/rb by/in the/at processor/nn ./.


	In/in some/dti cases/nns ,/, it/pps may/md be/be more/ql advantageous/jj to/to assign/vb locations/nns to/in RDWS/nn associated/vbn with/in DA/nn and/cc DC/nn areas/nns in/in some/dti other/ap part/nn of/in storage/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, not/* immediately/rb preceding/vbg the/at DA/nn or/cc DC/nn areas/nns ./.
The/at DRDW/nn statement/nn may/md be/be used/vbn for/in this/dt purpose/nn ./.
The/at DRDW/nn statement/nn may/md also/rb be/be used/vbn to/to generate/vb an/at RDW/nn defining/vbg any/dti area/nn specified/vbn by/in the/at programmer/nn ./.


	As/ql many/ap as/cs ten/cd digital/jj switches/nns may/md be/be named/vbn and/cc provided/vbn by/in the/at DSW/nn statement/nn for/in consideration/nn by/in the/at SETSW/nn and/cc logic/nn macro-instructions/nns ./.
Each/dt switch/nn occupies/vbz one/cd digit/nn position/nn in/in a/at word/nn ,/, can/md be/be set/vbn on/rp or/cc off/rp ,/, and/cc is/bez considered/vbn as/cs logically/rb equivalent/jj to/in an/at electronic/jj switch/nn ./.
It/pps cannot/md* ,/, however/rb ,/, be/be referred/vbn to/in by/in electronic/jj switch/nn commands/nns ,/, e.g./rb ,/, ESN/nn ,/, BSN/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.
An/at individual/ap switch/nn or/cc the/at entire/jj set/nn of/in switches/nns in/in a/at word/nn may/md be/be tested/vbn or/cc altered/vbn as/cs desired/vbn ./.


	Through/in use/nn of/in the/at DLINE/nn statement/nn ,/, a/at means/nn is/bez provided/vbn for/in specifying/vbg both/abx the/at editing/nn of/in fields/nns to/to be/be inserted/vbn in/in a/at print/nn line/nn area/nn and/cc the/at layout/nn of/in the/at area/nn itself/ppl ./.
The/at area/nn may/md include/vb constant/jj information/nn supplied/vbn by/in the/at programmer/nn ./.
The/at area/nn may/md also/rb be/be provided/vbn with/in additional/jj data/nn during/in the/at running/nn of/in the/at object/nn program/nn by/in means/nns of/in EDMOV/nn or/cc move/nn macro-instructions/nns ./.


	The/at declarative/jj statement/nn EQU/nn permits/vbz the/at programmer/nn to/to equate/vb symbolic/jj names/nns to/in actual/jj index/nn words/nns ,/, electronic/jj switches/nns ,/, arm/nn and/cc file/nn numbers/nns ,/, tape/nn channel/nn and/cc unit/nn numbers/nns ,/, alteration/nn switches/nns ,/, etc./rb ,/, and/cc to/to equate/vb a/at symbol/nn to/in another/dt symbol/nn or/cc to/in an/at actual/jj address/nn ./.


	The/at DIOCS/nn ,/, DTF/nn ,/, and/cc DUF/nn statements/nns are/ber used/vbn when/wrb required/vbn by/in the/at Input/Output/jj-tl Control/nn-tl System/nn-tl ./.
DIOCS/np is/bez used/vbn to/to select/vb the/at major/jj methods/nns of/in processing/vbg to/to be/be used/vbn ,/, and/cc to/to name/vb the/at index/nn words/nns used/vbn by/in Aj/nn ./.
Each/dt tape/nn file/nn must/md be/be described/vbn by/in Tape/nn-tl File/nn-tl Specifications/nns-tl ,/, produced/vbn by/in Aj/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in information/nn related/vbn to/in the/at file/nn and/cc its/pp$ records/nns ,/, the/at File/nn-tl Specifications/nns-tl contain/vb subroutine/nn locations/nns and/cc the/at location/nn of/in tape/nn label/nn information/nn ./.
A/at DUF/nn entry/nn must/md be/be supplied/vbn for/in every/at unit/nn record/nn file/nn describing/vbg the/at type/nn of/in file/nn and/cc the/at unit/nn record/nn equipment/nn to/to be/be used/vbn ./.
The/at DUF/nn also/rb supplies/vbz the/at locations/nns of/in subroutines/nns written/vbn by/in the/at user/nn that/wps are/ber unique/jj to/in the/at file/nn ./.


	A/at full/jj description/nn of/in the/at DIOCS/nn ,/, DTF/nn ,/, and/cc DUF/nn statements/nns is/bez contained/vbn in/in the/at 7070/cd-tl Data/nns-tl Processing/vbg-tl System/nn-tl Bulletin/nn-tl ``/`` IBM/np-tl 7070/cd-tl Input/Output/jj-tl Control/nn-tl System/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, form/nn Aj/nn ./.
Brief/jj descriptions/nns of/in these/dts three/cd declarative/jj statements/nns and/cc detailed/vbn descriptions/nns of/in the/at formats/nns and/cc functions/nns of/in each/dt of/in the/at other/ap 7070/7074/cd Autocoder/np declarative/jj statements/nns follow/vb below/rb ./.
diocs/nn-hl --/---hl define/vb-hl input/output/nn-hl control/nn-hl system/nn-hl 
When/wrb the/at Input/Output/jj-tl Control/nn-tl System/nn-tl is/bez to/to be/be used/vbn in/in a/at program/nn ,/, a/at DIOCS/nn statement/nn must/md be/be used/vbn to/to select/vb the/at major/jj methods/nns of/in processing/vbg to/to be/be used/vbn ./.
This/dt statement/nn also/rb allows/vbz the/at naming/nn of/in the/at index/nn words/nns used/vbn by/in Aj/nn ./.
Source/nn-hl program/nn-hl format/nn-hl 
The/at basic/jj format/nn of/in the/at DIOCS/nn statement/nn is/bez as/cs follows/vbz :/: anylabel/np is/bez any/dti symbolic/jj label/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps may/md be/be omitted/vbn ./.
The/at entry/nn DIOCS/nn must/md be/be written/vbn exactly/rb as/cs shown/vbn ./.


	The/at first/od item/nn in/in the/at operand/nn ,/, IOCSIXF/nn ,/, is/bez used/vbn to/to specify/vb the/at first/od IOCS/nn index/nn word/nn for/in programs/nns using/vbg tape/nn files/nns ./.
This/dt item/nn may/md be/be a/at symbolic/jj name/nn or/cc an/at actual/jj one-digit/nn or/cc two-digit/jj index/nn word/nn address/nn in/in the/at range/nn 3/cd -/in 94/cd ./.
If/cs the/at first/od item/nn in/in the/at operand/nn is/bez omitted/vbn ,/, the/at symbolic/jj name/nn IOCSIXF/nn will/md be/be assigned/vbn ./.
When/wrb an/at actual/jj index/nn word/nn or/cc a/at symbolic/jj address/nn is/bez specified/vbn ,/, Autocoder/np will/md equate/vb the/at name/nn IOCSIXF/nn to/in it/ppo ./.


	The/at second/od item/nn in/in the/at operand/nn ,/, IOCSIXG/nn ,/, is/bez used/vbn to/to specify/vb the/at second/od IOCS/nn index/nn word/nn for/in programs/nns using/vbg tape/nn files/nns ./.
This/dt item/nn may/md be/be a/at symbolic/jj name/nn or/cc an/at actual/jj one-digit/nn or/cc two-digit/jj index/nn word/nn address/nn in/in the/at range/nn 3/cd -/in 94/cd ./.
If/cs the/at second/od item/nn in/in the/at operand/nn is/bez omitted/vbn ,/, the/at symbolic/jj name/nn IOCSIXG/nn will/md be/be assigned/vbn ./.
When/wrb an/at actual/jj index/nn word/nn or/cc a/at symbolic/jj address/nn is/bez specified/vbn ,/, Autocoder/np will/md equate/vb IOCSIXG/nn to/in it/ppo ./.



	In/in the/at Midwest/np ,/, oxidation/nn ponds/nns are/ber used/vbn extensively/rb for/in the/at treatment/nn of/in domestic/jj sewage/nn from/in suburban/jj areas/nns ./.
The/at high/jj cost/nn of/in land/nn and/cc a/at few/ap operational/jj problems/nns resulting/vbg from/in excessive/jj loadings/nns have/hv created/vbn the/at need/nn for/in a/at wastewater/nn treatment/nn system/nn with/in the/at operational/jj characteristics/nns of/in the/at oxidation/nn pond/nn but/cc with/in the/at ability/nn to/to treat/vb more/ap organic/jj matter/nn per/in unit/nn volume/nn ./.


	Research/nn at/in Fayette/np ,/, Missouri/np on/in oxidation/nn ponds/nns has/hvz shown/vbn that/cs the/at BOD/nn in/in the/at treated/vbn effluent/nn varied/vbd from/in 30/cd to/in 53/cd mg/l/nn with/in loadings/nns from/in 8/cd to/in 120/cd lb/nn ./.
Since/cs experience/nn indicates/vbz that/cs effluents/nns from/in oxidation/nn ponds/nns do/do not/* create/vb major/jj problems/nns at/in these/dts BOD/nn concentrations/nns ,/, the/at goal/nn for/in the/at effluent/nn quality/nn of/in the/at accelerated/vbn treatment/nn system/nn was/bedz the/at same/ap as/cs from/in conventional/jj oxidation/nn ponds/nns ./.
Recent/jj studies/nns by/in Weston/np and/cc Stack/np had/hvd indicated/vbn that/cs a/at turbine/nn aerator/nn could/md be/be added/vbn to/in an/at oxidation/nn pond/nn to/to increase/vb the/at rate/nn of/in oxygen/nn transfer/nn ./.
Their/pp$ study/nn showed/vbd that/cs it/pps was/bedz possible/jj to/to transfer/vb 3/cd to/in 4/cd lb/nn of/in oxygen/nn //in hr./nn //in hp./nn 

	./.
O'Connor/np and/cc Eckenfelder/np discussed/vbd the/at use/nn of/in aerated/vbn lagoons/nns for/in treating/vbg organic/jj wastes/nns ./.
They/ppss indicated/vbd that/cs a/at 4-day/jj retention/nn ,/, aerated/vbn lagoon/nn would/md give/vb 60/cd to/in 76/cd per/in cent/nn BOD/nn reduction/nn ./.
Later/rbr ,/, Eckenfelder/np increased/vbd the/at efficiency/nn of/in treatment/nn to/in between/in 75/cd and/cc 85/cd per/in cent/nn in/in the/at summer/nn months/nns ./.
It/pps appeared/vbd from/in the/at limited/vbn information/nn available/jj that/cs the/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn might/md offer/vb a/at satisfactory/jj means/nn of/in increasing/vbg the/at capacity/nn of/in existing/vbg oxidation/nn ponds/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs providing/vbg the/at same/ap degree/nn of/in treatment/nn in/in a/at smaller/jjr volume/nn ./.



Red/jj-tl-hl Bridge/nn-tl-hl Subdivision/nn-tl-hl 
With/in the/at development/nn of/in the/at Red/jj-tl Bridge/nn-tl Subdivision/nn-tl south/nr of/in Kansas/np-tl City/nn-tl ,/, Missouri/np ,/, the/at developer/nn was/bedz faced/vbn with/in the/at problem/nn of/in providing/vbg adequate/jj sewage/nn disposal/nn ./.
The/at sewage/nn system/nn from/in Kansas/np-tl City/nn-tl was/bedz not/* expected/vbn to/to serve/vb the/at Red/jj-tl Bridge/nn-tl area/nn for/in several/ap years/nns ./.
This/dt necessitated/vbd the/at construction/nn of/in temporary/jj sewage/nn treatment/nn facilities/nns with/in an/at expected/vbn life/nn from/in 5/cd to/in 15/cd Aj/nn ./.
For/in the/at initial/jj development/nn an/at oxidation/nn pond/nn was/bedz constructed/vbn as/cs shown/vbn in/in Figure/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
The/at oxidation/nn pond/nn has/hvz a/at surface/nn area/nn of/in 4.77/cd acres/nns and/cc a/at depth/nn of/in 4/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at pond/nn is/bez currently/rb serving/vbg 1,230/cd persons/nns or/cc 260/cd persons/nns per/in acre/nn ./.
In/in the/at summer/nn of/in 1960/cd the/at oxidation/nn pond/nn became/vbd completely/rb septic/jj and/cc emitted/vbd obnoxious/jj odors/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz possible/jj to/to maintain/vb aerobic/jj conditions/nns in/in the/at pond/nn by/in regular/jj additions/nns of/in sodium/nn nitrate/nn until/cs the/at temperature/nn decreased/vbd and/cc the/at algae/nns population/nn changed/vbd from/in blue-green/jj to/in green/jj algae/nns ./.


	The/at anaerobic/jj conditions/nns in/in the/at existing/vbg oxidation/nn pond/nn necessitated/vbd examination/nn of/in other/ap methods/nns for/in supplying/vbg additional/jj oxygen/nn than/cs by/in sodium/nn nitrate/nn ./.
At/in the/at same/ap time/nn further/jjr expansion/nn in/in the/at Red/jj-tl Bridge/nn-tl Subdivision/nn-tl required/vbd the/at construction/nn of/in additional/jj sewage/nn treatment/nn facilities/nns ./.
The/at large/jj land/nn areas/nns required/vbn for/in oxidation/nn ponds/nns made/vbd this/dt type/nn of/in treatment/nn financially/rb unattractive/jj to/in the/at developer/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz proposed/vbn that/cs aerated/vbn lagoons/nns be/be used/vbn to/to eliminate/vb the/at problem/nn at/in the/at existing/vbg oxidation/nn ponds/nns and/cc to/to provide/vb the/at necessary/jj treatment/nn for/in the/at additional/jj development/nn ./.



Pilot/nn-hl lagoon/nn-hl 
The/at lack/nn of/in adequate/jj data/nn on/in the/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn system/nn prompted/vbd the/at developer/nn to/to construct/vb an/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn pilot/nn plant/nn to/to determine/vb its/pp$ feasibility/nn for/in treating/vbg domestic/jj sewage/nn ./.
The/at pilot/nn plant/nn was/bedz a/at circular/jj lagoon/nn 81/cd ft/nn in/in diam/nn at/in the/at surface/nn and/cc 65/cd ft/nn in/in diam/nn at/in the/at bottom/nn ,/, 4/cd ft/nn below/in the/at surface/nn ,/, with/in a/at volume/nn of/in 121,000/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at side/nn slopes/nns were/bed coated/vbn with/in fiberglas/nn matting/nn coated/vbn with/in asphalt/nn to/to prevent/vb erosion/nn ./.
The/at pilot/nn lagoon/nn was/bedz located/vbn as/cs shown/vbn in/in Figure/nn-tl 1/cd-tl to/to serve/vb the/at area/nn just/rb south/nr of/in the/at existing/vbg housing/nn area/nn ./.
The/at major/jj contributor/nn was/bedz a/at shopping/vbg center/nn with/in houses/nns being/beg added/vbn to/in the/at system/nn as/cs the/at subdivision/nn developed/vbd ./.
The/at pilot/nn lagoon/nn was/bedz designed/vbn to/to handle/vb the/at wastes/nns from/in 314/cd persons/nns with/in a/at 4-day/jj aeration/nn period/nn ./.
Initially/rb ,/, the/at wastewater/nn would/md be/be entirely/rb from/in the/at shopping/vbg center/nn with/in the/at domestic/jj sewage/nn from/in the/at houses/nns increasing/vbg over/in an/at 18-month/jj period/nn ./.
This/dt operation/nn would/md permit/vb evaluation/nn of/in the/at pilot/nn plant/nn ,/, with/in a/at slowly/rb increasing/vbg load/nn ,/, over/in a/at reasonable/jj period/nn of/in time/nn ./.


	The/at pilot/nn plant/nn was/bedz equipped/vbn with/in a/at 3-hp./jj turbine/nn aerator/nn (/( Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) ./.
The/at aerator/nn had/hvd a/at variable-speed/nn drive/nn to/to permit/vb operation/nn through/in a/at range/nn of/in speeds/nns ./.
The/at sewage/nn flow/nn into/in the/at treatment/nn plant/nn was/bedz metered/vbn and/cc continuously/rb recorded/vbn on/in 24-hr./jj charts/nns ./.
The/at raw/jj sewage/nn was/bedz introduced/vbn directly/rb under/in the/at turbine/nn aerator/nn to/to insure/vb maximum/jj mixing/nn of/in the/at raw/jj sewage/nn with/in the/at aeration/nn tank/nn contents/nns ./.
The/at effluent/nn was/bedz collected/vbn through/in two/cd pipes/nns and/cc discharged/vbn to/in the/at Blue/jj-tl River/nn-tl through/in a/at surface/nn drainage/nn ditch/nn ./.



Analyses/nns-hl 
Composite/jj samples/nns were/bed collected/vbn at/in weekly/jj intervals/nns ./.
The/at long/jj retention/nn period/nn and/cc the/at complete/jj mixing/vbg concept/nn prevented/vbd rapid/jj changes/nns in/in either/cc the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn or/cc in/in the/at effluent/nn ./.
Weekly/jj samples/nns would/md make/vb any/dti changes/nns more/ql readily/rb discernible/jj than/cs daily/jj samples/nns ./.
The/at composite/jj samples/nns were/bed normally/rb collected/vbn over/in a/at 6-hr./jj period/nn ,/, but/cc an/at occasional/jj 24-hr./jj composite/nn was/bedz made/vbn ./.
Examination/nn of/in the/at operations/nns of/in the/at shopping/vbg center/nn permitted/vbd correlation/nn of/in the/at 6-hr./jj composite/jj samples/nns with/in 24-hr./jj operations/nns ./.
The/at data/nn indicated/vbd that/cs the/at organic/jj load/nn during/in the/at 6-hr./jj composites/nns was/bedz essentially/rb 50/cd per/in cent/nn of/in the/at 24-hr./jj organic/jj load/nn ./.


	Grab/nn samples/nns were/bed collected/vbn from/in the/at existing/vbg oxidation/nn pond/nn to/to determine/vb its/pp$ operating/vbg conditions/nns ./.
Efforts/nns were/bed made/vbn to/to take/vb the/at grab/nn samples/nns at/in random/jj periods/nns so/cs that/cs the/at mass/nn of/in data/nn could/md be/be treated/vbn as/cs a/at 6-hr./jj composite/jj sample/nn ./.
A/at single/ap 24-hr./jj composite/jj sample/nn indicated/vbd that/cs the/at sewage/nn flow/nn pattern/nn and/cc characteristics/nns were/bed typical/jj ./.



Pilot/nn-hl plant/nn-hl operations/nns-hl 
The/at BOD/nn of/in the/at influent/nn to/in the/at pilot/nn plant/nn varied/vbd between/in 110/cd and/cc 710/cd mg/l/nn with/in an/at average/nn of/in 350/cd Aj/nn ./.
This/dt was/bedz equivalent/jj to/in 240/cd mg/lBOD/nn on/in a/at 24-hr./jj basis/nn ./.
The/at BOD/nn of/in the/at raw/jj sewage/nn was/bedz typical/jj of/in domestic/jj sewage/nn from/in a/at subdivision/nn ./.
The/at BOD/nn in/in the/at effluent/nn averaged/vbd 58/cd mg/l/nn ,/, a/at 76-per-cent/nn reduction/nn over/in the/at 24-hr./jj period/nn ./.
Examination/nn of/in the/at data/nn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, shows/vbz that/cs a/at few/ap samples/nns contributed/vbd to/in raising/vbg the/at effluent/nn Aj/nn ./.
The/at periods/nns of/in high/jj effluent/nn BOD/nn occurred/vbd during/in cold/jj periods/nns when/wrb operational/jj problems/nns with/in the/at aerator/nn resulted/vbd ./.
Ice/nn caused/vbd the/at aerator/nn to/to overload/vb ,/, straining/vbg the/at drive/nn belts/nns ./.
The/at slippage/nn of/in the/at drive/nn belts/nns caused/vbd the/at aerator/nn to/to slow/vb down/rp and/cc reduce/vb oxygen/nn transfer/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at mixing/nn of/in the/at raw/jj sewage/nn ./.


	The/at organic/jj loading/nn on/in the/at unit/nn averaged/vbd 32/cd lb/nn of/in BOD/day/nn or/cc about/rb 2/cd lb/nn BOD/day/1,000/nn cu/nn ft/nn aeration/nn capacity/nn ./.
Needless/jj to/to say/vb ,/, the/at organic/jj load/nn was/bedz very/ql low/jj on/in a/at volumetric/jj basis/nn ,/, but/cc was/bedz 270/cd lb/nn BOD/day/acre/nn on/in a/at surface/nn loading/vbg basis/nn ./.
It/pps seems/vbz that/cs the/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn was/bedz a/at very/ql heavily/rb loaded/vbn oxidation/nn pond/nn or/cc a/at lightly/rb loaded/vbn activated/vbn sludge/nn system/nn ./.


	The/at flow/nn rate/nn remained/vbd relatively/ql constant/jj during/in the/at winter/nn months/nns as/cs shown/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
With/in the/at spring/nn rains/nns the/at flow/nn rose/vbd rapidly/rb due/rb to/in infiltration/nn in/in open/jj sewers/nns ./.
As/cs construction/nn progresses/vbz ,/, the/at volume/nn of/in storm/nn drainage/nn will/md be/be sharply/rb reduced/vbn ./.
The/at retention/nn period/nn in/in the/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn ranged/vbd from/in 9.8/cd to/in 2.6/cd days/nns ,/, averaging/vbg 6.4/cd days/nns ./.


	The/at large/jj amount/nn of/in vegetable/nn grindings/nns from/in the/at grocery/nn store/nn in/in the/at shopping/vbg center/nn created/vbd a/at suspended/vbn solids/nns problem/nn ./.
The/at vegetables/nns were/bed not/* readily/rb metabolized/vbn by/in the/at bacteria/nns in/in the/at aeration/nn unit/nn and/cc tended/vbd to/to float/vb on/in the/at surface/nn ./.
A/at skimming/vbg device/nn at/in the/at effluent/nn weir/nn prevented/vbd loss/nn of/in most/ap of/in these/dts light/jj solids/nns ./.
The/at average/jj volatile/jj suspended/vbn solids/nns in/in the/at effluent/nn was/bedz 75/cd mg/l/nn while/cs MLSS/nn averaged/vbd 170/cd mg/l/nn volatile/jj suspended/vbn solids/nns ./.
The/at average/jj sludge/nn age/nn based/vbn on/in displacement/nn of/in solids/nns was/bedz calculated/vbn to/to be/be 14.5/cd days/nns ./.
The/at oxygen/nn uptake/nn rate/nn in/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn averaged/vbd 0.8/cd mg/l/hr/nn during/in the/at first/od four/cd months/nns of/in this/dt study/nn ./.
Variations/nns in/in aerator/nn speeds/nns during/in the/at latter/ap two/cd months/nns of/in this/dt study/nn caused/vbd increased/vbn mixing/vbg and/cc increased/vbn oxygen/nn demand/nn ./.
The/at increase/nn in/in oxygen/nn uptake/nn rates/nns from/in 1.2/cd to/in 2.6/cd mg/l/hr/nn which/wdt followed/vbd an/at increase/nn in/in rotor/nn speed/nn was/bedz believed/vbn to/to be/be related/vbn to/in resuspension/nn of/in solids/nns which/wdt had/hvd settled/vbn at/in the/at lower/jjr rotor/nn speeds/nns ./.
It/pps appeared/vbd that/cs most/ap of/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn suspended/vbn solids/nns were/bed active/jj microbial/jj solids/nns with/in the/at heavier/jjr ,/, less/ql active/jj solids/nns settling/vbg out/rp ./.


	The/at suspended/vbn solids/nns discharged/vbn in/in the/at effluent/nn were/bed found/vbn to/to be/be the/at major/jj source/nn of/in the/at Aj/nn ./.
Removal/nn of/in the/at suspended/vbn solids/nns by/in a/at membrane/nn filter/nn yielded/vbd an/at average/jj effluent/nn containing/vbg only/rb 20/cd mg/l/nn Aj/nn ./.
The/at BOD/nn in/in the/at drainage/nn ditch/nn receiving/vbg the/at pilot/nn plant/nn effluent/nn averaged/vbd 12/cd Aj/nn ./.
This/dt low/nn BOD/nn was/bedz due/jj to/in removal/nn of/in the/at excess/jj suspended/vbn solids/nns by/in sedimentation/nn since/cs the/at only/ap dilution/nn was/bedz surface/nn runoff/nn which/wdt was/bedz very/ql low/jj during/in this/dt study/nn ./.



Microscopic/jj-hl examination/nn-hl 
Routine/jj microscopic/jj examinations/nns were/bed made/vbn of/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn as/cs indicated/vbn by/in McKinney/np and/cc Gram/np for/in the/at various/ap types/nns of/in protozoa/nns ./.
It/pps was/bedz found/vbn that/cs the/at aerated/vbn lagoon/nn was/bedz an/at activated/vbn sludge/nn system/nn rather/rb than/cs an/at oxidation/nn pond/nn ./.
At/in no/at time/nn were/bed algae/nns found/vbn in/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn ./.
The/at bacteria/nns formed/vbd typical/jj activated/vbn sludge/nn floc/nn ./.
The/at floc/nn particles/nns were/bed all/abn small/jj as/cs the/at heavier/jjr floc/nn settled/vbd out/rp ./.


	Initially/rb ,/, the/at flagellated/vbn protozoa/nns predominated/vbd ,/, but/cc they/ppss soon/rb gave/vbd way/nn to/in the/at free/rb swimming/vbg ciliated/jj protozoa/nns ./.
As/cs the/at temperature/nn decreased/vbd ,/, the/at number/nn of/in free/rb swimming/vbg ciliated/jj protozoa/nns decreased/vbd ./.
Very/ql little/ap protozoa/nns activity/nn existed/vbd below/in 40-degrees-F/nns ./.
When/wrb the/at temperature/nn reached/vbd 32-degrees-F/nns all/abn protozoan/jj activity/nn ceased/vbd ;/. ;/.
but/cc as/cs the/at temperature/nn rose/vbd ,/, the/at numbers/nns of/in protozoa/nns increased/vbd rapidly/rb ./.
Only/rb once/rb were/bed stalked/vbn ciliates/nns found/vbn in/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn ./.
The/at predomination/nn of/in free/rb swimming/vbg ciliated/jj protozoa/nns is/bez indicative/jj of/in a/at high/jj bacterial/jj population/nn ./.



Oxygen/nn-hl transfer/nn-hl 
One/cd of/in the/at important/jj aspects/nns of/in this/dt study/nn was/bedz to/to determine/vb the/at oxygen/nn transfer/nn relationships/nns of/in the/at mechanical/jj aerator/nn ./.
Routine/jj determinations/nns were/bed made/vbn for/in dissolved/vbn oxygen/nn in/in the/at mixed/vbn liquor/nn and/cc for/in oxygen/nn uptake/nn rates/nns ./.
The/at data/nns given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, show/vb the/at routine/jj operation/nn of/in the/at aerator/nn ./.
The/at dissolved/vbn oxygen/nn in/in the/at aeration/nn unit/nn was/bedz consistently/rb high/jj until/in January/np 29/cd ,/, 1961/cd ./.
An/at extended/vbn cold/jj spell/nn caused/vbd ice/nn to/to build/vb up/rp on/in the/at aerator/nn which/wdt was/bedz mounted/vbn on/in a/at floating/vbg platform/nn and/cc caused/vbd the/at entire/jj platform/nn to/to sink/vb lower/rbr in/in the/at water/nn ./.
The/at added/vbn resistance/nn to/in the/at rotor/nn damaged/vbd the/at drive/nn belts/nns and/cc reduced/vbd the/at oxygen/nn transfer/nn capacity/nn ./.
It/pps was/bedz approximately/rb one/cd month/nn before/cs the/at belt/nn problem/nn was/bedz noticed/vbn and/cc corrected/vbn ,/, but/cc at/in no/at time/nn was/bedz there/ex a/at deficiency/nn of/in dissolved/vbn oxygen/nn ./.


	A/at series/nns of/in eight/cd special/jj tests/nns were/bed conducted/vbn at/in different/jj rotor/nn speeds/nns to/to determine/vb the/at oxygen/nn transfer/nn rate/nn ./.
Five/cd of/in the/at tests/nns were/bed conducted/vbn with/in a/at polyethylene/nn cover/nn to/to simulate/vb an/at ice/nn cover/nn ./.
The/at rate/nn of/in oxygen/nn transfer/nn at/in 1.0-mg./nn //in l./nn dissolved/vbn oxygen/nn concentration/nn and/cc 10-degrees-C/nns for/in various/ap rotor/nn speeds/nns is/bez given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ./.
The/at maximum/jj rate/nn of/in oxygen/nn transfer/nn at/in 1.0/cd mg/l/nn dissolved/vbn oxygen/nn was/bedz calculated/vbn as/cs 220/cd lb/day/nn at/in a/at maximum/jj rate/nn of/in 9.3/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at actual/jj power/nn requirements/nns indicated/vbd 2/cd lb./nn oxygen/nn transfer/nn //in hr./nn //in hp./nn ./.
The/at polyethylene/nn cover/nn reduced/vbd the/at oxygen/nn transfer/nn rate/nn by/in 10/cd per/in cent/nn ,/, indicating/vbg that/cs the/at maximum/jj oxygen/nn transfer/nn is/bez at/in the/at rotor/nn rather/rb than/cs through/in the/at surface/nn ./.



Oxidation/nn-hl pond/nn-hl 
During/in this/dt study/nn septic/jj conditions/nns developed/vbd in/in the/at oxidation/nn pond/nn in/in the/at spring/nn when/wrb the/at ice/nn melted/vbd ./.
Shortly/rb after/cs this/dt study/nn ended/vbd septic/jj conditions/nns resulted/vbd which/wdt required/vbd the/at addition/nn of/in sodium/nn nitrate/nn ./.
The/at location/nn of/in the/at oxidation/nn pond/nn in/in a/at high-value/nn residential/jj area/nn makes/vbz odor/nn nuisances/nns a/at sensitive/jj problem/nn for/in the/at developer/nn ./.
The/at organic/jj concentration/nn in/in the/at influent/jj raw/jj sewage/nn ranged/vbd from/in 160/cd to/in 270/cd mg/l/nn of/in BOD/nn with/in an/at average/nn of/in 230/cd Aj/nn ./.
The/at BOD/nn data/nns are/ber given/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 4/cd-tl ./.
A/at single/ap 24-hr./jj composite/jj sample/nn had/hvd a/at BOD/nn of/in 260/cd mg/l/nn ,/, indicating/vbg a/at typical/jj domestic/jj sewage/nn ./.
The/at daily/jj sewage/nn volume/nn to/in the/at oxidation/nn pond/nn averaged/vbd 147,000/cd gpd/nn ,/, giving/vbg a/at retention/nn period/nn of/in 42/cd days/nns ./.
The/at organic/jj loading/nn on/in the/at pond/nn was/bedz slightly/rb under/in 60/cd lb./nn BOD/np //in day/nn //in acre/nn ./.


	The/at effluent/nn BOD/nn averaged/vbd 34/cd mg/l/nn ,/, a/at little/ql lower/jjr than/cs that/dt of/in the/at study/nn at/in Fayette/np indicated/vbd for/in a/at loading/nn of/in 60/cd lb./nn Aj/nn ./.
The/at BOD/nn of/in the/at effluent/nn ranged/vbd from/in a/at minimum/nn of/in 13/cd to/in a/at maximum/jj of/in 47/cd mg./nn //in l./nn ./.
Microscopic/jj examination/nn of/in the/at effluent/nn showed/vbd that/cs minimum/jj BOD/nn occurred/vbd when/wrb the/at algae/nns began/vbd to/to decrease/vb with/in cold/jj weather/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at algae/nns began/vbd to/to build/vb up/rp again/rb ,/, the/at effluent/nn BOD/nn rose/vbd ./.
During/in the/at two/cd weeks/nns when/wrb the/at algae/nns disappeared/vbd from/in the/at effluent/nn BOD's/nn in/in the/at effluent/nn were/bed 18/cd and/cc 16/cd Aj/nn ./.



	Thus/rb ,/, the/at three/cd main/jjs categories/nns of/in antisubmarine/jj warfare/nn operations/nns are/ber defense/nn of/in shipping/nn ,/, defense/nn of/in naval/jj forces/nns ,/, and/cc area/nn defense/nn ./.
The/at last/ap category/nn overlaps/vbz the/at others/nns in/in amphibious/jj operations/nns and/cc near/in terminals/nns and/cc bases/nns ./.


	To/to effect/vb these/dts operations/nns ,/, five/cd elements/nns exist/vb (/( 1/cd )/) surface/nn ,/, (/( 2/cd )/) air/nn ,/, (/( 3/cd )/) mines/nns ,/, (/( 4/cd )/) submarine/nn ,/, and/cc (/( 5/cd )/) fixed/vbn installations/nns ./.
Surface/nn forces/nns have/hv been/ben used/vbn to/to provide/vb defense/nn zones/nns around/in naval/jj and/cc merchant/nn ship/nn formations/nns ,/, air/nn to/to furnish/vb area/nn surveillance/nn ,/, and/cc mines/nns for/in protection/nn of/in limited/vbn areas/nns ./.
Submarines/nns and/cc shore/nn installations/nns are/ber new/jj elements/nns ./.
The/at submarine/nn now/rb has/hvz a/at definite/jj place/nn in/in submarine/jj defense/nn particularly/rb in/in denying/vbg enemy/nn access/nn to/in ocean/nn areas/nns ./.
Fixed/vbn installations/nns offer/vb possibilities/nns for/in area/nn detection/nn ./.
Mine/nn warfare/nn is/bez being/beg reoriented/vbn against/in submarine/jj targets/nns ./.


	A/at sixth/od element/nn ,/, not/* always/rb considered/vbn ,/, is/bez intelligence/nn ./.
It/pps includes/vbz operational/jj intelligence/nn of/in the/at enemy/nn and/cc knowledge/nn of/in the/at environment/nn ./.
Operational/jj intelligence/nn presumably/rb will/md be/be available/jj from/in our/pp$ national/jj intelligence/nn agencies/nns ;/. ;/.
intelligence/nn on/in the/at environment/nn will/md come/vb from/in the/at recently/rb augmented/vbn program/nn in/in oceanography/nn ./.
The/at major/jj postwar/jj development/nn is/bez the/at certainty/nn that/cs these/dts elements/nns should/md not/* be/be considered/vbn singly/rb but/cc in/in combination/nn and/cc as/cs being/beg mutually/rb supporting/vbg ./.



Necessity/nn-hl for/in-hl an/at-hl over-all/jj-hl concept/nn-hl 
Thinking/nn on/in submarine/jj defense/nn has/hvz not/* always/rb been/ben clear-cut/jj ./.
Proponents/nns of/in single/ap elements/nns tend/vb to/to ensure/vb predominance/nn of/in that/dt element/nn without/in determining/vbg if/cs it/pps is/bez justified/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at element/nn with/in the/at most/ql enthusiastic/jj and/cc vociferous/jj proponents/nns has/hvz assumed/vbn the/at greatest/jjt importance/nn ./.
Consequently/rb ,/, air/nn ,/, surface/nn ,/, and/cc submarine/jj elements/nns overshadow/vb the/at mine/nn ,/, fixed/vbn installations/nns ,/, and/cc intelligence/nn ./.
These/dts have/hv sought/vbn more/ap and/cc more/ap of/in what/wdt they/ppss have/hv ./.
Each/dt seems/vbz to/to strive/vb for/in elimination/nn of/in the/at necessity/nn for/in the/at others/nns ./.
This/dt ,/, despite/in postwar/jj experience/nn demonstrating/vbg that/cs all/abn elements/nns are/ber necessarily/rb mutually/rb supporting/vbg ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at most/ql productive/jj areas/nns are/ber not/* necessarily/rb the/at most/ql stressed/vbn ./.
This/dt is/bez stated/vbn to/to emphasize/vb the/at necessity/nn for/in an/at over-all/jj concept/nn of/in submarine/jj defense/nn ,/, one/cd which/wdt would/md provide/vb positions/nns of/in relative/jj importance/nn to/in ASW/nn elements/nns based/vbn on/in projected/vbn potentialities/nns ./.
Then/rb the/at enthusiasm/nn and/cc energy/nn of/in all/abn elements/nns can/md be/be channeled/vbn to/to produce/vb cumulative/jj progress/nn toward/in a/at common/jj objective/nn ./.
An/at over-all/jj concept/nn would/md have/hv other/ap advantages/nns ./.
It/pps would/md allow/vb presentation/nn to/in the/at public/nn of/in a/at unified/vbn approach/nn ./.
Now/rb the/at problem/nn is/bez presented/vbn piecemeal/rb and/cc sometimes/rb contradictorily/rb ./.
While/cs one/cd element/nn is/bez announcing/vbg progress/nn ,/, another/dt is/bez delineating/vbg its/pp$ problems/nns ./.
The/at result/nn can/md only/rb be/be confusion/nn in/in the/at public/nn mind/nn ./.
A/at unified/vbn concept/nn can/md serve/vb as/cs a/at guide/nn to/in budgeting/vbg and/cc ,/, if/cs public/nn support/nn is/bez gained/vbn ,/, will/md command/vb Congressional/jj-tl support/nn ./.
Industry's/nn$ main/jjs criticism/nn of/in the/at Navy's/nn$-tl antisubmarine/jj effort/nn is/bez that/cs it/pps cannot/md* determine/vb where/wrb any/dti one/cd company/nn or/cc industry/nn can/md apply/vb its/pp$ skills/nns and/cc know-how/nn ./.
Lacking/vbg guidance/nn ,/, industry/nn picks/vbz its/pp$ own/jj areas/nns ./.
The/at result/nn ,/, coupled/vbn with/in the/at salesmanship/nn for/in which/wdt American/jj industry/nn is/bez famous/jj ,/, is/bez considerable/jj expenditure/nn of/in funds/nns and/cc efforts/nns in/in marginal/jj areas/nns ./.
An/at over-all/jj concept/nn will/md guide/vb industry/nn where/wrb available/jj talents/nns and/cc facilities/nns will/md yield/vb greatest/jjt dividends/nns ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, a/at broad/jj concept/nn of/in over-all/jj submarine/jj defense/nn is/bez needed/vbn for/in co-ordination/nn of/in the/at Navy's/nn$-tl efforts/nns ,/, for/in a/at logical/jj presentation/nn to/in the/at public/nn ,/, for/in industry's/nn$ guidance/nn ,/, and/cc as/cs a/at basis/nn for/in a/at program/nn to/in the/at Congress/np ./.



Principles/nns-hl involved/vbn-hl in/in-hl an/at-hl over-all/jj-hl concept/nn-hl 
That/dt which/wdt follows/vbz will/md be/be a/at discussion/nn of/in principles/nns and/cc possible/jj content/nn for/in an/at over-all/jj concept/nn of/in antisubmarine/jj warfare/nn ./.
Russia/np possesses/vbz the/at preponderance/nn of/in submarines/nns in/in the/at world/nn ,/, divided/vbn between/in her/pp$ various/ap fleets/nns ./.
Some/dti are/ber also/rb in/in Albania/np and/cc others/nns are/ber on/in loan/nn to/in Egypt/np ./.
Other/ap countries/nns which/wdt may/md willingly/rb or/cc unwillingly/rb become/vb Communist/jj can/md furnish/vb bases/nns ./.
Communist/jj target/nn areas/nns can/md be/be assumed/vbn ,/, but/cc there/ex is/bez no/at certainty/nn that/cs such/jj assumptions/nns coincide/vb with/in Soviet/np intentions/nns ./.
Attack/nn can/md come/vb from/in almost/rb any/dti direction/nn against/in many/ap locations/nns ./.
Logically/rb ,/, then/rb ,/, the/at first/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn must/md be/be that/cs it/pps is/bez not/* rigidly/rb oriented/vbn toward/in any/dti geographical/jj area/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez often/rb stated/vbn that/cs the/at submarine/nn can/md be/be destroyed/vbn while/cs building/vbg ,/, at/in bases/nns ,/, in/in transit/nn ,/, and/cc on/in station/nn ./.
Destruction/nn of/in the/at enemy's/nn$ building/nn and/cc base/nn complex/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, requires/vbz attacks/nns on/in enemy/nn territory/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez possible/jj only/rb in/in event/nn of/in all-out/jj hostilities/nns ./.
In/in transit/nn or/cc on/in station/nn ,/, it/pps may/md not/* be/be possible/jj to/to attack/vb the/at submarines/nns until/cs commission/nn of/in an/at overt/jj act/nn ./.
The/at Communists/nns-tl are/ber adept/jj at/in utilizing/vbg hostilities/nns short/jj of/in general/jj war/nn and/cc will/md do/do so/rb whenever/wrb it/pps is/bez to/in their/pp$ advantage/nn ./.
Therefore/rb the/at second/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn must/md be/be that/cs ,/, while/cs providing/vbg for/in all-out/jj hostilities/nns ,/, its/pp$ effectiveness/nn is/bez not/* dependent/jj on/in general/jj war/nn ./.


	Antisubmarine/jj warfare/nn does/doz not/* involve/vb clashes/nns between/in large/jj opposing/vbg forces/nns ,/, with/in the/at decision/nn a/at result/nn of/in a/at single/ap battle/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez a/at war/nn of/in attrition/nn ,/, of/in single/ap actions/nns ,/, of/in an/at exchange/nn of/in losses/nns ./.
This/dt exchange/nn must/md result/vb in/in our/pp$ ending/vbg up/rp with/in some/dti effective/jj units/nns ./.
Initially/rb ,/, having/hvg fewer/ap units/nns of/in some/dti elements/nns --/-- especially/rb submarines/nns --/-- than/cs the/at opponent/nn ,/, our/pp$ capabilities/nns need/vb to/to be/be sufficiently/ql greater/jjr than/cs theirs/pp$$ ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at exchange/nn will/md be/be in/in our/pp$ favor/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at third/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn must/md be/be that/cs it/pps does/doz not/* depend/vb for/in effectiveness/nn on/in engagement/nn by/in the/at same/ap types/nns ,/, unless/cs at/in an/at assured/vbn favorable/jj exchange/nn rate/nn ./.


	The/at submarine/nn has/hvz increased/vbn its/pp$ effectiveness/nn by/in several/ap orders/nns of/in magnitude/nn since/in World/nn-tl War/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Its/pp$ speed/nn has/hvz increased/vbn ,/, it/pps operates/vbz at/in increasingly/rb greater/jjr depths/nns ,/, its/pp$ submerged/vbn endurance/nn is/bez becoming/vbg unlimited/jj ,/, and/cc it/pps will/md become/vb even/ql more/ql silent/jj ./.
The/at next/ap developments/nns will/md probably/rb be/be in/in weaponry/nn ./.
The/at missile/nn can/md gradually/rb be/be expected/vbn to/to replace/vb the/at torpedo/nn ./.
As/cs detection/nn ranges/nns increase/vb ,/, weapons/nns will/md be/be developed/vbn to/to attack/vb other/ap submarines/nns and/cc surface/nn craft/nn at/in these/dts ranges/nns ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at fourth/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn must/md be/be that/cs it/pps provide/vb for/in continuously/rb increasing/vbg capabilities/nns in/in the/at opponent/nn ./.


	No/at element/nn can/md accomplish/vb the/at total/jj objective/nn of/in submarine/jj defense/nn ./.
Some/dti elements/nns support/vb the/at others/nns ,/, but/cc all/abn have/hv limitations/nns ./.
Some/dti limitations/nns of/in one/cd element/nn can/md be/be compensated/vbn for/in by/in a/at capability/nn of/in another/dt ./.
Elements/nns used/vbn in/in combination/nn will/md increase/vb the/at over-all/jj capability/nn more/rbr than/cs the/at sum/nn of/in the/at capabilities/nns of/in the/at individual/ap elements/nns ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at plan's/nn$ fifth/od principle/nn must/md be/be that/cs it/pps capitalize/vb on/in the/at capabilities/nns of/in all/abn elements/nns in/in combination/nn ./.


	Conceivably/rb the/at submarine/jj defense/nn problem/nn can/md be/be solved/vbn by/in sufficient/jj forces/nns ./.
Numbers/nns would/md be/be astronomical/jj and/cc current/jj fiscal/jj policies/nns make/vb this/dt an/at impractical/jj solution/nn ./.
Shipbuilding/nn ,/, aircraft/nn procurement/nn ,/, and/cc weapon/nn programs/nns indicate/vb that/cs there/ex will/md not/* be/be enough/ap of/in anything/pn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, any/dti measures/nns taken/vbn in/in peacetime/nn which/wdt will/md decrease/vb force/nn requirements/nns in/in war/nn will/md contribute/vb greatly/rb to/in success/nn when/wrb hostilities/nns occur/vb ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at sixth/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn must/md be/be that/cs it/pps concentrate/vb on/in current/jj measures/nns which/wdt will/md reduce/vb future/jj force/nn requirements/nns ./.


	The/at world/nn is/bez constantly/rb changing/vbg ;/. ;/.
what/wdt was/bedz new/jj yesterday/nr is/bez obsolescent/jj today/nr ./.
The/at seventh/od principle/nn of/in the/at plan/nn is/bez self-evident/jj ;/. ;/.
it/pps must/md be/be flexible/jj enough/qlp to/to allow/vb for/in technological/jj breakthroughs/nns ,/, scientific/jj progress/nn ,/, and/cc changes/nns in/in world/nn conditions/nns ./.



Supporting/vbg-hl elements/nns-hl in/in-hl asw/nn-hl operations/nns-hl 
To/in this/dt point/nn the/at need/nn for/in an/at over-all/jj plan/nn for/in submarine/jj defense/nn has/hvz been/ben demonstrated/vbn ,/, the/at mission/nn has/hvz been/ben stated/vbn ,/, broad/jj principles/nns delineating/vbg its/pp$ content/nn laid/vbn down/rp ,/, and/cc the/at supporting/vbg elements/nns listed/vbn ./.
Before/cs considering/vbg these/dts elements/nns in/in more/ap detail/nn ,/, an/at additional/jj requirement/nn should/md be/be stated/vbn ./.
Large/jj area/nn coverage/nn will/md accomplish/vb all/abn other/ap tasks/nns ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, because/cs reduction/nn in/in tasks/nns results/nns in/in reduction/nn of/in forces/nns required/vbn ,/, the/at plan/nn should/md provide/vb for/in expanding/vbg area/nn coverage/nn ./.
But/cc it/pps must/md be/be remembered/vbn that/cs the/at plan/nn should/md not/* be/be oriented/vbn geographically/rb ./.
Consequently/rb ,/, the/at system/nn giving/vbg area/nn coverage/nn (/( if/cs such/jj coverage/nn is/bez less/ap than/cs world/nn wide/jj )/) must/md be/be flexible/jj and/cc hence/rb at/in least/ap partially/rb mobile/jj ./.
Since/cs effective/jj area/nn coverage/nn appears/vbz fairly/ql remote/jj ,/, the/at requirement/nn can/md be/be borne/vbn in/in mind/nn while/cs considering/in the/at elements/nns :/: air/nn ,/, surface/nn ,/, sub-surface/jj ,/, fixed/vbn installations/nns ,/, mines/nns ,/, and/cc intelligence/nn ./.
These/dts are/ber arranged/vbn approximately/rb in/in the/at order/nn of/in the/at vociferousness/nn of/in their/pp$ proponents/nns but/cc will/md be/be discussed/vbn in/in the/at reverse/jj order/nn in/in the/at hope/nn that/cs the/at true/jj order/nn of/in importance/nn will/md result/vb ./.




Intelligence/nn ,/, as/cs used/vbn herein/rb ,/, will/md include/vb information/nn on/in possible/jj opponents/nns and/cc on/in the/at environment/nn which/wdt can/md affect/vb operations/nns ./.
These/dts can/md be/be referred/vbn to/in as/cs operational/jj intelligence/nn and/cc environmental/jj intelligence/nn ./.
In/in submarine/jj defense/nn these/dts must/md have/hv maximum/jj stress/nn ./.
Good/jj operational/jj intelligence/nn can/md ensure/vb sound/jj planning/nn ,/, greatly/rb reduce/vb force/nn requirements/nns ,/, and/cc increase/vb tactical/jj effectiveness/nn ./.
Environmental/jj intelligence/nn is/bez just/rb as/ql important/jj ./.
The/at ocean/nn presently/rb co-operates/vbz with/in the/at target/nn ./.
Full/jj knowledge/nn of/in the/at science/nn of/in oceanography/nn can/md bring/vb the/at environment/nn to/in our/pp$ side/nn ,/, resulting/vbg in/in an/at increase/nn in/in effectiveness/nn of/in equipment/nn and/cc tactics/nns ,/, a/at decrease/nn in/in enemy/nn capabilities/nns ,/, and/cc the/at development/nn of/in methods/nns of/in capitalizing/vbg on/in the/at environment/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, improved/vbn intelligence/nn will/md result/vb in/in reduced/vbn force/nn requirements/nns and/cc ,/, as/cs it/pps supports/vbz all/abn other/ap elements/nns ,/, rates/vbz a/at top/jjs priority/nn ./.
Gathering/vbg intelligence/nn is/bez important/jj ,/, but/cc of/in equal/jj importance/nn is/bez its/pp$ translation/nn into/in usable/jj form/nn ./.


	A/at program/nn is/bez needed/vbn to/to translate/vb the/at results/nns of/in oceanographic/jj research/nn into/in tactical/jj and/cc operating/vbg instructions/nns ./.
Approaching/vbg this/dt problem/nn on/in a/at statistical/jj basis/nn is/bez invalid/jj ,/, because/cs the/at opponent/nn has/hvz the/at same/ap sources/nns available/jj and/cc will/md be/be encountered/vbn not/* under/in average/jj conditions/nns ,/, but/cc under/in the/at conditions/nns most/ql advantageous/jj to/in him/ppo ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, the/at on-the-scene/jj commander/nn must/md have/hv detailed/vbn operating/vbg instructions/nns based/vbn on/in measurement/nn of/in conditions/nns ,/, in/in the/at area/nn ,/, at/in the/at time/nn of/in encounter/nn ./.
All/abn capabilities/nns must/md be/be used/vbn to/in maximum/jj advantage/nn then/rb ./.
Temperature/nn ,/, wind/nn ,/, oxygen/nn content/nn ,/, depth/nn ,/, bottom/nn character/nn ,/, and/cc animal/nn life/nn are/ber the/at chief/jjs environmental/jj variables/nns ./.
There/ex may/md be/be others/nns ./.
Variations/nns in/in sound/nn velocity/nn should/md be/be measured/vbn rather/rb than/cs temperature/nn ,/, because/cs more/ap of/in the/at variables/nns would/md be/be encompassed/vbn ./.
These/dts variations/nns must/md eventually/rb be/be measured/vbn horizontally/rb as/ql well/rb as/cs vertically/rb ./.
Progress/nn in/in predicting/vbg water/nn conditions/nns is/bez encouraging/jj ,/, but/cc little/ap guidance/nn is/bez available/jj to/in the/at man/nn at/in sea/nn on/in the/at use/nn of/in such/jj information/nn ./.
A/at concurrent/jj effort/nn is/bez needed/vbn to/to make/vb oceanographic/jj data/nn useful/jj on/in the/at spot/nn ./.




Mine/nn warfare/nn has/hvz in/in the/at past/nn been/ben directed/vbn against/in surface/nn targets/nns ./.
By/in its/pp$ nature/nn it/pps has/hvz always/rb been/ben of/in great/jj psychological/jj advantage/nn and/cc small/jj efforts/nns have/hv required/vbn considerably/ql greater/jjr counter-efforts/nns ./.
Mines/nns are/ber being/beg increasingly/rb oriented/vbn against/in submarine/jj targets/nns ./.
They/ppss are/ber still/rb considered/vbn to/to be/be for/in use/nn in/in restricted/vbn waters/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, and/cc targets/nns must/md come/vb within/in a/at few/ap yards/nns of/in them/ppo ./.
Mines/nns need/vb to/to be/be recognized/vbn as/cs a/at major/jj element/nn in/in anti-submarine/jj warfare/nn employment/nn ,/, extended/vbn to/in deep/jj water/nn ,/, and/cc have/hv their/pp$ effective/jj area/nn per/in unit/nn increased/vbn ./.
Mines/nns can/md be/be used/vbn to/to deny/vb access/nn to/in great/jj areas/nns ;/. ;/.
they/ppss are/ber difficult/jj to/to counter/vb ,/, cost/vb little/ap to/to maintain/vb until/cs required/vbn ,/, and/cc can/md be/be put/vbn into/in place/nn quickly/rb ./.
A/at most/ql attractive/jj feature/nn is/bez that/cs detection/nn and/cc attack/nn are/ber combined/vbn in/in a/at single/ap package/nn ./.
Effective/jj employment/nn will/md reduce/vb force/nn requirements/nns ./.


	For/in example/nn ,/, effective/jj mine/nn barriers/nns from/in Florida/np to/in Cuba/np and/cc across/in the/at Yucatan/np-tl Channel/nn-tl from/in Cuba/np to/in Mexico/np would/md remove/vb all/abn requirements/nns for/in harbor/nn defense/nn ,/, inshore/jj patrol/nn ,/, convoy/nn escort/nn ,/, shipping/vbg control/nn ,/, and/cc mine/nn defense/nn for/in the/at entire/jj Gulf/nn-tl of/in-tl Mexico/np-tl ./.
More/ql extended/vbn systems/nns ,/, covering/vbg all/abn passage/nn into/in the/at Caribbean/np ,/, would/md free/vb the/at Caribbean/np and/cc the/at Gulf/nn-tl of/in-tl Mexico/np-tl from/in the/at previously/rb listed/vbn requirements/nns ./.
Systems/nns covering/vbg the/at Gulf/nn-tl of/in-tl St./np-tl Lawrence/np-tl and/cc possibly/rb the/at entire/jj coasts/nns of/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl are/ber not/* impossible/jj ./.
Such/jj mine/nn defense/nn systems/nns could/md permit/vb concentration/nn of/in mobile/jj forces/nns in/in the/at open/jj oceans/nns with/in consequent/jj increase/nn in/in the/at probability/nn of/in success/nn ./.
The/at advantages/nns inherent/jj in/in mine/nn warfare/nn justify/vb as/ql great/jj an/at importance/nn for/in this/dt element/nn as/cs is/bez accorded/vbn any/dti of/in the/at other/ap elements/nns ./.




Fixed/vbn installations/nns are/ber increasingly/rb advocated/vbn as/cs the/at problem/nn of/in area/nn defense/nn emerges/vbz ./.
The/at proponents/nns are/ber scientific/jj and/cc technical/jj men/nns who/wps exercise/vb considerable/jj influence/nn on/in their/pp$ military/jj counterparts/nns ./.
Systems/nns which/wdt detect/vb submarines/nns over/in wide/jj areas/nns are/ber attractive/jj ,/, although/cs they/ppss can/md be/be only/ap ``/`` burglar/nn alarms/nns ''/'' ./.
Mobile/jj forces/nns are/ber required/vbn to/to localize/vb and/cc attack/vb detected/vbn targets/nns ,/, since/cs the/at systems/nns are/ber not/* capable/jj of/in pinpointing/vbg a/at target/nn ./.
Such/jj systems/nns are/ber expensive/jj and/cc are/ber oriented/vbn geographically/rb ./.
In/in an/at over-all/jj ASW/nn concept/nn ,/, dependence/nn on/in and/cc effort/nn expended/vbn for/in such/jj systems/nns should/md be/be limited/vbn to/in those/dts with/in proven/vbn capabilities/nns ./.
No/at general/jj installation/nn should/md be/be made/vbn until/cs a/at model/nn installation/nn has/hvz been/ben proved/vbn and/cc its/pp$ maximum/jj capability/nn determined/vbn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, proposals/nns for/in fixed/vbn installations/nns should/md be/be carefully/rb weighed/vbn against/in a/at counterpart/nn mobile/jj system/nn ./.
Fixed/vbn installations/nns will/md always/rb lack/vb the/at flexibility/nn that/wps should/md be/be inherent/jj in/in naval/jj systems/nns ./.




The/at submarine/nn has/hvz become/vbn increasingly/ql attractive/jj as/cs an/at antisubmarine/jj weapon/nn system/nn ./.
It/pps operates/vbz in/in its/pp$ target's/nn$ environment/nn ,/, and/cc any/dti advantage/nn gained/vbn therefrom/rb by/in the/at target/nn is/bez shared/vbn by/in the/at attacker/nn ./.
But/cc the/at submarine/nn is/bez a/at weapon/nn of/in ambush/nn and/cc therefore/rb always/rb in/in danger/nn of/in being/beg ambushed/vbn ./.

Two/cd metabolites/nns (/( 1/cd ,/, and/cc 2/cd )/) )/) of/in p-aminobenzoic/nn acid/nn (/( PABA/np )/) which/wdt act/vb as/cs cofactors/nns for/in the/at hydroxylation/nn of/in aniline/nn by/in acid-fast/jj bacteria/nns are/ber biosynthesized/vbn from/in Aj/nn ./.
The/at 7/cd carbons/nns of/in PABA/nn are/ber incorporated/vbn directly/rb into/in metabolite/nn 2/cd (/( (/( as/cs shown/vbn with/in both/abx ring-labeled/jj and/cc carboxy-labeled/jj Af/nn )/) ./.
Thirty-five/cd of/in the/at 36/cd carbon/nn atoms/nns arise/vb from/in Aj/nn ./.
All/abn 28/cd carbons/nns of/in metabolite/nn 1/cd (/( (/( a/at product/nn of/in mild/jj acid/nn hydrolysis/nn of/in 2/cd )/) arise/vb from/in Aj/nn ./.
Metabolite/nn 1/cd ,/, isolated/vbn from/in the/at medium/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, showed/vbd a/at lower/jjr specific/jj activity/nn ,/, which/wdt indicates/vbz endogenous/jj synthesis/nn of/in this/dt metabolite/nn ./.


	Vigorous/jj acid/nn hydrolysis/nn of/in metabolite/nn 1/cd ,/, destroyed/vbd the/at biological/jj activity/nn of/in the/at compound/nn and/cc liberated/vbd two/cd aryl/nn amines/nns ./.
Fragment/nn A/nn has/hvz been/ben obtained/vbn in/in crystalline/jj form/nn as/cs a/at dioxalate/nn salt/nn and/cc free/jj base/nn ./.
Preliminary/jj evidence/nn tentatively/rb indicates/vbz that/cs the/at molecule/nn (/( metabolite/nn 1/cd )/) )/) is/bez cleaved/vbn at/in a/at secondary/jj amide/nn bond/nn ./.
(/( N./np H./np Sloane/np ;/. ;/.
chemical/nn studies/nns are/ber being/beg pursued/vbn with/in the/at cooperation/nn of/in K.G./np Untch/np ./.
)/) studies/nns-hl on/in-hl esterases/nns-hl 
--/-- Research/nn on/in esterases/nns in/in mammalian/jj sera/nns was/bedz continued/vbn ./.
One/cd of/in the/at most/ql interesting/jj findings/nns was/bedz the/at extreme/jj sensitivity/nn of/in plasma/nn arylesterases/nns to/in rare/jj earth/nn ions/nns ./.
The/at inhibition/nn of/in the/at enzyme/nn by/in very/ql low/jj concentrations/nns of/in lanthanum/nn ion/nn is/bez probably/rb the/at strongest/jjt known/vbn biological/jj effect/nn of/in rare/jj earth/nn salts/nns ./.
Various/ap metal/nn ions/nns have/hv been/ben found/vbn to/to protect/vb plasma/nn arylesterase/nn against/in inactivation/nn by/in urea/nn and/cc guanidine/nn ./.
The/at effects/nns can/md be/be related/vbn to/in the/at structure/nn of/in this/dt enzyme/nn ./.
The/at non-identity/nn of/in serum/nn and/cc red/jj blood/nn cell/nn arylesterase/nn was/bedz also/rb established/vbn ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at hydrolysis/nn of/in paraoxon/nn was/bedz studied/vbn in/in mammalian/jj sera/nns ,/, and/cc it/pps was/bedz found/vbn that/cs it/pps is/bez hydrolyzed/vbn by/in albumin/nn (/( or/cc a/at factor/nn attached/vbn to/in it/ppo )/) in/in addition/nn to/in arylesterase/nn ./.
Selective/jj inhibitors/nns can/md distinguish/vb the/at two/cd activities/nns ./.
Investigations/nns on/in the/at acceleration/nn of/in human/jj plasma/nn cholinesterase/nn were/bed carried/vbn further/rbr ./.
(/( E./np G./np Erdos/np ,/, L./np E./np Boggs/np ,/, C./np D./np Mackey/np )/) biophysical/jj-hl studies/nns-hl on/in-hl modified/vbn-hl fibrous/jj-hl proteins/nns-hl 
--/-- Electron-microscopical/jj and/cc physical-chemical/jj methods/nns were/bed used/vbn to/to demonstrate/vb the/at renaturation/nn of/in heat-denatured/jj collagen/nn and/cc ribonucleic/jj acid/nn ./.
(/( R./np V./np Rice/np )/) 

	A/at method/nn was/bedz devised/vbn for/in extracting/vbg and/cc purifying/vbg soluble/jj earthworm/nn collagen/nn (/( EWC/np )/) ./.
It/pps was/bedz observed/vbn that/cs EWC/nn macromolecules/nns are/ber the/at same/ap diameter/nn (/( 15/cd a./nns )/) but/cc much/ql longer/jjr (/( up/rp to/in several/ap microns/nns )/) than/cs vertebrate/nn tropocollagen/nn ./.
This/dt unusual/jj collagen/nn also/rb was/bedz shown/vbn to/to undergo/vb a/at reversible/jj thermal/jj phase/nn transformation/nn ./.
(/( R./np V./np Rice/np ,/, M./np D./np Maser/np )/) studies/nns-hl on/in-hl peptides/nns-hl and/cc-hl peptidases/nns-hl 
--/-- This/dt investigation/nn involved/vbd several/ap aspects/nns ./.
Substance/nn Z/nn ,/, an/at active/jj urinary/jj peptide/nn ,/, was/bedz purified/vbn by/in extraction/nn in/in organic/jj solvents/nns and/cc repeated/vbn column/nn chromatography/nn ;/. ;/.
high-voltage/nn electrophoresis/nn and/cc paper/nn chromatography/nn were/bed used/vbn in/in preliminary/jj structural/jj studies/nns ;/. ;/.
pharmacological/jj effects/nns in/in vitro/nn on/in isolated/vbn surviving/vbg organs/nns and/cc in/in vivo/nn on/in blood/nn pressure/nn were/bed assayed/vbn ;/. ;/.
special/jj equipment/nn required/vbn for/in registering/vbg respiration/nn and/cc for/in recording/vbg the/at contraction/nn of/in smooth/jj muscles/nns under/in various/jj conditions/nns was/bedz developed/vbn by/in the/at Instruments/nns-tl Section/nn-tl (/( Victor/np Jackman/np ,/, W./np C./np Barnes/np ,/, J./np F./np Reiss/np )/) ;/. ;/.
and/cc enzymes/nns which/wdt terminate/vb the/at action/nn of/in peptides/nns such/jj as/cs bradykinin/fw-nn and/cc perhaps/rb Substance/nn-tl Z/np-tl were/bed studied/vbn ./.
Experiments/nns are/ber in/in progress/nn to/to develop/vb ultraviolet/jj spectrophotometric/jj techniques/nns for/in assaying/vbg these/dts enzymes/nns and/cc for/in studying/vbg their/pp$ sensitivity/nn to/in metal/nn ions/nns ./.
(/( E./np G./np Erdos/np ,/, C./np D./np Mackey/np ,/, A./np G./np Renfrew/np ,/, W./np B./np Severs/np ,/, E./np M./np Sloane/np )/) seed/nn-hl proteins/nns-hl 
--/-- In/in a/at physiochemical/jj study/nn of/in seed/nn proteins/nns ,/, the/at globulins/nns of/in the/at Brazil/np nut/nn have/hv been/ben investigated/vbn ./.
In/in addition/nn to/in the/at known/vbn principal/jjs globulin/nn ,/, excelsin/nn ,/, three/cd other/ap ultracentrifugally/rb distinct/jj components/nns have/hv been/ben observed/vbn ./.
A/at water-soluble/jj protein/nn of/in quite/ql low/jj molecular/jj weight/nn (/( ca./rb 10,000/cd )/) has/hvz also/rb been/ben found/vbn in/in this/dt system/nn and/cc partly/rb characterized/vbn ./.
(/( E./np F./np Casassa/np ,/, H./np J./np Notarius/np )/) 


continuum/nn-hl mechanics/nn-hl and/cc-hl viscoelasticity/nn-hl 
theory/nn-hl of/in-hl non-newtonian/jj-hl fluids/nns-hl 
--/-- On/in the/at basis/nn of/in a/at differentiability/nn assumption/nn in/in function/nn space/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to prove/vb that/cs ,/, for/in materials/nns having/hvg the/at property/nn that/cs the/at stress/nn is/bez given/vbn by/in a/at functional/nn of/in the/at history/nn of/in the/at deformation/nn gradients/nns ,/, the/at classical/jj theory/nn of/in infinitesimal/jj viscoelasticity/nn is/bez valid/jj when/wrb the/at deformation/nn has/hvz been/ben infinitesimal/jj for/in all/abn times/nns in/in the/at past/nn ./.
By/in strengthening/vbg the/at differentiability/nn assumption/nn ,/, it/pps has/hvz been/ben possible/jj to/to derive/vb second/od and/cc higher/jjr order/nn theories/nns of/in viscoelasticity/nn ./.
In/in the/at second-order/nn theory/nn ,/, one/cd of/in the/at normal/jj stress/nn differences/nns can/md be/be calculated/vbn from/in the/at first-order/nn stress/nn relaxation/nn function/nn ./.
(/( B./np D./np Coleman/np with/in Walter/np Noll/np ,/, Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Mathematics/nn-tl ,/, Carnegie/np-tl Institute/nn-tl of/in-tl Technology/nn-tl )/) viscoelastic/jj-hl measurements/nns-hl 
--/-- An/at extensive/jj series/nn of/in measurements/nns was/bedz made/vbn on/in a/at high-density/nn polyethylene/nn in/in a/at torsion/nn pendulum/nn instrument/nn using/vbg forced/vbn sinusoidal/jj oscillation/nn ,/, free/jj vibration/nn ,/, and/cc creep/nn measurements/nns over/in the/at temperature/nn range/nn of/in Af/nn to/in 80-degrees-C/nns ./.
As/ql many/ap as/cs seven/cd decades/nns of/in the/at time/nn scale/nn were/bed thus/rb covered/vbn isothermally/rb ./.
The/at simple/jj time-temperature/nn equivalence/nn valid/jj for/in many/ap amorphous/jj systems/nns did/dod not/* hold/vb here/rb ./.
It/pps was/bedz possible/jj ,/, however/rb ,/, to/to decompose/vb the/at compliance/nn into/in a/at sum/nn of/in a/at frequency-independent/jj component/nn and/cc two/cd viscoelastic/jj mechanisms/nns ,/, each/dt compatible/jj with/in the/at Boltzmann/np superposition/nn principle/nn and/cc with/in a/at consistent/jj set/nn of/in time-temperature/nn equivalence/nn factors/nns ./.
(/( Hershel/np Markovitz/np ,/, D.J./np Plazek/np ,/, Haruo/np Nakayasu/np )/) 


geochemistry/nn-hl 
trace/nn-hl elements/nns-hl in/in-hl tektites/nns-hl ,/,-hl meteorites/nns-hl ,/,-hl and/cc-hl related/vbn-hl materials/nns-hl 
--/-- The/at results/nns of/in microanalysis/nn of/in tektites/nns (/( natural/jj glasses/nns of/in unknown/jj origin/nn )/) for/in gallium/nn and/cc germanium/nn have/hv shown/vbn that/cs these/dts glasses/nns are/ber probably/rb produced/vbn from/in terrestrial/jj (/( or/cc less/ql likely/jj from/in lunar/jj )/) matter/nn by/in impact/nn of/in a/at celestial/jj body/nn ./.
The/at gallium/nn //in germanium/nn ratio/nn is/bez higher/jjr than/cs that/dt for/in ordinary/jj igneous/jj ,/, metamorphic/jj ,/, or/cc sedimentary/jj matter/nn as/cs a/at result/nn of/in selective/jj volatilization/nn of/in the/at components/nns of/in the/at tektite/nn ./.
Gallium/nn oxide/nn is/bez less/ql volatile/jj than/cs silica/nn (/( the/at main/jjs constituent/nn of/in tektites/nns )/) and/cc germanium/nn oxide/nn is/bez more/ql volatile/jj ./.
Australites/nns (/( tektites/nns from/in Australia/np )/) give/vb the/at appearance/nn of/in a/at second/od melting/nn ./.
In/in conformity/nn with/in this/dt conclusion/nn a/at higher/jjr trace/nn gallium/nn content/nn was/bedz found/vbn in/in the/at portion/nn (/( flange/nn )/) that/wps has/hvz undergone/vbn a/at second/od melting/nn ./.
The/at silicate/jj fractions/nns of/in stony/jj meteorites/nns show/vb gallium/nn //in germanium/nn ratios/nns similar/jj to/in those/dts of/in tektites/nns because/cs they/ppss too/rb have/hv undergone/vbn melting/vbg at/in some/dti point/nn in/in their/pp$ histories/nns ./.


	Libyan/np-tl Desert/nn-tl silica-glass/nn ,/, another/dt natural/jj glass/nn ,/, is/bez composed/vbn of/in nearly/ql pure/jj silica/nn and/cc has/hvz the/at same/ap trace/nn germanium/nn content/nn as/cs sands/nns in/in the/at area/nn ./.
The/at gallium/nn content/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, has/hvz been/ben enhanced/vbn five-fold/rb ./.
This/dt glass/nn is/bez probably/rb formed/vbn from/in Libyan/np-tl Desert/nn-tl sands/nns by/in comet/nn or/cc stony-meteorite/nn impact/nn ./.


	Nickel-iron/nn meteorites/nns with/in sufficient/jj kinetic/jj energy/nn to/to produce/vb large/jj terrestrial/jj explosion/nn craters/nns may/md nevertheless/rb melt/vb only/ap small/jj quantities/nns of/in material/nn ./.
Most/ap of/in the/at impact/nn energy/nn is/bez spent/vbn in/in crushing/vbg and/cc fragmentation/nn ./.
When/wrb rapid/jj quenching/nn follows/vbz melting/vbg ,/, impact/nn glasses/nns may/md result/vb ./.
These/dts always/rb contain/vb metallic/jj inclusions/nns ./.
Impact/nn glasses/nns not/* containing/vbg elemental/jj nickel-iron/nn may/md have/hv been/ben produced/vbn by/in stony/jj meteorites/nns or/cc comets/nns ./.
No/at meteorites/nns have/hv ever/rb been/ben recovered/vbn from/in paleoexplosion/nn craters/nns ,/, and/cc recent/jj craters/nns containing/vbg impact/nn glass/nn have/hv all/abn been/ben produced/vbn by/in metallic/jj meteorites/nns with/in the/at exception/nn of/in Aouelloul/np crater/nn ,/, Adrar/np ,/, Western/jj-tl Sahara/np-tl Desert/nn-tl ./.
This/dt crater/nn contains/vbz impact/nn glass/nn with/in no/at metallic/jj inclusions/nns and/cc no/at meteoritic/jj material/nn has/hvz been/ben recovered/vbn ./.
(/( A./np J./np Cohen/np ,/, John/np Anania/np )/) 


inorganic/jj-hl chemistry/nn-hl 
Preparation/nn of/in a/at coordination/nn compound/nn is/bez often/rb accomplished/vbn by/in the/at simple/jj method/nn of/in reacting/vbg a/at metal/nn salt/nn with/in a/at ligand/nn in/in a/at suitable/jj solvent/nn such/jj as/cs an/at alcohol/nn ./.
By/in applying/vbg this/dt general/jj principle/nn ,/, a/at great/jj number/nn of/in complex/jj compounds/nns of/in osmium/nn ,/, ruthenium/nn ,/, iridium/nn ,/, and/cc rhenium/nn ,/, with/in triphenylphosphine/nn ,/, triphenylarsine/nn ,/, and/cc triphenylstibine/nn have/hv been/ben obtained/vbn in/in this/dt laboratory/nn during/in the/at past/ap few/ap years/nns ./.
(/( Lauri/np Vaska/np ,/, E./np M./np Sloane/np ,/, J./np W./np DiLuzio/np )/) In/in the/at absence/nn of/in direct/jj evidence/nn to/in the/at contrary/jj ,/, decomposition/nn of/in solvent/nn alcohol/nn and/cc coordination/nn of/in its/pp$ fragments/nns to/in the/at metal/nn were/bed not/* considered/vbn ,/, following/in the/at above/jj heretofore-accepted/jj assumption/nn in/in preparative/jj coordination/nn chemistry/nn ./.
Recent/jj work/nn with/in radiocarbon/nn and/cc deuterated/vbn alcohols/nns as/cs solvents/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, has/hvz given/vbn evidence/nn that/cs metal-hydrido/nn and/cc carbonyl/nn complexes/nns may/md be/be readily/rb formed/vbn by/in reaction/nn with/in alcohol/nn in/in some/dti of/in these/dts systems/nns ./.
Some/dti of/in the/at previously/rb reported/vbn compounds/nns have/hv thus/rb been/ben reformulated/vbn and/cc a/at series/nn of/in new/jj hydrido/nn and/cc carbonyl/nn compounds/nns discovered/vbn ,/, the/at more/ql representative/jj examples/nns being/beg Af/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ./.


	The/at coordination/nn complexes/nns formed/vbn by/in transition/nn metals/nns with/in primary/jj and/cc secondary/jj phosphines/nns and/cc arsines/nns are/ber being/beg investigated/vbn (/( R./np G./np Hayter/np )/) ./.
Particular/jj interest/nn is/bez directed/vbn towards/in the/at condensation/nn of/in these/dts ligands/nns with/in metal/nn halides/nns to/to form/vb substituted/vbn phosphide/nn or/cc arside/nn complexes/nns ./.
During/in the/at past/jj year/nn ,/, these/dts ligands/nns have/hv yielded/vbn some/dti unusual/jj five-coordinate/jj complexes/nns of/in nickel/nn (/( 2/cd )/) and/cc some/dti interesting/jj binuclear/jj phosphorus-bridged/jj complexes/nns of/in palladium/nn (/( 2/cd )/) (/( see/vb figure/nn )/) ,/, as/ql well/rb as/cs new/jj compounds/nns of/in the/at well-known/jj type/nn Af/nn ./.
The/at structures/nns ,/, properties/nns ,/, and/cc reactions/nns of/in these/dts compounds/nns are/ber being/beg studied/vbn ./.


	In/in another/dt study/nn chromium-substituted/jj aluminum/nn oxyhydroxides/nns and/cc related/vbn species/nns ,/, prepared/vbn homogeneously/rb by/in high-temperature/nn hydrolysis/nn ,/, are/ber being/beg characterized/vbn and/cc investigated/vbn spectrally/rb in/in the/at ultraviolet/jj region/nn with/in a/at view/nn to/in identification/nn and/cc semiquantitative/jj estimation/nn of/in the/at phases/nns formed/vbn under/in varying/vbg preparative/jj conditions/nns ./.
(/( J./np A./np Laswick/np ,/, N./np L./np Heatwole/np )/) 


structure/nn-hl and/cc-hl properties/nns-hl of/in-hl macromolecules/nns-hl 
elasticity/nn-hl of/in-hl macromolecular/jj-hl networks/nns-hl 
--/-- The/at theory/nn of/in elasticity/nn of/in Gaussian/jj networks/nns has/hvz been/ben developed/vbn on/in a/at more/ql general/jj basis/nn and/cc the/at equations/nns of/in state/nn relating/vbg variables/nns of/in pressure/nn ,/, volume/nn ,/, temperature/nn ,/, stress/nn and/cc strain/nn have/hv been/ben precisely/rb formulated/vbn ./.
Simple/jj elongation/nn has/hvz been/ben treated/vbn in/in detail/nn ./.
The/at various/ap stress-temperature/nn coefficients/nns for/in constancy/nn of/in volume/nn and/cc strain/nn ,/, constancy/nn of/in pressure/nn and/cc strain/nn ,/, and/cc constancy/nn of/in pressure/nn and/cc length/nn have/hv been/ben interrelated/vbn ./.
The/at dilation/nn accompanying/vbg elongation/nn and/cc the/at simultaneously/rb developed/vbn anisotropy/nn of/in compressibility/nn have/hv been/ben related/vbn to/in the/at elongation/nn ./.
In/in continuation/nn of/in these/dts theoretical/jj studies/nns ,/, a/at more/ql precise/jj elucidation/nn of/in the/at effects/nns of/in imperfections/nns in/in network/nn structure/nn is/bez sought/vbn ./.
(/( P./np J./np Flory/np ,/, C./np A./np J./np Hoeve/np )/) chain/nn-hl conformations/nns-hl of/in-hl polymeric/jj-hl chains/nns-hl 
--/-- Recent/jj theoretical/jj work/nn to/to calculate/vb the/at dimensions/nns of/in polymeric/jj chains/nns by/in Volkenstein/np and/cc Lifson/np has/hvz been/ben extended/vbn to/to include/vb more/ql general/jj types/nns of/in chains/nns ./.
The/at mean-square/nn end-to-end/jj distance/nn of/in the/at polyisobutylene/nn chain/nn has/hvz been/ben calculated/vbn in/in reasonable/jj agreement/nn with/in values/nns deduced/vbn from/in viscosity/nn data/nn ./.
These/dts studies/nns are/ber being/beg extended/vbn to/in different/jj polymers/nns to/to increase/vb our/pp$ knowledge/nn about/in the/at hindrances/nns to/in rotation/nn around/in chain/nn bonds/nns ./.
(/( C./np A./np J./np Hoeve/np ,/, A./np A./np Blumberg/np )/) crystallization/nn-hl in/in-hl polymers/nns-hl and/cc-hl copolymers/nns-hl 
--/-- The/at crystallization/nn of/in copolymers/nns comprising/vbg Af/nn units/nns interspersed/vbn with/in a/at minor/jj percentage/nn of/in Af/nn is/bez limited/vbn by/in the/at inability/nn of/in the/at crystal/nn lattice/nn characteristic/nn of/in the/at former/ap to/to accommodate/vb the/at bulky/jj side/nn group/nn of/in the/at latter/ap ./.
Only/ap uninterrupted/jj sequences/nns of/in the/at former/ap are/ber eligible/jj for/in formation/nn of/in crystallites/nns ./.
Limitations/nns on/in the/at lengths/nns of/in these/dts sequences/nns diminish/vb the/at stability/nn of/in the/at comparatively/ql short/jj crystallites/nns which/wdt can/md be/be formed/vbn ,/, and/cc this/dt is/bez reflected/vbn in/in a/at broadening/vbg of/in the/at melting/vbg range/nn ./.
(/( Robert/np Chiang/np ,/, J./np B./np Jackson/np ,/, P./np J./np Flory/np )/) Carefully/rb executed/vbn melting/vbg studies/nns on/in this/dt system/nn (/( M./np J./np Richardson/np )/) permit/vb quantitative/jj estimation/nn of/in the/at instability/nn engendered/vbn by/in reduced/vbn crystallite/nn length/nn ./.
The/at complex/jj morphology/nn of/in polycrystalline/jj homopolymers/nns is/bez necessarily/rb dependent/jj on/in the/at same/ap factor/nn ./.
Hence/rb ,/, the/at present/jj studies/nns offer/vb a/at possible/jj basis/nn for/in interpretations/nns in/in the/at latter/ap field/nn ./.
Contraction/nn-hl of/in-hl muscle/nn-hl 
--/-- Glycerinated/vbn muscle/nn ,/, in/in the/at presence/nn of/in the/at physiological/jj agent/nn (/( ATP/np )/) responsible/jj for/in delivering/vbg energy/nn to/in the/at mechanochemically/rb active/jj proteins/nns of/in muscle/nn ,/, has/hvz been/ben shown/vbn to/to undergo/vb a/at contraction/nn which/wdt is/bez highly/ql sensitive/jj both/abx to/in temperature/nn and/cc to/in solvent/nn composition/nn in/in mixtures/nns of/in alcohols/nns and/cc water/nn ./.
Experiments/nns carried/vbn out/rp over/in long/jj periods/nns of/in time/nn in/in order/nn to/to allow/vb establishment/nn of/in a/at steady/jj state/nn have/hv shown/vbn that/cs the/at onset/nn of/in contraction/nn and/cc its/pp$ completion/nn are/ber confined/vbn to/in an/at interval/nn of/in several/ap degrees/nns Centigrade/np and/cc to/in a/at concentration/nn range/nn of/in only/rb several/ap per/in cent/nn ./.
The/at contraction/nn therefore/rb partakes/vbz of/in the/at character/nn of/in a/at phase/nn transition/nn ./.
While/cs ATP/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be necessary/jj for/in the/at occurrence/nn of/in contraction/nn ,/, its/pp$ presence/nn and/cc enzymatic/jj hydrolysis/nn of/in it/ppo by/in the/at muscle/nn protein/nn myosin/nn are/ber not/* the/at only/ap criteria/nns for/in contraction/nn ./.
(/( C./np A./np J./np Hoeve/np ,/, P./np J./np Flory/np )/) anionic/jj-hl Polymerization/nn-hl 
--/-- One/cd of/in the/at principal/jjs aims/nns of/in anionic/jj polymerization/nn techniques/nns is/bez the/at synthesis/nn of/in polymers/nns of/in extremely/ql narrow/jj molecular/jj weight/nn distribution/nn ./.
A/at simple/jj process/nn for/in the/at preparation/nn of/in nearly/ql monodisperse/jj polystyrene/nn of/in predictable/jj molecular/jj weight/nn has/hvz been/ben developed/vbn ./.
The/at preparation/nn of/in such/jj products/nns is/bez not/* new/jj ,/, but/cc the/at systems/nns heretofore/rb employed/vbn in/in polymerizations/nns have/hv commanded/vbn considerable/jj experimental/jj skill/nn and/cc starting/vbg materials/nns of/in a/at high/jj purity/nn ./.
In/in the/at new/jj process/nn impurities/nns present/rb in/in the/at solvent/nn (/( benzene/nn )/) ,/, the/at monomer/nn ,/, and/cc in/in the/at reaction/nn system/nn which/wdt would/md cause/vb deactivation/nn of/in propagation/nn centers/nns ,/, are/ber rendered/vbn inactive/jj prior/rb to/in polymerization/nn by/in gradual/jj addition/nn of/in initiator/nn ,/, a/at mixture/nn of/in butyl-lithium/nn and/cc telomeric/jj styryl-lithium/nn ,/, at/in a/at temperature/nn low/jj enough/qlp to/to suppress/vb chain/nn growth/nn ./.
Upon/in completion/nn of/in the/at purging/vbg step/nn ,/, additional/jj initiator/nn appropriate/jj for/in the/at molecular/jj weight/nn of/in the/at sample/nn desired/vbn is/bez added/vbn ,/, and/cc the/at system/nn is/bez then/rb warmed/vbn to/in the/at polymerization/nn temperature/nn ,/, at/in which/wdt the/at reaction/nn is/bez allowed/vbn to/to go/vb to/in completion/nn ./.
The/at predictability/nn of/in the/at molecular/jj weights/nns was/bedz found/vbn to/to be/be within/in 10%/nn for/in the/at polymers/nns prepared/vbn ,/, with/in Af/nn ratios/nns less/ap than/in 1.1/cd ./.


	Contrary/jj to/in observations/nns with/in ethers/nns ,/, no/at apparent/jj change/nn of/in the/at reactivity/nn of/in the/at chain/nn ends/nns takes/vbz place/nn over/in considerable/jj periods/nns of/in time/nn in/in benzene/nn as/cs solvent/nn ./.

Organization/nn-hl :/: 
In/in this/dt publication/nn measurements/nns of/in interfacial/jj angles/nns of/in crystals/nns are/ber used/vbn to/to classify/vb and/cc identify/vb chemical/nn substances/nns ./.
T./np V./np Barker/np ,/, who/wps developed/vbd the/at classification-angle/nn system/nn ,/, was/bedz about/rb to/to begin/vb the/at systematic/jj compilation/nn of/in the/at index/nn when/wrb he/pps died/vbd in/in 1931/cd ./.
The/at compilation/nn work/nn was/bedz undertaken/vbn by/in a/at number/nn of/in interested/vbn crystallographers/nns in/in the/at Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Mineralogy/nn-tl of/in the/at University/nn-tl Museum/nn-tl at/in Oxford/np ./.
Since/in 1948/cd the/at working/vbg headquarters/nn has/hvz been/ben the/at Department/nn-tl of/in-tl Geology/nn-tl and/cc-tl Mineralogy/nn-tl ./.
Numerous/jj cooperating/vbg individuals/nns in/in Great/jj-tl Britain/np-tl ,/, Holland/np ,/, the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl ,/, and/cc Belgium/np have/hv contributed/vbn editorially/rb or/cc by/in making/vbg calculations/nns ./.
Great/jj interest/nn and/cc practical/jj help/nn have/hv been/ben given/vbn by/in the/at Barker/np-tl Index/nn-tl Committee/nn-tl ./.
Financial/jj and/cc material/nn help/nn have/hv come/vbn from/in academic/jj ,/, governmental/jj ,/, and/cc industrial/jj organizations/nns in/in England/np and/cc Holland/np ./.
Editors/nns for/in Volumes/nns-tl 1/cd ,/, and/cc 2/cd ,/, were/bed M./np W./np Porter/np and/cc the/at late/jj R./np C./np Spiller/np ,/, both/abx of/in Oxford/np-tl University/nn-tl ./.
A/at third/od volume/nn remains/vbz to/to be/be published/vbn ./.
Substances/nns-hl :/: 
Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, deals/vbz with/in 2991/cd compounds/nns belonging/vbg to/in the/at tetragonal/jj ,/, hexagonal/jj and/cc trigonal/jj ,/, and/cc orthorhombic/jj systems/nns ;/. ;/.
and/cc Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, ,/, with/in about/rb 3500/cd monoclinic/jj substances/nns ./.
Volume/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, ,/, in/in preparation/nn ,/, will/md treat/vb the/at anorthic/jj compounds/nns described/vbn in/in Groth's/np$ Chemische/fw-jj-tl Krystallographie/fw-nn-tl ./.
Properties/nns-hl :/: 
The/at Barker/np system/nn is/bez based/vbn on/in the/at use/nn of/in the/at smallest/jjt number/nn of/in interfacial/jj angles/nns necessary/jj for/in indexing/vbg purposes/nns ./.
Other/ap morphological/jj ,/, physical/jj ,/, and/cc optical/jj property/nn values/nns are/ber also/rb given/vbn ./.
Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl data/nn-hl :/: 
The/at index/nn is/bez essentially/rb a/at new/jj treatment/nn of/in previously/rb compiled/vbn morphological/jj data/nns ./.
Most/ap of/in the/at data/nns used/vbn are/ber from/in Groth's/np$ Chemische/fw-jj-tl Krystallographie/fw-nn-tl ./.
Criticality/nn-hl :/nil 
Every/at calculation/nn has/hvz been/ben made/vbn independently/rb by/in two/cd workers/nns and/cc checked/vbn by/in one/cd of/in the/at editors/nns ./.
Use/nn-hl of/in-hl nomenclature/nn-hl ,/,-hl symbols/nns-hl ,/,-hl units/nns-hl ,/,-hl physical/jj-hl constants/nns-hl :/: 
Accepted/vbn crystallographic/jj symbolism/nn has/hvz been/ben used/vbn ;/. ;/.
other/ap symbols/nns related/vbn to/in the/at index/nn necessarily/rb have/hv been/ben introduced/vbn ./.
Currency/nn-hl :/: 
This/dt publication/nn covers/vbz the/at old/jj literature/nn (/( Groth/np )/) ;/. ;/.
there/ex is/bez no/at mechanism/nn for/in keeping/vbg the/at volumes/nns up/rp to/in date/nn ./.
Format/nn-hl :/: 
The/at publication/nn form/nn is/bez that/dt of/in clothbound/jj books/nns ./.
The/at data/nns are/ber presented/vbn in/in lists/nns and/cc tables/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl in/in both/abx volumes/nns is/bez labeled/vbn ``/`` Introduction/nn-tl And/cc-tl Tables/nns-tl ''/'' ./.
The/at tables/nns include/vb those/dts for/in the/at classification/nn angles/nns ,/, refractive/jj indices/nns ,/, and/cc melting/vbg points/nns of/in the/at various/ap types/nns of/in crystals/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl of/in Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, and/cc Parts/nns-tl 2/cd-tl and/cc 3/cd-tl of/in Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, contain/vb the/at crystal/nn descriptions/nns ./.
These/dts are/ber grouped/vbn into/in sections/nns according/rb to/in the/at crystal/nn system/nn ,/, and/cc within/in each/dt section/nn compounds/nns are/ber arranged/vbn in/in the/at same/ap order/nn as/cs in/in Groth's/np$ Chemische/fw-jj-tl Krystallographie/fw-nn-tl ./.
An/at alphabetical/jj list/nn of/in chemical/nn and/cc mineralogical/jj names/nns with/in reference/nn numbers/nns enables/vbz one/pn to/to find/vb a/at particular/ap crystal/nn description/nn ./.
References/nns to/in the/at data/nns sources/nns are/ber given/vbn in/in the/at crystal/nn descriptions/nns ./.
Publication/nn-hl and/cc-hl distribution/nn-hl :/: 
The/at Barker/np index/nn is/bez published/vbn for/in the/at Barker/np-tl Index/nn-tl Committee/nn-tl by/in W./np-tl Heffer/np-tl &/cc-tl Sons/nns-tl ,/, Ltd./vbn-tl ,/, 4/cd-tl Petty/jj-tl Cury/np-tl ,/, Cambridge/np ,/, England/np ./.
Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, containing/vbg Parts/nns-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc 2/cd-tl was/bedz published/vbn in/in 1951/cd ;/. ;/.
Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, ,/, in/in three/cd parts/nns ,/, in/in 1956/cd ./.
The/at two/cd volumes/nns are/ber available/jj from/in the/at publisher/nn for/in $16.80/nns and/cc $28.00/nns ,/, respectively/rb ./.



2-2/cd-hl ./.-hl
Crystal/nn-hl data/nns-hl 
organization/nn-hl :/: 
The/at present/jj edition/nn of/in crystal/nn data/nns was/bedz written/vbn by/in J.D.H./np Donnay/np ,/, the/at Johns/np-tl Hopkins/np-tl University/nn-tl ,/, Baltimore/np ,/, Md./np (/( Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) )/) and/cc Werner/np Nowacki/np ,/, University/nn-tl of/in-tl Berne/np-tl ,/, Switzerland/np (/( Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) )/) with/in the/at collaboration/nn of/in Gabrielle/np Donnay/np ,/, U./np-tl S./np-tl Geological/jj-tl Survey/nn-tl ,/, Washington/np ,/, D./np C./np ./.
Many/ap collaborators/nns in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl and/cc Switzerland/np helped/vbd in/in collecting/vbg and/cc assembling/vbg data/nns ,/, in/in making/vbg calculations/nns ,/, and/cc in/in editing/vbg ./.
Support/nn came/vbd from/in academic/jj and/cc industrial/jj groups/nns in/in these/dts two/cd countries/nns ./.
The/at Geological/jj-tl Society/nn-tl of/in-tl America/np-tl gave/vbd a/at grant-in-aid/nn to/to complete/vb the/at work/nn and/cc bore/vbd the/at expenses/nns of/in publication/nn ./.
Preparation/nn of/in a/at second/od edition/nn is/bez in/in progress/nn under/in the/at sponsorship/nn of/in the/at Crystal/nn-tl Data/nns-tl Committee/nn-tl of/in the/at American/jj-tl Crystallographic/jj-tl Association/nn-tl ./.
Coeditors/nns are/ber J.D.H./np Donnay/np ,/, G./np E./np Cox/np of/in Leeds/np-tl University/nn-tl ,/, and/cc Olga/np Kennard/np of/in the/at National/jj-tl Council/nn-tl for/in-tl Medical/jj-tl Research/nn-tl ,/, London/np ./.
Financial/jj grants/nns have/hv been/ben received/vbn from/in the/at National/jj-tl Science/nn-tl Foundation/nn-tl and/cc the/at (/( British/jj-tl )/) Institute/nn-tl of/in-tl Physics/nn-tl for/in the/at compilation/nn work/nn and/cc the/at publication/nn costs/nns ./.
The/at continuity/nn of/in the/at project/nn is/bez suggested/vbn by/in plans/nns for/in an/at eventual/jj third/od edition/nn ./.
Substances/nns-hl :/: 
Elements/nns ,/, alloys/nns ,/, inorganic/jj and/cc organic/jj compounds/nns ./.
(/( Metal/nn data/nns will/md not/* be/be included/vbn in/in the/at second/od edition/nn ,/, since/cs these/dts have/hv been/ben collected/vbn independently/rb by/in W./np B./np Pearson/np ,/, National/jj-tl Research/nn-tl Council/nn-tl ,/, Ottawa/np ,/, and/cc published/vbn as/cs A/at handbook/nn of/in lattice/nn spacings/nns and/cc structures/nns of/in metals/nns and/cc alloys/nns by/in Pergamon/np-tl Press/nn-tl ./.
)/) properties/nns-hl :/: 
Crystallographic/jj data/nns resulting/vbg mainly/rb from/in X-ray/nn and/cc electron/nn diffraction/nn measurements/nns are/ber presented/vbn ./.
Cell/nn dimensions/nns ,/, number/nn of/in formula/nn units/nns per/in cell/nn ,/, space/nn group/nn ,/, and/cc specific/jj gravity/nn are/ber given/vbn for/in all/abn substances/nns ./.
For/in some/dti substances/nns ,/, auxiliary/jj properties/nns such/jj as/cs the/at melting/vbg point/nn are/ber given/vbn ./.
Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl data/nns-hl :/: 
Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, of/in the/at present/ap edition/nn covers/vbz the/at literature/nn to/in mid-1948/cd ;/. ;/.
Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, ,/, up/rp to/in the/at end/nn of/in 1951/cd ./.
Much/ap of/in the/at material/nn comes/vbz directly/rb from/in secondary/jj sources/nns such/jj as/cs Strukturbericht/fw-nn-nc ./.
Criticality/nn-hl :/: 
The/at vast/jj number/nn of/in compounds/nns to/to be/be covered/vbn ,/, the/at limited/vbn resources/nns to/to do/do the/at job/nn ,/, and/cc the/at immediate/jj need/nn for/in this/dt type/nn of/in compilation/nn precluded/vbd a/at thorough/jj evaluation/nn of/in all/abn available/jj data/nns in/in the/at present/ap edition/nn ./.
Future/jj editions/nns may/md be/be more/ql critical/jj ./.
Use/nn-hl of/in-hl nomenclature/nn-hl ,/,-hl symbols/nns-hl ,/,-hl units/nns-hl ,/,-hl physical/jj-hl constants/nns-hl :/: 
Since/cs Parts/nns-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, and/cc 2/cd-tl ,/, were/bed prepared/vbn independently/rb ,/, the/at abbreviation/nn schemes/nns and/cc the/at chemical/nn symbols/nns used/vbn differ/vb in/in the/at two/cd parts/nns ./.
The/at second/od edition/nn should/md have/hv greater/jjr uniformity/nn ./.
Currency/nn-hl :/: 
A/at second/od edition/nn is/bez in/in preparation/nn ,/, and/cc there/ex are/ber long/jj range/nn plans/nns for/in a/at third/od ./.
Format/nn-hl :/: 
Data/nns in/in the/at present/ap edition/nn are/ber presented/vbn in/in tables/nns and/cc lists/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, deals/vbz with/in the/at classification/nn of/in crystalline/jj substances/nns by/in space/nn groups/nns and/cc is/bez not/* a/at numerical/jj data/nns compilation/nn ./.
The/at compounds/nns are/ber divided/vbn according/rb to/in composition/nn into/in seven/cd categories/nns ./.
Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, contains/vbz determinative/jj tables/nns for/in the/at identification/nn of/in crystalline/jj substances/nns ./.
These/dts are/ber arranged/vbn according/rb to/in crystal/nn system/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber formula/nn and/cc name/nn indexes/nns covering/vbg both/abx parts/nns ./.
References/nns for/in Part/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, are/ber given/vbn at/in the/at end/nn and/cc for/in Part/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, in/in the/at tables/nns ./.
Publication/nn-hl and/cc-hl distribution/nn-hl :/: 
The/at present/ap edition/nn of/in crystal/nn data/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ,/, published/vbn in/in 1954/cd as/cs Memoir/nn-tl 60/cd-tl of/in the/at Geological/jj-tl Society/nn-tl of/in-tl America/np-tl ,/, is/bez now/rb out/rp of/in print/nn ./.
The/at manuscript/nn of/in the/at second/od edition/nn will/md probably/rb be/be ready/jj by/in the/at end/nn of/in 1960/cd ./.



2-3/cd-hl ./.-hl
Crystal/nn-tl Structures/nns-tl 
organization/nn-hl :/: 
The/at author/nn of/in Crystal/nn-tl Structures/nns-tl is/bez Ralph/np W.G./np Wyckoff/np ,/, University/nn-tl of/in-tl Arizona/np-tl ,/, Tucson/np ,/, Arizona/np ./.
The/at first/od section/nn of/in this/dt publication/nn appeared/vbd in/in 1948/cd and/cc the/at last/ap supplement/nn in/in 1960/cd ./.
Though/cs now/rb complete/jj ,/, the/at publication/nn is/bez included/vbn in/in this/dt directory/nn because/rb of/in its/pp$ importance/nn and/cc because/rb of/in the/at long-term/nn nature/nn of/in its/pp$ preparation/nn ./.
Substances/nns-hl :/: 
Elements/nns ,/, inorganic/jj and/cc organic/jj compounds/nns (/( no/at alloys/nns )/) ./.
Properties/nns-hl :/: 
The/at data/nns presented/vbn are/ber derived/vbn almost/ql entirely/rb from/in X-ray/nn diffraction/nn measurements/nns and/cc include/vb atomic/jj coordinates/nns ,/, cell/nn dimensions/nns ,/, and/cc atomic/jj and/cc ionic/jj radii/nns ./.
Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl data/nns-hl :/: 
Published/vbn literature/nn ./.
Criticality/nn-hl :/: 
The/at aim/nn was/bedz to/to state/vb the/at results/nns of/in all/abn available/jj determinations/nns of/in atomic/jj positions/nns in/in crystals/nns ./.
Presumably/rb the/at tabulated/vbn data/nns are/ber best/jjt available/jj values/nns ./.
The/at critical/jj comments/nns in/in the/at textual/jj sections/nns of/in this/dt publication/nn are/ber invaluable/jj ./.
Use/nn-hl of/in-hl nomenclature/nn-hl ,/,-hl symbols/nns-hl ,/,-hl units/nns-hl ,/,-hl physical/jj-hl constants/nns-hl :/: 
The/at terminology/nn used/vbn conforms/vbz to/in that/dt of/in Internationale/fw-jj-tl Tabellen/fw-nns-tl Zur/fw-in+at-tl Bestimmung/fw-nn-tl Von/fw-in-tl Kristallstrukturen/fw-nns-tl ./.
Currency/nn-hl :/: 
During/in the/at years/nns of/in publication/nn ,/, supplement/nn and/cc replacement/nn sheets/nns were/bed issued/vbn periodically/rb ./.
Coverage/nn of/in the/at literature/nn extends/vbz through/in 1954/cd and/cc includes/vbz some/dti 1955/cd references/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez to/to be/be hoped/vbn that/cs some/dti way/nn will/md be/be found/vbn to/to keep/vb this/dt important/jj work/nn current/jj ./.
Format/nn-hl :/: 
The/at publication/nn form/nn is/bez that/dt of/in loose-leaf/nn sheets/nns (/( Af/nn )/) contained/vbn in/in binders/nns ./.
The/at book/nn is/bez divided/vbn into/in chapters/nns and/cc in/in each/dt chapter/nn the/at material/nn is/bez grouped/vbn into/in Text/nn-tl ,/, Tables/nns-tl ,/, Illustrations/nns-tl ,/, and/cc Bibliography/nn-tl ./.
Each/dt group/nn is/bez paginated/vbn separately/rb ;/. ;/.
numbers/nns sometimes/rb followed/vbn by/in letters/nns are/ber used/vbn so/cs that/cs insertions/nns can/md be/be made/vbn ./.
Inorganic/jj structures/nns are/ber found/vbn in/in Chapters/nns-tl 2/cd -/in-tl 12/cd-tl ,/, organic/jj structures/nns in/in Chapters/nns-tl 13/cd-tl -/in-tl 15/cd-tl ./.
Within/in each/dt chapter/nn an/at effort/nn has/hvz been/ben made/vbn to/to group/vb together/rb those/dts crystals/nns with/in similar/jj structures/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber three/cd indexes/nns ,/, i.e./rb ,/, an/at inorganic/jj formula/nn index/nn ,/, a/at mineralogical/jj name/nn index/nn ,/, and/cc a/at name/nn index/nn to/in organic/jj compounds/nns ./.
Publication/nn-hl and/cc-hl distribution/nn-hl :/: 
Publisher/nn of/in Crystal/nn-tl Structures/nns-tl is/bez Interscience/np-tl Publishers/nns-tl ,/, 250/cd-tl Fifth/od-tl Avenue/nn-tl ,/, New/jj-tl York/np-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, N./np Y./np ./.
The/at work/nn consists/vbz of/in four/cd sections/nns and/cc 5/cd supplements/nns ./.
Price/nn of/in the/at complete/jj work/nn including/in all/abn necessary/jj binders/nns is/bez $148.50/nns ./.



2-4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Dana's/np$ System/nn-tl Of/in-tl Mineralogy/nn-tl 
organization/nn-tl :/: 
Six/cd editions/nns of/in James/np Dwight/np Dana's/np$ System/nn-tl appeared/vbd between/in 1837/cd and/cc 1892/cd ./.
In/in 1915/cd Edward/np S./np Dana/np ,/, editor/nn of/in the/at sixth/od edition/nn ,/, asked/vbd W./np E./np Ford/np of/in Yale/np-tl University/nn-tl to/to prepare/vb a/at seventh/od edition/nn of/in his/pp$ father's/nn$ work/nn ./.
A/at number/nn of/in people/nns became/vbd involved/vbn in/in the/at preparation/nn but/cc work/nn was/bedz slow/jj until/in 1937/cd ./.
In/in that/dt year/nn a/at grant/nn was/bedz obtained/vbn from/in the/at Penrose/np-tl Fund/nn-tl of/in the/at Geological/jj-tl Society/nn-tl of/in-tl America/np-tl to/to finance/vb additional/jj full-time/jj workers/nns ./.
Money/nn was/bedz also/rb advanced/vbn by/in the/at publishers/nns ,/, John/np-tl Wiley/np-tl &/cc-tl Sons/nns-tl ,/, Inc./vbn-tl ./.
Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, was/bedz completed/vbn in/in 1941/cd and/cc published/vbn in/in 1944/cd ./.
The/at editors/nns of/in this/dt volume/nn and/cc Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, were/bed the/at late/jj Charles/np Palache/np ,/, Clifford/np Frondel/np ,/, and/cc the/at late/jj Harry/np Berman/np ,/, all/abn of/in Harvard/np-tl University/nn-tl ./.
Work/nn on/in Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, was/bedz begun/vbn in/in 1941/cd ,/, interrupted/vbn by/in the/at war/nn in/in 1942/cd ,/, and/cc resumed/vbn in/in 1945/cd ./.
The/at volume/nn was/bedz completed/vbn in/in 1950/cd and/cc published/vbn in/in 1951/cd ./.
A/at supplementary/jj grant/nn from/in the/at Geological/jj-tl Society/nn-tl of/in-tl America/np-tl helped/vbd finance/vb its/pp$ publication/nn ./.
Besides/in the/at editors/nns there/ex were/bed many/ap contributors/nns in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl and/cc Great/jj-tl Britain/np-tl to/in Volumes/nns-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, and/cc 2/cd-tl ./.
W./np E./np Ford/np ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, continued/vbd to/to supply/vb data/nns on/in the/at occurrence/nn of/in minerals/nns until/in his/pp$ death/nn in/in 1939/cd ./.
Volume/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, is/bez nearing/vbg completion/nn and/cc there/ex are/ber plans/nns to/to revise/vb Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ./.
The/at project/nn is/bez currently/rb supported/vbn by/in Harvard/np-tl University/nn-tl ./.
Substances/nns-hl :/: 
minerals/nns ./.
Properties/nns-hl :/: 
Crystallographic/jj ,/, physical/jj ,/, optical/jj ,/, and/cc chemical/nn properties/nns ./.
The/at crystallographic/jj data/nns given/vbn include/vb interaxial/jj angles/nns and/cc unit/nn cell/nn dimensions/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at physical/jj property/nn values/nns include/vb hardness/nn ,/, melting/vbg point/nn ,/, and/cc specific/jj gravity/nn ./.
Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl data/nns-hl :/: 
Almost/ql entirely/rb original/jj articles/nns in/in journals/nns ;/. ;/.
abstracts/nns and/cc other/ap compilations/nns on/in rare/jj occasions/nns when/wrb original/jj papers/nns are/ber not/* available/jj ./.
Criticality/nn-hl :/: 
All/abn information/nn is/bez carefully/rb appraised/vbn and/cc uncertain/jj facts/nns are/ber designated/vbn by/in (/( '?'/nn ./.
)/) An/at authentic/jj diffraction/nn pattern/nn is/bez always/rb obtained/vbn and/cc optical/jj properties/nns are/ber frequently/rb checked/vbn ./.
Use/nn-hl of/in-hl nomenclature/nn-hl ,/,-hl symbols/nns-hl ,/,-hl units/nns-hl ,/,-hl physical/jj-hl constants/nns-hl :/: 
Recommendations/nns of/in international/jj authorities/nns ,/, such/jj as/cs the/at International/jj-tl Union/nn-tl of/in-tl Crystallography/nn-tl ,/, are/ber followed/vbn ./.
There/ex is/bez a/at complete/jj synonymy/nn at/in the/at beginning/nn of/in each/dt species/nn description/nn ./.
Currency/nn-hl :/: 
Currency/nn in/in the/at usual/jj sense/nn cannot/md* be/be maintained/vbn in/in an/at undertaking/nn of/in this/dt sort/nn ./.
Format/nn-hl :/: 
The/at data/nns are/ber presented/vbn in/in text/nn and/cc tables/nns in/in bound/vbn volumes/nns ./.
Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, of/in the/at seventh/od edition/nn contains/vbz an/at introduction/nn and/cc data/nns for/in eight/cd classes/nns of/in minerals/nns ;/. ;/.
Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, contains/vbz data/nns for/in forty-two/cd classes/nns ./.
References/nns are/ber given/vbn at/in the/at end/nn of/in each/dt mineral/nn description/nn and/cc a/at general/jj index/nn is/bez given/vbn at/in the/at end/nn of/in each/dt volume/nn ./.
There/ex will/md be/be a/at comprehensive/jj index/nn in/in Volume/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, covering/vbg all/abn three/cd volumes/nns ./.
Publication/nn-hl and/cc-hl distribution/nn-hl :/: 
Volume/nn-tl 1/cd-tl (/( (/( Af/nn )/) of/in the/at seventh/od edition/nn of/in Dana's/np$ System/nn-tl Of/in-tl Mineralogy/nn-tl was/bedz published/vbn in/in 1944/cd and/cc Volume/nn-tl 2/cd-tl (/( (/( Af/nn )/) in/in 1951/cd by/in John/np-tl Wiley/np-tl &/cc-tl Sons/nns-tl ,/, Inc./vbn-tl ,/, New/jj-tl York/np-tl ,/, N./np Y./np ./.
(/( The/at association/nn of/in Wiley/np-tl &/np-tl Sons/nns-tl with/in the/at Dana/np Mineralogies/nns-tl dates/vbz back/rb to/in 1844/cd when/wrb they/ppss published/vbd the/at second/od edition/nn of/in the/at system/nn ./.
)/) The/at two/cd volumes/nns are/ber available/jj from/in the/at publisher/nn for/in $14.00/nns and/cc $16.00/nns ,/, respectively/rb ./.



2-5/cd-hl ./.-hl
The/at Groth/np-tl Institute/nn-tl 
organization/nn-hl :/: 
``/`` The/at Groth/np-tl Institute/nn-tl ''/'' ,/, which/wdt was/bedz established/vbn in/in 1958/cd ,/, is/bez a/at group/nn activity/nn affiliated/vbn with/in the/at Physics/nn-tl Department/nn-tl of/in The/at-tl Pennsylvania/np-tl State/nn-tl University/nn-tl ,/, University/nn-tl Park/nn-tl ,/, Pa./np ./.
Ray/np Pepinsky/np is/bez the/at Director/nn-tl ./.
The/at Institute/nn-tl derives/vbz its/pp$ name/nn from/in Paul/np Von/np Groth's/np$ Chemische/fw-jj-tl Krystallographie/fw-nn-tl ,/, a/at five-volume/jj work/nn which/wdt appeared/vbd between/in 1906/cd and/cc 1919/cd ./.
The/at resident/jj staff/nn is/bez large/jj and/cc consists/vbz of/in professional/jj assistants/nns ,/, graduate/nn students/nns ,/, abstractors/nns ,/, librarian/nn ,/, technical/jj editor/nn ,/, machine/nn operators/nns ,/, secretarial/jj help/nn ,/, and/cc others/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber also/rb corresponding/vbg members/nns and/cc outside/jj advisory/jj groups/nns ./.
The/at Air/nn-tl Force/nn-tl Office/nn-tl of/in-tl Scientific/jj-tl Research/nn-tl has/hvz provided/vbn financial/jj assistance/nn in/in the/at early/jj stages/nns of/in the/at Institute's/nn$-tl program/nn ./.
Substances/nns-hl :/: 
All/abn crystalline/jj substances/nns and/cc other/ap solid-state/nn materials/nns ./.
Properties/nns-hl :/: 
The/at aim/nn is/bez to/to collect/vb a/at very/ql broad/jj range/nn of/in physical/jj ,/, chemical/nn ,/, morphological/jj ,/, and/cc structural/jj data/nns for/in crystals/nns on/in an/at encyclopedic/jj scale/nn and/cc to/to seek/vb all/abn possible/jj useful/jj and/cc revealing/vbg correlations/nns of/in properties/nns with/in internal/jj structure/nn ./.
Sources/nns-hl of/in-hl data/nns-hl :/: 
The/at first/od stage/nn of/in operation/nn has/hvz centered/vbn on/in the/at literature/nn imaging/nn of/in critical/jj or/cc summarizing/vbg tabulations/nns such/jj as/cs the/at Barker/np-tl Index/nn-tl ./.
Coverage/nn of/in primary/jj literature/nn will/md follow/vb ./.
Unpublished/jj data/nns will/md be/be available/jj to/in the/at Groth/np institute/nn from/in cooperating/vbg groups/nns and/cc individuals/nns ./.
Criticality/nn-hl :/: 
Critical/jj evaluation/nn of/in all/abn data/nns compiled/vbn is/bez not/* a/at primary/jj aim/nn of/in this/dt project/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at proposed/vbn correlation/nn of/in the/at many/ap interrelated/vbn properties/nns of/in crystals/nns will/md reveal/vb discrepancies/nns in/in the/at recorded/vbn data/nns and/cc suggest/vb areas/nns for/in reinvestigation/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at availability/nn of/in computers/nns will/md permit/vb recalculation/nn and/cc refinement/nn of/in much/ap structural/jj information/nn ./.
Use/nn-hl of/in-hl nomenclature/nn-hl ,/,-hl symbols/nns-hl ,/,-hl units/nns-hl ,/,-hl physical/jj-hl constants/nns-hl :/: 
For/in punched-card/nn or/cc tape/nn storage/nn of/in information/nn all/abn literature/nn values/nns must/md be/be conformed/vbn to/in a/at common/jj language/nn ./.
In/in this/dt way/nn a/at degree/nn of/in unification/nn of/in nomenclature/nn ,/, symbols/nns ,/, and/cc units/nns will/md be/be realized/vbn ./.

Because/cs individual/jj classes/nns of/in foods/nns differ/vb in/in their/pp$ requirements/nns for/in preservation/nn ,/, a/at number/nn of/in methods/nns have/hv been/ben developed/vbn over/in the/at years/nns involving/vbg one/cd or/cc a/at combination/nn of/in procedures/nns such/jj as/cs dehydration/nn ,/, fermentation/nn ,/, salting/vbg ,/, chemical/nn treatment/nn ,/, canning/vbg ,/, refrigeration/nn ,/, and/cc freezing/vbg ./.
The/at basic/jj objectives/nns in/in each/dt instance/nn are/ber to/to make/vb available/jj supplies/nns of/in food/nn during/in the/at intervals/nns between/in harvesting/vbg or/cc slaughter/nn ,/, to/to minimize/vb losses/nns resulting/vbg from/in the/at action/nn of/in microorganisms/nns and/cc insects/nns ,/, and/cc to/to make/vb it/ppo possible/jj to/to transport/vb foods/nns from/in the/at area/nn of/in harvest/nn or/cc production/nn to/in areas/nns of/in consumption/nn ./.


	In/in earlier/jjr years/nns ,/, the/at preservation/nn of/in food/nn was/bedz essentially/rb related/vbn to/in survival/nn ./.
In/in the/at more/ql sophisticated/jj atmosphere/nn of/in today's/nr$ developed/vbn nations/nns ,/, food-preservation/nn techniques/nns have/hv sought/vbn also/rb to/to bring/vb variety/nn ,/, peak/nn freshness/nn ,/, and/cc optimum/jj taste/nn and/cc flavor/nn in/in foods/nns at/in reasonable/jj cost/nn to/in the/at consumer/nn ./.


	With/in the/at development/nn of/in nuclear/jj technology/nn ,/, isotopic/jj materials/nns ,/, and/cc machine/nn radiation/nn sources/nns in/in recent/jj years/nns ,/, the/at possibilities/nns of/in applying/vbg ionizing/vbg radiation/nn to/in the/at preservation/nn of/in foods/nns attracted/vbd the/at attention/nn of/in investigators/nns in/in the/at United/vbn-tl States/nns-tl and/cc throughout/in the/at world/nn ./.
An/at early/jj hope/nn that/cs irradiation/nn might/md be/be the/at ultimate/jj answer/nn to/in practically/rb all/abn food/nn preservation/nn problems/nns was/bedz soon/rb dispelled/vbn ./.
Interest/nn remained/vbd ,/, however/rb ,/, in/in the/at possibility/nn that/cs it/pps would/md serve/vb as/cs a/at useful/jj supplementary/jj method/nn for/in counteracting/vbg spoilage/nn losses/nns and/cc for/in preserving/vbg some/dti foods/nns at/in lower/jjr over-all/jj costs/nns than/cs freezing/vbg ,/, or/cc without/in employing/vbg heat/nn or/cc chemicals/nns with/in their/pp$ attendant/jj taste/nn alterations/nns ./.



Factors/nns-hl responsible/jj-hl for/in-hl the/at-hl spoilage/nn-hl of/in-hl foods/nns-hl 
The/at chief/jjs factors/nns responsible/jj for/in the/at spoilage/nn of/in fresh/jj foodstuffs/nns are/ber (/( 1/cd )/) microorganisms/nns such/jj as/cs bacteria/nns ,/, molds/nns ,/, and/cc yeasts/nns ,/, (/( 2/cd )/) enzymes/nns ,/, (/( 3/cd )/) insects/nns ,/, (/( 4/cd )/) sprouting/vbg ,/, and/cc (/( 5/cd )/) chemical/nn reactions/nns ./.
Microorganisms/nns are/ber often/rb responsible/jj for/in the/at rapid/jj spoilage/nn of/in foods/nns ./.
Of/in special/jj concern/nn is/bez the/at growth/nn of/in bacteria/nns such/jj as/cs Clostridium/np botulinum/np which/wdt generate/vb poisonous/jj products/nns ./.
Enzymatic/jj action/nn in/in stored/vbn food/nn produces/vbz changes/nns which/wdt can/md adversely/rb affect/vb the/at appearance/nn of/in food/nn or/cc its/pp$ palatability/nn ./.
Spoilage/nn by/in chemical/nn action/nn results/vbz from/in the/at reaction/nn of/in one/cd group/nn of/in components/nns in/in the/at food/nn with/in others/nns or/cc with/in its/pp$ environment/nn ,/, as/cs in/in corrosion/nn of/in the/at walls/nns of/in metal/nn containers/nns or/cc the/at reaction/nn of/in fats/nns with/in oxygen/nn in/in the/at air/nn to/to produce/vb rancidity/nn ./.


	Sprouting/vbg is/bez a/at naturally/rb occurring/vbg phenomenon/nn in/in stored/vbn potatoes/nns ,/, onions/nns ,/, carrots/nns ,/, beets/nns ,/, and/cc similar/jj root/nn vegetables/nns ./.
Insect/nn infestation/nn is/bez a/at problem/nn of/in importance/nn chiefly/rb in/in stored/vbn grain/nn ./.
The/at presence/nn of/in parasitic/jj organisms/nns such/jj as/cs Trichinella/np spiralis/np in/in pork/nn introduces/vbz another/dt factor/nn which/wdt must/md be/be dealt/vbn with/in in/in food/nn processing/nn ./.


	To/to permit/vb the/at storage/nn of/in food/nn for/in long/jj periods/nns of/in time/nn ,/, a/at method/nn of/in preservation/nn must/md accomplish/vb the/at destruction/nn of/in microorganisms/nns and/cc inhibition/nn of/in enzymatic/jj action/nn ./.
The/at term/nn ``/`` sterilization/nn-nc ''/'' applies/vbz to/in methods/nns involving/vbg essentially/ql complete/jj destruction/nn of/in all/abn microorganisms/nns ./.
Food/nn treated/vbn in/in this/dt manner/nn and/cc protected/vbn from/in recontamination/nn by/in aseptic/jj methods/nns of/in packaging/vbg and/cc containment/nn presumably/rb could/md be/be stored/vbn for/in long/jj periods/nns without/in refrigeration/nn ./.
The/at process/nn of/in ``/`` pasteurization/nn ''/'' involves/vbz milder/jjr and/cc less/ql prolonged/vbn heat/nn treatment/nn which/wdt accomplishes/vbz the/at destruction/nn of/in most/ap ,/, but/cc not/* all/abn ,/, of/in the/at microorganisms/nns ./.
Less/ql severe/jj thermal/jj treatment/nn as/cs by/in blanching/vbg or/cc scalding/vbg serves/vbz to/to inactivate/vb enzymes/nns ./.



General/jj-hl effects/nns-hl of/in-hl ionizing/vbg-hl radiation/nn-hl 
Ionizing/vbg radiation/nn can/md cause/vb the/at destruction/nn of/in microorganisms/nns and/cc insects/nns involved/vbn in/in food/nn spoilage/nn or/cc ,/, at/in lower/jjr doses/nns ,/, can/md inhibit/vb their/pp$ action/nn ./.
It/pps furnishes/vbz a/at means/nn of/in destroying/vbg insects/nns in/in stored/vbn grain/nn products/nns as/ql well/rb as/cs certain/ap parasitic/jj organisms/nns present/rb in/in meats/nns ./.
Deactivation/nn of/in enzymes/nns is/bez also/rb possible/jj ,/, although/cs some/dti types/nns require/vb extremely/ql heavy/jj doses/nns of/in 10/cd Mrad/nn or/cc more/ap ./.
Because/rb of/in undesirable/jj flavors/nns ,/, odors/nns ,/, colors/nns ,/, and/cc generally/rb low/jj palatability/nn associated/vbn with/in radiation/nn treatment/nn of/in this/dt magnitude/nn ,/, the/at inactivation/nn of/in enzymes/nns is/bez best/rbt accomplished/vbn prior/rb to/in irradiation/nn by/in the/at conventional/jj heat-processing/jj methods/nns of/in blanching/vbg ./.


	Radiation/nn does/doz not/* retard/vb the/at chemical/nn spoilage/nn of/in food/nn ./.
It/pps will/md ,/, however/rb ,/, inhibit/vb the/at sprouting/nn of/in potatoes/nns and/cc other/ap root/nn vegetables/nns ./.


	The/at radiation/nn doses/nns required/vbn for/in the/at preservation/nn of/in foods/nns are/ber in/in the/at following/vbg ranges/nns :/: 1/cd-hl ./.-hl

For/in radiosterilization/nn ,/, to/to destroy/vb all/abn organisms/nns for/in long-term/nn preservation/nn --/-- about/rb 4.5/cd Mrad/nn for/in nonacid/jj foods/nns of/in low/jj salt/nn content/nn ./.
2/cd-hl ./.-hl

For/in radiopasteurization/nn ,/, to/to partially/rb destroy/vb microorganisms/nns ;/. ;/.
results/nns vary/vb with/in types/nns of/in food/nn ,/, storage/nn conditions/nns ,/, and/cc objectives/nns of/in treatment/nn --/-- commonly/rb of/in the/at order/nn of/in 0.2/cd Mrads/nn but/cc up/rp to/in about/rb 0.8/cd Aj/nn ./.
3/cd-hl ./.-hl

For/in destruction/nn of/in insects/nns --/-- about/rb 25,000/cd Aj/nn ./.
4/cd ./.

For/in inhibiting/vbg the/at sprouting/nn of/in root/nn vegetables/nns --/-- 4,000/cd to/in 10,000/cd Aj/nn ./.


	Preserving/vbg foods/nns with/in ionizing/vbg radiation/nn leads/vbz to/in some/dti undesirable/jj side/nn effects/nns ,/, particularly/rb at/in the/at higher/jjr radiation/nn dosages/nns ./.
In/in this/dt respect/nn ,/, the/at general/jj palatability/nn and/cc individual/jj acceptance/nn of/in most/ap radiosterilized/vbn foods/nns has/hvz ,/, to/to date/vb ,/, been/ben found/vbn to/to be/be low/jj in/in comparison/nn with/in fresh/jj and/cc commercially/rb processed/vbn foods/nns ./.
A/at number/nn of/in foods/nns are/ber quite/ql acceptable/jj as/cs regards/vbz taste/nn and/cc palatability/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, at/in dosages/nns substantially/rb less/ap than/cs sterilization/nn levels/nns ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, the/at nutritive/jj value/nn of/in irradiated/vbn foods/nns apparently/rb undergoes/vbz little/ap ,/, if/cs any/dti ,/, change/nn ,/, although/cs some/dti of/in the/at fat-soluble/jj vitamins/nns are/ber affected/vbn by/in sterilization/nn doses/nns ./.



Radiation/nn-hl sources/nns-hl 
For/in irradiation/nn of/in food/nn ,/, the/at results/nns obtained/vbn depend/vb upon/in the/at dose/nn rather/rb than/cs the/at specific/jj type/nn of/in radiation/nn ,/, and/cc X-ray/nn-tl ,/, gamma/nn ,/, and/cc high-energy/nn electron/nn radiation/nn are/ber suitable/jj ./.
Aside/rb from/in availability/nn and/cc economic/jj considerations/nns ,/, each/dt has/hvz certain/ap practical/jj advantages/nns ;/. ;/.
for/in example/nn ,/, gamma/nn rays/nns give/vb deeper/jjr penetration/nn but/cc cannot/md* be/be focused/vbn or/cc collimated/vbn ,/, whereas/cs unidirectional/jj electron/nn beams/nns may/md be/be split/vbn and/cc directed/vbn to/in both/abx the/at top/nn and/cc bottom/nn of/in the/at food/nn package/nn to/to be/be irradiated/vbn ./.
Selection/nn of/in a/at source/nn for/in commercial/jj irradiation/nn would/md involve/vb consideration/nn of/in numerous/jj factors/nns including/in required/vbn dose/nn rate/nn ,/, load/nn factor/nn ,/, throughput/nn ,/, convenience/nn ,/, safety/nn ,/, and/cc most/ql important/jj ,/, costs/nns ./.


	Of/in the/at potentially/rb useful/jj sources/nns of/in ionizing/vbg radiations/nns ,/, gamma/nn sources/nns ,/, cobalt-60/nn ,/, cesium-137/nn ,/, fission/nn products/nns ,/, or/cc a/at reactor/nn irradiation/nn loop/nn system/nn using/vbg a/at material/nn such/jj as/cs an/at indium/nn salt/nn have/hv received/vbn most/ap attention/nn for/in food-preservation/nn systems/nns ./.
Of/in the/at various/ap particle/nn accelerators/nns ,/, the/at Van/np De/np Graff/np machines/nns ,/, resonant/jj transformers/nns ,/, and/cc linear/jj accelerators/nns are/ber the/at principal/jjs ones/nns available/jj for/in commercial/jj use/nn ./.


	Costs/nns of/in the/at effective/jj energy/nn produced/vbn by/in these/dts sources/nns is/bez a/at major/jj obstacle/nn in/in the/at development/nn of/in food-preservation/nn processes/nns ./.
Estimated/vbn production/nn costs/nns of/in radiation/nn energy/nn from/in machine/nn and/cc nuclide/nn sources/nns range/vb from/in $1/nn to/in $10/nns per/in Aj/nn ./.
Conventional/jj energy/nn for/in processing/vbg foods/nns is/bez available/jj in/in the/at range/nn of/in at/in most/ap a/at few/ap cents/nns per/in kwhr/nn for/in electric/jj power/nn and/cc the/at equivalent/jj of/in a/at few/ap mills/nns per/in kwhr/nn for/in process/nn steam/nn ./.
Radiation/nn ,/, therefore/rb ,/, is/bez at/in an/at initial/jj cost/nn disadvantage/nn even/rb though/cs only/rb 1/cd to/in 10/cd per/in cent/nn as/ql much/ap radiation/nn energy/nn as/cs heat/nn energy/nn is/bez required/vbn for/in radiopasteurization/nn or/cc radiosterilization/nn ./.
What/wdt are/ber the/at possibilities/nns of/in lowered/vbn radiation/nn production/nn costs/nns for/in the/at future/nn ?/. ?/.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben estimated/vbn that/cs for/in applications/nns on/in a/at megawatt/nn scale/nn costs/nns might/md reach/vb values/nns in/in the/at neighborhood/nn of/in 10/cd cents/nns per/in kwhr/nn for/in large-scale/nn accelerators/nns or/cc for/in gamma/nn radiation/nn generated/vbn in/in a/at reactor/nn core/nn ./.
No/at comparable/jj reductions/nns in/in the/at cost/nn of/in nuclide/nn radiation/nn are/ber foreseen/vbn ./.
Such/jj projections/nns ,/, however/rb ,/, appear/vb highly/ql speculative/jj and/cc the/at capacities/nns involved/vbn are/ber far/rb beyond/in those/dts foreseen/vbn for/in food-preservation/nn facilities/nns ./.


	Because/cs agricultural/jj activities/nns are/ber seasonal/jj and/cc the/at areas/nns of/in production/nn and/cc harvest/nn of/in many/ap foods/nns are/ber widely/rb scattered/vbn geographically/rb ,/, and/cc because/rb of/in the/at high/jj cost/nn of/in transporting/vbg bulk/jj food/nn items/nns any/dti substantial/jj distance/nn to/in a/at central/jj processing/vbg location/nn ,/, the/at use/nn of/in large/jj central/jj processing/nn stations/nns ,/, where/wrb low-cost/nn radiation/nn facilities/nns approaching/vbg the/at megawatt/nn range/nn might/md be/be utilized/vbn ,/, is/bez inherently/rb impracticable/jj ./.



Present/ap-hl status/nn-hl of/in-hl irradiation/nn-hl preservation/nn-hl of/in-hl foods/nns-hl 
The/at objective/nn of/in complete/jj sterilization/nn of/in foods/nns is/bez to/to produce/vb a/at wholesome/jj and/cc palatable/jj product/nn capable/jj of/in being/beg stored/vbn without/in refrigeration/nn for/in extended/vbn periods/nns of/in time/nn ./.
Chief/jjs interest/nn in/in radiosterilization/nn resides/vbz in/in the/at military/jj services/nns ./.
For/in them/ppo ,/, providing/vbg appetizing/jj food/nn under/in battle/nn or/cc emergency/nn conditions/nns is/bez a/at paramount/jjs consideration/nn ./.
They/ppss require/vb completely/ql sterile/jj foods/nns capable/jj of/in being/beg stored/vbn without/in refrigeration/nn ,/, preferably/rb items/nns already/rb cooked/vbn and/cc ready/jj to/to eat/vb ./.
High/jj nutritional/jj value/nn ,/, variety/nn ,/, palatability/nn ,/, and/cc appetizing/jj appearance/nn are/ber important/jj for/in reasons/nns of/in morale/nn ./.
Foods/nns for/in rear/jj stations/nns ,/, which/wdt require/vb cooking/vbg ,/, but/cc no/at refrigeration/nn ,/, are/ber also/rb of/in interest/nn ./.
Of/in primary/jj interest/nn are/ber meats/nns ./.


	Radiopasteurization/nn ,/, which/wdt produces/vbz fewer/ap adverse/jj sensory/jj changes/nns in/in food/nn products/nns ,/, has/hvz potential/jj usefulness/nn in/in prolonging/vbg the/at keeping/vbg qualities/nns of/in fresh/jj and/cc refrigerated/vbn food/nn items/nns ./.
Thus/rb ,/, food/nn so/rb processed/vbn might/md reach/vb more/ql remote/jj markets/nns and/cc permit/vb the/at consumer/nn to/to enjoy/vb more/ap produce/nn at/in peak/nn freshness/nn and/cc palatability/nn ./.
Commercial/jj interest/nn is/bez chiefly/rb in/in this/dt type/nn of/in treatment/nn ,/, as/cs is/bez military/jj interest/nn under/in peacetime/nn conditions/nns ./.


	The/at present/jj status/nn of/in food/nn preservation/nn by/in ionizing/vbg radiation/nn is/bez discussed/vbn by/in food/nn classes/nns in/in the/at following/vbg paragraphs/nns ./.
Meats/nns-hl 
The/at radiation/nn processing/nn of/in meat/nn has/hvz received/vbn extensive/jj investigation/nn ./.
To/in date/nn ,/, the/at one/cd meat/nn showing/vbg favorable/jj results/nns at/in sterilization/nn doses/nns is/bez pork/nn ./.
Of/in particular/jj interest/nn to/in the/at military/jj services/nns is/bez the/at demonstration/nn that/cs roast/nn pork/nn ,/, after/in radiosterilization/nn ,/, is/bez superior/jj in/in palatability/nn to/in available/jj canned/vbn pork/nn products/nns ./.
Tests/nns with/in beef/nn have/hv been/ben largely/rb unsuccessful/jj because/rb of/in the/at development/nn of/in off-flavors/nns ./.
A/at prime/jj objective/nn of/in the/at Army/nn-tl Quartermaster/nn-tl Corps/nn-tl program/nn is/bez to/to find/vb the/at reasons/nns for/in beef's/nn$ low/jj palatability/nn and/cc means/nns of/in overcoming/vbg it/ppo ,/, since/cs it/pps is/bez a/at major/jj and/cc desirable/jj dietary/jj item/nn ./.
Partly/rb because/cs low-level/nn heat/nn treatment/nn is/bez needed/vbn to/to inactivate/vb enzymes/nns before/in radiosterilization/nn ,/, treated/vbn fresh/jj meats/nns have/hv the/at appearance/nn of/in boiled/vbn or/cc canned/vbn meat/nn ./.


	Off-flavor/nn is/bez a/at less/ql severe/jj problem/nn with/in the/at radiopasteurization/nn of/in meats/nns ,/, but/cc problems/nns of/in commercial/jj acceptability/nn remain/vb ./.
Moderate/jj radiation/nn doses/nns of/in from/in 100,000/cd to/in 200,000/cd rads/nn can/md extend/vb the/at shelf/nn life/nn (/( at/in 35/cd F/nn )/) of/in fresh/jj beef/nn from/in 5/cd days/nns to/in 5/cd or/cc 6/cd weeks/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at problem/nn of/in consumer/nn acceptability/nn remains/vbz ./.
The/at preradiation/nn blanching/vbg process/nn discolors/vbz the/at treated/vbn beef/nn and/cc liquid/nn accumulates/vbz in/in prepackaged/vbn cuts/nns ./.
Cooked/vbn beef/nn irradiated/vbn in/in the/at absence/nn of/in oxygen/nn assumes/vbz an/at unnatural/jj pink/jj color/nn ./.


	When/wrb lamb/nn and/cc mutton/nn are/ber irradiated/vbn at/in substerilization/jj doses/nns ,/, the/at meat/nn becomes/vbz dehydrated/vbn ,/, the/at fat/nn becomes/vbz chalky/jj ,/, and/cc ,/, again/rb ,/, unnatural/jj changes/nns in/in color/nn occur/vb ./.


	Ground/vbn meats/nns such/jj as/cs fresh/jj pork/nn sausage/nn and/cc hamburger/nn have/hv a/at relatively/ql short/jj shelf/nn life/nn under/in refrigeration/nn ,/, and/cc radiopasteurization/nn might/md be/be thought/vbn to/to offer/vb distinctly/rb improved/vbn keeping/vbg qualities/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, a/at major/jj problem/nn here/rb is/bez one/cd of/in scale/nn of/in processing/vbg ;/. ;/.
ground/vbn meats/nns are/ber usually/rb prepared/vbn from/in scrap/nn meats/nns at/in the/at local/jj level/nn ,/, whereas/cs irradiation/nn at/in economic/jj volumes/nns of/in production/nn would/md require/vb central/jj processing/vbg and/cc distribution/nn facilities/nns ./.
The/at problems/nns of/in color/nn change/nn by/in blanching/vbg and/cc liquid/nn accumulation/nn within/in the/at package/nn are/ber the/at same/ap as/cs for/in solid/jj cuts/nns ./.


	Specialty/nn cooked/vbn items/nns containing/vbg meat/nn portions/nns ,/, as/cs in/in ``/`` frozen/vbn dinners/nns ''/'' might/md offer/nn a/at potential/jj use/nn for/in radiopasteurization/nn ./.
The/at principal/jjs potential/jj advantage/nn would/md be/be that/cs the/at finished/vbn product/nn could/md be/be transported/vbn and/cc stored/vbn at/in lower/jjr cost/nn under/in refrigeration/nn instead/rb of/in being/beg frozen/vbn ./.
A/at refrigerated/vbn item/nn could/md also/rb be/be heated/vbn and/cc served/vbn in/in less/ap time/nn than/cs is/bez required/vbn for/in frozen/vbn foods/nns of/in the/at same/ap type/nn ./.


	Competitive/jj processes/nns for/in preserving/vbg meats/nns are/ber by/in canning/vbg and/cc freezing/vbg ./.
Costs/nns of/in canning/vbg meat/nn are/ber in/in the/at range/nn of/in 0.8/cd to/in 5/cd cents/nns per/in pound/nn ;/. ;/.
costs/nns of/in freezing/vbg are/ber in/in the/at area/nn of/in 2/cd to/in 3.5/cd cents/nns per/in pound/nn ./.
The/at table/nn on/in page/nn 10/cd shows/vbz costs/nns of/in canning/vbg and/cc freezing/vbg meat/nn ,/, and/cc estimated/vbn costs/nns for/in irradiation/nn under/in certain/ap assumed/vbn conditions/nns ./.
Under/in the/at conditions/nns of/in comparison/nn ,/, it/pps will/md be/be noted/vbn that/cs :/: (/(-hl 1/cd-hl )/)-hl 
Radiosterilization/nn (/( at/in 3/cd Mrad/nn )/) is/bez more/ql expensive/jj than/cs canning/vbg ,/, particularly/rb for/in the/at cesium-137/nn source/nn ./.
(/(-hl 2/cd-hl )/)-hl 
Radiopasteurization/nn by/in either/cc the/at electron/nn accelerator/nn or/cc cesium-137/nn source/nn is/bez in/in the/at range/nn of/in freezing/vbg costs/nns ./.
(/(-hl 3/cd-hl )/)-hl 
Irradiation/nn using/vbg the/at nuclide/nn source/nn is/bez more/ql expensive/jj than/cs use/nn of/in an/at electron/nn accelerator/nn ./.
Poultry/nn-hl 
Results/nns of/in irradiation/nn tests/nns with/in poultry/nn have/hv been/ben quite/ql successful/jj ./.
At/in sterilizing/vbg doses/nns ,/, good/jj palatability/nn results/vbz ,/, with/in a/at minimum/nn of/in changes/nns in/in appearance/nn ,/, taste/nn ,/, and/cc odor/nn ./.
Radiopasteurization/nn has/hvz also/rb been/ben successful/jj ,/, and/cc the/at shelf/nn life/nn of/in chicken/nn can/md be/be extended/vbn to/in a/at month/nn or/cc more/ap under/in refrigerated/vbn storage/nn as/cs compared/vbn with/in about/rb 10/cd days/nns for/in the/at untreated/jj product/nn ./.
Acceptable/jj taste/nn and/cc odor/nn are/ber retained/vbn by/in the/at irradiated/vbn and/cc refrigerated/vbn chicken/nn ./.
Acceptance/nn of/in radiopasteurization/nn is/bez likely/jj to/to be/be delayed/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, for/in two/cd reasons/nns :/: (/( 1/cd )/) the/at storage/nn life/nn of/in fresh/jj chicken/nn under/in refrigeration/nn is/bez becoming/vbg a/at minimal/jj problem/nn because/rb of/in constantly/rb improved/vbn sanitation/nn and/cc distributing/vbg practices/nns ,/, and/cc (/( 2/cd )/) treatment/nn by/in antibiotics/nns ,/, a/at measure/nn already/rb approved/vbn by/in the/at Federal/jj-tl Food/nn-tl and/cc-tl Drug/nn-tl Administration/nn-tl ,/, serves/vbz to/to extend/vb the/at storage/nn life/nn of/in chicken/nn at/in a/at low/jj cost/nn of/in about/rb 0.5/cd cents/nns per/in pound/nn ./.
Seafood/nn-hl 
Fresh/jj seafood/nn products/nns are/ber extremely/ql perishable/jj ./.
Although/cs refrigeration/nn has/hvz served/vbn to/to extend/vb the/at storage/nn life/nn of/in these/dts products/nns ,/, substantially/rb increased/vbn consumption/nn might/md be/be possible/jj if/cs areas/nns remote/jj from/in the/at seacoast/nn could/md be/be served/vbn adequately/rb ./.

Furthermore/rb ,/, it/pps has/hvz made/vbn an/at exact/jj assessment/nn of/in the/at removal/nn mechanisms/nns possible/jj ./.


	The/at instrument/nn is/bez shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl and/cc consists/vbz essentially/rb of/in a/at hard/jj ,/, sharp/jj ,/, tungsten/nn carbide/nn knife/nn which/wdt is/bez pushed/vbn along/in the/at substrate/nn to/to remove/vb the/at coating/nn ./.
The/at force/nn required/vbn to/to accomplish/vb removal/nn is/bez plotted/vbn ,/, by/in means/nn of/in an/at electronic/jj recorder/nn ,/, against/in distance/nn of/in removal/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at removal/nn force/nn is/bez a/at function/nn of/in coating/nn thickness/nn ,/, a/at differential/jj transformer/nn pickup/nn has/hvz been/ben incorporated/vbn into/in the/at instrument/nn to/to accurately/rb measure/vb film/nn thickness/nn ./.
This/dt ,/, too/rb ,/, is/bez recorded/vbn against/in distance/nn by/in a/at repeat/nn run/nn over/in the/at same/ap track/nn previously/rb cut/vbn ./.
A/at number/nn of/in adjustment/nn features/nns are/ber included/vbn in/in the/at Hesiometer/nn-tl to/to facilitate/vb measurement/nn and/cc permit/vb ready/jj removal/nn of/in coatings/nns deposited/vbn on/in such/jj substrates/nns as/cs iron/nn and/cc other/ap metals/nns ,/, glass/nn ,/, wood/nn ,/, and/cc plastic/nn surfaces/nns ./.
The/at measurement/nn of/in topcoats/nns on/in primers/nns can/md also/rb readily/rb be/be carried/vbn out/rp ./.


	Hesiometer/nn-tl results/nns have/hv been/ben found/vbn to/to compare/vb excellently/rb with/in manual/jj knife/nn scratching/vbg tests/nns ./.
The/at instrumental/jj method/nn ,/, however/rb ,/, is/bez about/rb 100/cd times/nns more/ql sensitive/jj and/cc yields/vbz numerical/jj results/nns which/wdt can/md be/be accurately/rb repeated/vbn at/in will/nn over/in a/at period/nn of/in time/nn ./.
If/cs a/at wedge-shaped/jj coating/nn of/in increasing/vbg thickness/nn is/bez removed/vbn from/in a/at substrate/nn by/in an/at instrument/nn like/cs the/at Hesiometer/nn-tl with/in a/at knife/nn of/in constant/jj rake/nn angle/nn ,/, a/at number/nn of/in removal/nn mechanisms/nns are/ber often/rb observed/vbn which/wdt depend/vb upon/in the/at thickness/nn of/in the/at coating/nn ./.
At/in low/jj thicknesses/nns a/at cutting/vbg (/( or/cc shearing/vbg )/) phenomenon/nn is/bez often/rb encountered/vbn ./.
As/cs the/at coating/nn becomes/vbz thicker/jjr ,/, the/at cutting/vbg may/md abruptly/rb change/vb to/in a/at cracking/vbg type/nn of/in failure/nn ./.
If/cs the/at coating/nn becomes/vbz still/ql thicker/jjr ,/, a/at peeling/vbg type/nn failure/nn finally/rb can/md occur/vb ./.
The/at typical/jj appearance/nn of/in these/dts various/ap mechanisms/nns is/bez illustrated/vbn in/in Figs./nns-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, 3/cd-tl ,/, and/cc 4/cd ,/, which/wdt are/ber single/ap frame/nn enlargements/nns of/in high/jj speed/nn movies/nns taken/vbn during/in the/at course/nn of/in the/at knife/nn removal/nn process/nn ./.
It/pps can/md be/be seen/vbn from/in Fig./nn-tl 2/cd-tl that/cs the/at cutting/vbg removal/nn of/in a/at coating/nn from/in its/pp$ substrate/nn involves/vbz pure/jj cohesive/jj failure/nn of/in the/at coating/nn ./.
The/at molecular/jj forces/nns holding/vbg the/at coating/nn to/in the/at substrate/nn are/ber obviously/rb greater/jjr than/cs the/at cohesive/jj strength/nn of/in the/at coating/nn and/cc failure/nn occurs/vbz by/in shear/nn along/in a/at plane/nn starting/vbg at/in the/at tip/nn of/in the/at knife/nn and/cc extending/vbg to/in the/at coating/nn surface/nn ./.


	The/at pictures/nns of/in Figs./nns-tl 3/cd-tl and/cc 4/cd-tl show/vb the/at cracking/vbg and/cc peeling/vbg types/nns of/in removal/nn where/wrb the/at coating/nn is/bez detached/vbn by/in failure/nn in/in a/at region/nn at/in ,/, or/cc close/rb to/in ,/, the/at interface/nn between/in coating/nn and/cc substrate/nn ./.


	If/cs the/at force/nn required/vbn to/to remove/vb the/at coatings/nns is/bez plotted/vbn against/in film/nn thickness/nn ,/, a/at graph/nn as/cs illustrated/vbn schematically/rb in/in Fig./nn-tl 5/cd-tl may/md characteristically/rb result/vb ./.
Here/rb ,/, H/nn is/bez the/at coatings/nns removal/nn force/nn measured/vbn parallel/rb to/in the/at surface/nn of/in the/at substrate/nn and/cc T/np is/bez the/at film/nn thickness/nn ./.
It/pps can/md be/be seen/vbn that/cs the/at force/nn is/bez characteristic/jj of/in the/at removal/nn process/nn and/cc changes/vbz abruptly/rb from/in cutting/vbg to/in cracking/vbg to/in peeling/vbg removal/nn ./.
Also/rb ,/, it/pps can/md be/be readily/rb seen/vbn that/cs the/at cutting/vbg and/cc peeling/vbg types/nns of/in failure/nn show/vb a/at steady/jj state/nn response/nn ,/, while/cs the/at cracking/vbg mechanism/nn is/bez of/in a/at dynamic/jj nature/nn ./.


	It/pps should/md be/be recalled/vbn that/cs these/dts three/cd mechanisms/nns can/md occur/vb on/in the/at same/ap coating/nn deposited/vbn upon/in the/at same/ap substrate/nn merely/rb as/cs a/at function/nn of/in changes/nns in/in coatings/nns thickness/nn ./.
Presumably/rb the/at interfacial/jj bond/nn strength/nn and/cc gross/jj cohesive/jj properties/nns are/ber identical/jj in/in each/dt case/nn ./.
What/wdt then/rb ,/, are/ber the/at factors/nns that/wps contribute/vb to/in these/dts phenomena/nns ?/. ?/.
Why/wrb should/md the/at ``/`` practical/jj adhesion/nn ''/'' of/in a/at coating/nn as/cs assessed/vbn by/in a/at knife/nn method/nn change/vb ,/, initially/rb increasing/vbg rather/ql rapidly/rb and/cc then/rb decreasing/vbg stepwise/rb to/in very/ql low/jj values/nns as/cs the/at knife/nn is/bez forced/vbn through/in a/at coating/nn of/in increasing/vbg thickness/nn ?/. ?/.



Cutting/vbg-hl mechanism/nn-hl of/in-hl cohesive/jj-hl failure/nn-hl 
The/at cutting/vbg (/( or/cc shearing/vbg )/) removal/nn process/nn has/hvz been/ben previously/rb described/vbn ./.
It/pps was/bedz found/vbn that/cs the/at coating/nn is/bez separated/vbn from/in its/pp$ substrate/nn entirely/rb by/in cohesive/jj failure/nn ./.
The/at details/nns of/in the/at removal/nn process/nn are/ber shown/vbn schematically/rb in/in Fig./nn-tl 6/cd-tl ./.
The/at various/ap forces/nns result/vb from/in the/at reaction/nn of/in the/at removed/vbn paint/nn chip/nn against/in the/at face/nn of/in the/at knife/nn and/cc along/in the/at shear/nn plane/nn ,/, which/wdt makes/vbz an/at angle/nn **yf/nn with/in the/at substrate/nn ./.
The/at action/nn and/cc reaction/nn forces/nns are/ber R/nn and/cc Af/nn ,/, respectively/rb ,/, and/cc are/ber equal/jj and/cc opposite/jj in/in direction/nn ./.
All/ql the/at other/ap force/nn vectors/nns are/ber derived/vbn from/in these/dts ./.
Af/nn is/bez the/at force/nn required/vbn to/to cut/vb a/at coating/nn of/in thickness/nn T/np from/in the/at substrate/nn ./.
Af/nn is/bez the/at shear/nn force/nn along/in the/at shear/nn plane/nn ;/. ;/.
Af/nn and/cc Af/nn are/ber the/at thrust/nn forces/nns acting/vbg against/in coating/nn and/cc knife/nn ,/, respectively/rb ;/. ;/.
Af/nn is/bez the/at normal/jj compressive/jj force/nn acting/vbg on/in the/at shear/nn plane/nn ;/. ;/.
Af/nn is/bez the/at friction/nn force/nn between/in chip/nn and/cc knife/nn surfaces/nns ,/, and/cc P/nn is/bez the/at normal/jj force/nn acting/vbg on/in the/at face/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ./.
**yc/nn is/bez the/at rake/nn angle/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ;/. ;/.
**yf/nn is/bez the/at angle/nn the/at shear/nn plane/nn makes/vbz with/in the/at substrate/nn ;/. ;/.
**yt/nn is/bez the/at friction/nn angle/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc **yb/nn is/bez the/at angle/nn the/at resultants/nns make/vb with/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at substrate/nn ./.


	An/at analysis/nn of/in the/at vector/nn relationships/nns shows/vbz that/cs the/at rake/nn angle/nn **yc/nn and/cc the/at friction/nn angle/nn **yt/nn determine/vb the/at vector/nn direction/nn Af/nn of/in the/at force/nn resultants/nns R/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.
Consequently/rb ,/, both/abx the/at rake/nn angle/nn of/in the/at knife/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at friction/nn occurring/vbg between/in the/at back/nn of/in the/at removed/vbn coating/nn and/cc the/at front/nn of/in the/at knife/nn will/md determine/vb in/in large/jj part/nn the/at detailed/vbn mechanism/nn of/in the/at cutting/vbg removal/nn process/nn ./.


	It/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to measure/vb the/at direction/nn and/cc magnitude/nn of/in R/nn directly/rb ./.
In/in actual/jj practice/nn ,/, the/at values/nns most/ql readily/rb amenable/jj to/in measurement/nn are/ber the/at cutting/vbg force/nn Af/nn and/cc the/at shear/nn angle/nn Aj/nn ./.
These/dts two/cd values/nns and/cc the/at rake/nn angle/nn **yc/nn are/ber sufficient/jj to/to determine/vb the/at other/ap parameters/nns of/in these/dts relationships/nns ./.
**yc/nn is/bez defined/vbn by/in the/at geometry/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ;/. ;/.
**yf/nn can/md readily/rb be/be determined/vbn by/in measuring/vbg the/at thickness/nn of/in the/at coating/nn before/in and/cc after/in cutting/vbg from/in the/at substrate/nn ;/. ;/.
Af/nn is/bez instrumentally/rb determined/vbn ./.
From/in Fig./nn-tl 6/cd-tl the/at relationship/nn between/in these/dts parameters/nns can/md readily/rb be/be derived/vbn and/cc the/at cutting/vbg force/nn is/bez Af/nn where/wrb **yl/nn is/bez the/at shear/nn strength/nn of/in the/at coating/nn and/cc is/bez a/at parameter/nn of/in the/at coatings/nns material/nn ,/, W/np is/bez the/at width/nn of/in the/at removed/vbn coating/nn and/cc T/np is/bez its/pp$ thickness/nn ./.


	If/cs the/at cutting/vbg force/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, is/bez plotted/vbn against/in film/nn thickness/nn ,/, a/at straight/jj line/nn should/md result/vb passing/vbg through/in the/at origin/nn and/cc having/hvg slope/nn Af/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, in/in the/at actual/jj assessment/nn of/in the/at cutting/vbg force/nn by/in instrumental/jj methods/nns for/in any/dti thickness/nn of/in coating/nn a/at number/nn of/in spurious/jj effects/nns occur/vb which/wdt must/md be/be taken/vbn into/in account/nn and/cc which/wdt make/vb the/at measured/vbn value/nn larger/jjr than/cs the/at true/jj cutting/vbg force/nn indicated/vbn by/in eqn./nn (/( 1/cd )/) ./.



Blunt/jj-hl knife/nn-hl 
One/cd of/in these/dts is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at knife/nn employed/vbn ,/, no/at matter/nn how/wql well/rb sharpened/vbn ,/, will/md have/hv a/at slightly/rb rounded/vbn cutting/vbg edge/nn ./.
This/dt signifies/vbz that/cs **yc/nn ,/, the/at rake/nn angle/nn ,/, is/bez no/ql longer/rbr a/at constant/jj to/in zero/cd film/nn thickness/nn ./.
The/at curvature/nn of/in this/dt bluntness/nn is/bez ,/, in/in the/at case/nn of/in the/at Carboloy/np knife/nn employed/vbn in/in the/at Hesiometer/nn-tl ,/, determined/vbn by/in the/at grain/nn sizes/nns of/in the/at polished/vbn grit/nn and/cc the/at tungsten/nn carbide/nn crystals/nns cemented/vbn together/rb in/in the/at knife/nn body/nn and/cc is/bez in/in the/at order/nn of/in 0.1/cd to/in 0.2/cd mil./nns ./.


	The/at force/nn vector/nn concept/nn of/in Fig./nn-tl 6/cd-tl can/md readily/rb be/be applied/vbn to/in this/dt condition/nn also/rb ./.
Because/cs the/at rake/nn angle/nn Af/nn at/in the/at tip/nn of/in the/at knife/nn is/bez very/ql much/ql smaller/jjr (/( or/cc even/rb negative/jj )/) when/wrb compared/vbn to/in the/at value/nn of/in **yc/nn for/in the/at major/jj portion/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ,/, a/at very/ql rapid/jj increase/nn in/in cutting/vbg force/nn with/in thickness/nn will/md result/vb ./.
This/dt reduces/vbz to/in the/at relationship/nn :/: Af/nn ,/, where/wrb Af/nn is/bez the/at intercept/nn at/in zero/cd thickness/nn of/in the/at extrapolation/nn of/in the/at slope/nn indicated/vbn in/in eqn./nn (/( 1/cd )/) ,/, Af/nn is/bez the/at thickness/nn of/in the/at coating/nn equivalent/jj to/in the/at rounding/nn off/rp of/in the/at knife/nn tip/nn ,/, Af/nn is/bez a/at straight/jj line/nn first/od approximation/nn of/in this/dt roundness/nn ,/, and/cc the/at other/ap symbols/nns are/ber equivalent/jj to/in those/dts of/in eqn./nn (/( 1/cd )/) ./.
It/pps can/md be/be seen/vbn that/dt Af/nn is/bez a/at constant/nn ,/, and/cc is/bez determined/vbn for/in the/at most/ap part/nn by/in the/at geometry/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ./.
The/at blunter/jjr the/at knife/nn ,/, the/at higher/jjr is/bez the/at value/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at importance/nn of/in a/at hard/jj ,/, abrasion-resistant/jj knife/nn material/nn like/cs the/at Carboloy/np employed/vbn in/in the/at Hesiometer/nn-tl immediately/rb becomes/vbz apparent/jj ./.
Softer/jjr knives/nns would/md blunt/vb very/ql rapidly/rb ,/, making/vbg the/at value/nn of/in Af/nn inexact/jj ./.
In/in extreme/jj cases/nns of/in very/ql soft/jj knives/nns this/dt value/nn may/md even/rb change/vb during/in the/at course/nn of/in a/at measurement/nn ./.



Knife/nn-hl friction/nn-hl 
A/at second/od factor/nn which/wdt enters/vbz into/in the/at practical/jj measurement/nn of/in the/at instrumentally/rb determined/vbn cutting/vbg force/nn is/bez the/at frictional/jj resistance/nn caused/vbn by/in the/at bottom/nn of/in the/at knife/nn against/in the/at substrate/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez not/* a/at constant/jj value/nn like/cs Af/nn ,/, but/cc varies/vbz with/in the/at thickness/nn of/in the/at coating/nn and/cc the/at direction/nn and/cc magnitude/nn of/in the/at resultants/nns R/nn and/cc Af/nn of/in Fig./nn-tl 6/cd-tl ./.
Under/in equilibrium/nn conditions/nns of/in cutting/vbg the/at chip/nn exerts/vbz a/at thrust/nn Af/nn against/in the/at knife/nn which/wdt tends/vbz to/to push/vb it/ppo into/in the/at substrate/nn or/cc lift/vb it/ppo away/rb from/in the/at substrate/nn depending/in on/in the/at vector/nn direction/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
The/at resultant/jj friction/nn force/nn ,/, Af/nn is/bez thus/rb directly/rb proportional/jj to/in Af/nn and/cc consequently/rb also/rb to/in film/nn thickness/nn ./.


	The/at value/nn of/in Af/nn can/md readily/rb be/be assessed/vbn by/in determining/vbg the/at frictional/jj force/nn exerted/vbn on/in the/at knife/nn while/cs running/vbg over/in the/at previously/rb stripped/vbn coating/nn track/nn under/in various/ap external/jj loadings/nns ./.
A/at straight/jj line/nn relationship/nn is/bez usually/rb observed/vbn in/in a/at plot/nn of/in Af/nn against/in load/nn L/nn ,/, having/hvg slope/nn k/nn ,/, and/cc Af/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at load/nn L/nn ,/, under/in actual/jj cutting/vbg conditions/nns is/bez caused/vbn by/in Af/nn ,/, it/pps can/md be/be seen/vbn that/dt Af/nn 

	./.
The/at measured/vbd force/nn ,/, H/nn ,/, in/in cutting/vbg removal/nn of/in coatings/nns from/in their/pp$ substrates/nns consequently/rb can/md be/be seen/vbn to/to be/be the/at sum/nn of/in that/dt force/nn required/vbn to/to cut/vb the/at coating/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, that/dt due/jj to/in the/at bluntness/nn of/in the/at knife/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, and/cc that/dt due/jj to/in the/at friction/nn between/in the/at bottom/nn of/in the/at knife/nn and/cc the/at substrate/nn ,/, Af/nn ,/, or/cc Af/nn ./.
The/at first/rb two/cd forces/nns are/ber directly/rb interrelated/vbn and/cc depend/vb upon/in film/nn thickness/nn ,/, whereas/cs Af/nn is/bez independent/jj of/in these/dts two/cd and/cc is/bez a/at constant/nn for/in a/at given/vbn knife/coating/nn combination/nn ./.


	These/dts theoretical/jj relationships/nns are/ber more/ql clearly/rb illustrated/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 7/cd-tl and/cc their/pp$ sum/nn can/md be/be seen/vbn to/to correlate/vb in/in form/nn with/in practical/jj measurements/nns made/vbn with/in the/at Hesiometer/nn-tl as/cs illustrated/vbn in/in the/at first/od portion/nn of/in Fig./nn-tl 5/cd-tl for/in the/at cutting/vbg mechanism/nn ./.



Chipping/vbg mechanism/nn of/in cohesive/jj failure/nn 
Although/cs a/at large/jj number/nn of/in coatings/nns systems/nns ,/, particularly/rb at/in low/jj thicknesses/nns fail/vb cohesively/rb by/in the/at cutting/vbg mechanism/nn ,/, frequently/rb a/at second/od type/nn of/in cohesive/jj failure/nn may/md also/rb take/vb place/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez a/at chipping/vbg ,/, dynamic/jj type/nn failure/nn encountered/vbn with/in very/ql brittle/jj coatings/nns resins/nns or/cc very/ql highly/ql pigmented/jj films/nns ./.
This/dt is/bez shown/vbn in/in the/at photomicrograph/nn of/in Fig./nn-tl 8/cd-tl ./.


	The/at basic/jj difference/nn between/in the/at continuous/jj cutting/vbg mechanism/nn and/cc that/dt of/in the/at chipping/vbg mechanism/nn is/bez that/cs instead/rb of/in shear/nn occurring/vbg in/in the/at coating/nn ahead/rb of/in the/at knife/nn continuously/rb without/in fracture/nn ,/, rupture/nn intermittently/rb occurs/vbz along/in the/at shear/nn plane/nn ./.
The/at detailed/vbn mechanisms/nns of/in this/dt type/nn of/in failure/nn have/hv been/ben studied/vbn extensively/rb by/in Merchant/np for/in metal/nn cutting/nn ,/, and/cc the/at principles/nns found/vbn can/md be/be directly/rb applied/vbn to/in coatings/nns ./.


	By/in studying/vbg high/jj speed/nn movies/nns made/vbn of/in this/dt type/nn of/in failure/nn ,/, the/at sequence/nn of/in relationships/nns as/cs schematically/rb illustrated/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 9/cd-tl could/md be/be observed/vbn ./.


	In/in the/at first/od picture/nn (/( 9a/cd )/) the/at knife/nn is/bez just/rb beginning/vbg to/to advance/vb into/in the/at inclined/vbn surface/nn which/wdt was/bedz left/vbn from/in the/at previous/ap chip/nn formation/nn ./.
In/in the/at next/ap ,/, the/at shear/nn plane/nn angle/nn is/bez high/jj ,/, and/cc extends/vbz to/in the/at inclined/vbn work/nn surface/nn ./.
With/in increasing/vbg advance/nn of/in the/at knife/nn into/in the/at coating/nn the/at shear/nn plane/nn extends/vbz to/in the/at coatings/nns surface/nn and/cc the/at shear/nn angle/nn rapidly/rb decreases/vbz ./.
Eventually/rb ,/, rupture/nn occurs/vbz along/in the/at shear/nn plane/nn (/( 9e/cd )/) ,/, and/cc the/at cycle/nn repeats/vbz itself/ppl ./.


	Merchant/np has/hvz found/vbn that/cs the/at same/ap basic/jj relationships/nns which/wdt describe/vb the/at geometry/nn and/cc force/nn systems/nns in/in the/at case/nn of/in the/at cutting/vbg mechanism/nn can/md also/rb be/be applied/vbn to/in the/at discontinuous/jj chip/nn formation/nn provided/vbn the/at proper/jj values/nns of/in instantaneous/jj shear/nn angle/nn and/cc instantaneous/jj chip/nn thickness/nn or/cc cross-sectional/jj area/nn are/ber used/vbn ./.
Consequently/rb ,/, if/cs the/at shear/nn angle/nn **yf/nn is/bez replaced/vbn by/in the/at rupture/nn angle/nn Af/nn ,/, the/at relationships/nns as/cs described/vbn in/in eqns./nns (/( 1/cd )/) ,/, (/( 2/cd )/) ,/, (/( 4/cd )/) ,/, and/cc (/( 6/cd )/) will/md directly/rb apply/vb ./.



The/at-hl cracking/vbg-hl mechanism/nn-hl 
Under/in equilibrium/nn cutting/vbg conditions/nns ,/, the/at chip/nn exerts/vbz a/at force/nn Af/nn against/in the/at coating/nn and/cc an/at equal/jj opposite/jj force/nn Af/nn against/in the/at knife/nn in/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at substrate/nn as/cs shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 6/cd-tl ./.
If/cs the/at rake/nn angle/nn **yc/nn of/in the/at knife/nn is/bez high/jj enough/qlp and/cc the/at friction/nn angle/nn **yt/nn between/in the/at front/nn of/in the/at knife/nn and/cc the/at back/nn of/in the/at chip/nn is/bez low/jj enough/qlp to/to give/vb a/at positive/jj value/nn for/in Af/nn ,/, the/at resultant/jj vector/nn R/nn will/md lie/vb above/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at substrate/nn ./.



	Within/in only/rb a/at few/ap years/nns ,/, foamed/vbn plastics/nns materials/nns have/hv managed/vbn to/to grow/vb into/in an/at integral/jj ,/, and/cc important/jj ,/, phase/nn of/in the/at plastics/nns industry/nn --/-- and/cc the/at end/nn is/bez still/rb not/* yet/rb in/in sight/nn ./.
Urethane/nn foam/nn ,/, as/cs only/rb one/cd example/nn ,/, was/bedz only/rb introduced/vbn commercially/rb in/in this/dt country/nn in/in 1955/cd ./.
Yet/cc last/ap year's/nn$ volume/nn probably/rb topped/vbd 100/cd million/cd lb./nns and/cc expectations/nns are/ber for/in a/at market/nn of/in 275/cd million/cd lb./nns by/in 1964/cd ./.
Many/ap of/in the/at other/ap foamed/vbn plastics/nns ,/, particularly/rb the/at styrenes/nns ,/, show/vb similar/jj growth/nn potential/nn ./.
And/cc there/ex are/ber even/rb newer/jjr foamed/vbn plastics/nns that/wps are/ber yet/rb to/to be/be evaluated/vbn ./.
As/cs this/dt issue/nn goes/vbz to/in press/nn ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, one/cd manufacturer/nn has/hvz announced/vbn an/at epoxy/nn foam/nn with/in outstanding/jj buoyancy/nn and/cc impact/nn strength/nn ;/. ;/.
another/dt reports/vbz that/cs a/at cellular/jj polypropylene/nn ,/, primarily/rb for/in use/nn in/in wire/nn coating/nn applications/nns ,/, is/bez being/beg investigated/vbn ./.


	On/in the/at following/vbg pages/nns ,/, each/dt of/in the/at major/jj commercial/jj foamed/vbn plastics/nns is/bez described/vbn in/in detail/nn ,/, as/in to/in properties/nns ,/, applications/nns ,/, and/cc methods/nns of/in processing/vbg ./.


	It/pps might/md be/be well/jj to/to point/vb out/rp ,/, however/rb ,/, some/dti of/in the/at newer/jjr developments/nns that/wps have/hv taken/vbn place/nn within/in the/at past/ap few/ap months/nns which/wdt might/md have/hv a/at bearing/nn on/in the/at future/nn of/in the/at various/ap foamed/vbn plastics/nns involved/vbn ./.
In/in urethane/nn foams/nns ,/, for/in example/nn ,/, there/ex has/hvz been/ben a/at definite/jj trend/nn toward/in the/at polyether-type/jj materials/nns (/( which/wdt are/ber now/rb available/jj in/in two-component/jj rigid/jj foam/nn systems/nns )/) and/cc the/at emphasis/nn is/bez definitely/rb on/in one-shot/jj molding/vbg ./.
Most/ap manufacturers/nns also/rb seem/vb to/to be/be concentrating/vbg on/in formulating/vbg fire-resistant/jj or/cc self-extinguishing/jj grades/nns of/in urethane/nn foam/nn that/wps are/ber aimed/vbn specifically/rb at/in the/at burgeoning/vbg building/vbg markets/nns ./.
Urethane/nn foam/nn as/cs an/at insulator/nn is/bez also/rb coming/vbg in/rp for/in a/at good/jj deal/nn of/in attention/nn ./.
In/in one/cd outstanding/jj example/nn ,/, Whirlpool/np-tl Corp./nn-tl found/vbd that/cs by/in switching/vbg to/in urethane/nn foam/nn insulation/nn ,/, they/ppss could/md increase/vb the/at storage/nn capacity/nn of/in gas/nn refrigerators/nns to/to make/vb them/ppo competitive/jj with/in electric/jj models/nns ./.
Much/ap interest/nn has/hvz also/rb been/ben expressed/vbn in/in new/jj techniques/nns for/in processing/vbg the/at urethane/nn foams/nns ,/, including/in spraying/vbg ,/, frothing/vbg ,/, and/cc molding/vbg (/( see/vb article/nn ,/, p./nn 391/cd for/in details/nns )/) ./.
And/cc in/in meeting/vbg the/at demands/nns for/in urethane/nn foam/nn as/cs a/at garment/nn interlining/nn ,/, new/jj adhesives/nns and/cc new/jj methods/nns of/in laminating/vbg foam/nn to/in a/at substrate/nn have/hv been/ben developed/vbn ./.


	New/jj techniques/nns for/in automatic/jj molding/nn of/in expandable/jj styrene/nn beads/nns have/hv helped/vbn boost/vb that/dt particular/ap material/nn into/in a/at number/nn of/in new/jj consumer/nn applications/nns ,/, including/in picnic/nn chests/nns ,/, beverage/nn coolers/nns ,/, flower/nn pots/nns ,/, and/cc flotation-type/jj swimming/vbg toys/nns ./.
Two/cd other/ap end-use/jj areas/nns which/wdt contributed/vbd to/in expandable/jj styrene's/nn$ growth/nn during/in the/at year/nn were/bed packaging/vbg (/( molded/vbn inserts/nns replacing/vbg complicated/vbn cardboard/nn units/nns )/) and/cc foamed-core/nn building/vbg panels/nns ./.
Extruded/vbn expandable/jj styrene/nn film/nn or/cc sheet/nn --/-- claimed/vbn to/to be/be competitive/jj price-wise/rb with/in paper/nn --/-- also/rb showed/vbd much/ap potential/nn ,/, particularly/rb for/in packaging/vbg ./.
Sandwich/nn panels/nns for/in building/vbg utility/nn shelters/nns that/wps consist/vb of/in kraft/nn paper/nn skins/nns and/cc rigid/jj styrene/nn foam/nn cores/nns also/rb aroused/vbd interest/nn in/in the/at construction/nn field/nn ./.


	In/in vinyl/nn foam/nn ,/, the/at big/jj news/nn was/bedz the/at development/nn of/in techniques/nns for/in coating/vbg fabrics/nns with/in the/at material/nn (/( for/in details/nns ,/, see/vb P./nn-tl 395/cd-tl )/) ./.
Better/jjr ``/`` hand/nn ''/'' ,/, a/at more/ql luxurious/jj feel/nn ,/, and/cc better/jjr insulating/vbg properties/nns were/bed claimed/vbn to/to be/be the/at result/nn ./.
Several/ap companies/nns also/rb saw/vbd possibilities/nns in/in using/vbg the/at technique/nn for/in extruding/vbg or/cc molding/vbg vinyl/nn products/nns with/in a/at slight/jj cellular/jj core/nn that/wps would/md reduce/vb costs/nns yet/cc would/md not/* affect/vb physical/jj properties/nns of/in the/at end/nn product/nn to/in any/dti great/jj extent/nn ./.


	Readers/nns interested/vbn in/in additional/jj information/nn on/in foams/nns are/ber referred/vbn to/in the/at Foamed/vbn-tl Plastics/nns-tl Chart/nn-tl appearing/vbg in/in the/at Technical/jj-tl Data/nns-tl section/nn and/cc to/in the/at list/nn of/in references/nns which/wdt appears/vbz below/rb ./.



Urethane/nn-hl foams/nns-hl 
Since/in the/at mid/jj 1950s/nns ,/, when/wrb urethane/nn foam/nn first/rb made/vbd its/pp$ appearance/nn in/in the/at American/jj market/nn ,/, growth/nn has/hvz been/ben little/ql short/rb of/in fantastic/jj ./.
Present/jj estimates/nns are/ber that/cs production/nn topped/vbd the/at 100-million-lb./jj mark/nn in/in 1960/cd (/( 85/cd to/in 90/cd million/cd lb./nns for/in flexible/jj ,/, 10/cd or/cc 11/cd million/cd lb./nns for/in rigid/jj )/) ;/. ;/.
by/in 1965/cd ,/, production/nn may/md range/vb from/in 200/cd to/in 350/cd million/cd lb./nns for/in flexible/jj and/cc from/in 115/cd to/in 150/cd million/cd lb./nns for/in rigid/jj ./.
The/at markets/nns that/wps have/hv started/vbn to/to open/vb up/rp for/in the/at foam/nn in/in the/at past/jj year/nn or/cc so/rb seem/vb to/to justify/vb the/at expectations/nns ./.
Furniture/nn upholstery/nn ,/, as/cs just/rb one/cd example/nn ,/, can/md easily/rb take/vb millions/nns of/in pounds/nns ;/. ;/.
foamed/vbn refrigerator/nn insulation/nn is/bez under/in intensive/jj evaluation/nn by/in every/at major/jj manufacturer/nn ;/. ;/.
and/cc use/nn of/in the/at foam/nn for/in garment/nn interlining/nn is/bez only/rb now/rb getting/vbg off/in the/at ground/nn ,/, with/in volume/nn potential/nn in/in the/at offing/nn ./.
Basic/jj-hl chemistry/nn-hl 
Urethane/nn foams/nns are/ber ,/, basically/rb ,/, reaction/nn products/nns of/in hydroxyl-rich/jj materials/nns and/cc polyisocyanates/nns (/( usually/rb tolylene/nn diisocyanate/nn )/) ./.
Blowing/vbg can/md be/be either/cc one/cd of/in two/cd types/nns --/-- carbon/nn dioxide/nn gas/nn generated/vbn by/in the/at reaction/nn of/in water/nn on/in the/at polyisocyanate/nn or/cc mechanical/jj blowing/nn through/in the/at use/nn of/in a/at low-boiling/jj liquid/nn such/jj as/cs a/at fluorinated/vbn hydrocarbon/nn ./.


	The/at most/ql important/jj factor/nn in/in determining/vbg what/wdt properties/nns the/at end-product/nn will/md have/hv is/bez quite/ql naturally/rb the/at type/nn of/in hydroxyl-rich/jj compound/nn that/wps is/bez used/vbn in/in its/pp$ production/nn ./.
Originally/rb ,/, the/at main/jjs types/nns used/vbn were/bed various/ap compositions/nns of/in polyesters/nns ./.
These/dts are/ber still/rb in/in wide/jj use/nn today/nr ,/, particularly/rb in/in semi-rigid/jj formulations/nns ,/, for/in such/jj applications/nns as/cs cores/nns for/in sandwich-type/jj structural/jj panels/nns ,/, foamed-in-place/jj insulation/nn ,/, automotive/jj safety/nn padding/nn ,/, arm/nn rests/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.
More/ql recently/rb ,/, polyethers/nns --/-- again/rb in/in varied/vbn compositions/nns ,/, molecular/jj weights/nns ,/, and/cc branching/vbg --/-- have/hv come/vbn into/in use/nn at/in first/rb for/in the/at flexible/jj foams/nns ,/, just/ql lately/rb for/in the/at rigids/nns ./.
The/at polyether/nn glycols/nns are/ber claimed/vbn to/to give/vb flexible/jj urethanes/nns a/at spring-back/jj action/nn which/wdt is/bez much/ql desired/vbn in/in cushioning/nn ./.


	Although/cs the/at first/od polyether/nn foams/nns on/in the/at market/nn had/hvd to/to be/be produced/vbn by/in the/at two-step/jj prepolymer/nn method/nn ,/, today/nr ,/, thanks/nns to/in new/jj catalysts/nns ,/, they/ppss can/md be/be produced/vbn by/in a/at one-shot/jj technique/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez possible/jj that/cs the/at polyether/nn foams/nns may/md soon/rb be/be molded/vbn on/in a/at production/nn basis/nn in/in low-cost/nn molds/nns with/in more/ql intricate/jj contours/nns and/cc with/in superior/jj properties/nns to/in latex/nn foam/nn ./.


	The/at polyester/nn urethane/nn foam/nn is/bez generally/rb produced/vbn with/in adipic/jj acid/nn polyesters/nns ;/. ;/.
the/at polyether/nn group/nn generally/rb consists/vbz of/in foams/nns produced/vbn with/in polypropylene/nn glycol/nn or/cc polypropylene/nn glycol/nn modified/vbn with/in a/at triol/nn ./.
One/cd-hl shot/nn-hl vs./in-hl prepolymer/nn-hl 
In/in the/at prepolymer/nn system/nn ,/, the/at isocyanate/nn and/cc resin/nn are/ber mixed/vbn anhydrously/rb and/cc no/at foaming/nn occurs/vbz ./.
The/at foaming/nn can/md be/be accomplished/vbn at/in some/dti future/jj time/nn at/in a/at different/jj location/nn by/in the/at addition/nn of/in the/at correct/jj proportion/nn of/in catalyst/nn in/in solution/nn ./.
In/in one-shot/jj ,/, the/at isocyanate/nn ,/, polyester/nn or/cc polyether/nn resin/nn ,/, catalyst/nn ,/, and/cc other/ap additives/nns are/ber mixed/vbn directly/rb and/cc a/at foam/nn is/bez produced/vbn immediately/rb ./.
Basically/rb ,/, this/dt means/vbz that/cs simpler/jjr processing/vbg equipment/nn (/( the/at mixture/nn has/hvz good/jj flowing/vbg characteristics/nns )/) and/cc less/ap external/jj heat/nn (/( the/at foaming/vbg reaction/nn is/bez exothermic/jj and/cc develops/vbz internal/jj heat/nn )/) are/ber required/vbn in/in one-shot/jj foaming/nn ,/, although/cs ,/, at/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, the/at problems/nns of/in controlling/vbg the/at conditions/nns of/in one-shot/jj foaming/nn are/ber critical/jj ones/nns ./.
Properties/nns-hl 
Most/ap commercial/jj uses/nns of/in urethane/nn foams/nns require/vb densities/nns between/in 2/cd and/cc 30/cd lb./nns //in cu./jj ft./nn for/in rigid/jj foams/nns ,/, between/in 1/cd and/cc 3/cd lb./nns //in cu./jj ft./nn for/in flexible/jj foams/nns ./.
This/dt latter/ap figure/nn compares/vbz with/in latex/nn foam/nn rubber/nn at/in an/at average/nn of/in 5.5/cd lb./nns //in cu./jj ft./nn in/in commercial/jj grades/nns ./.
Compression/nn-hl strength/nn-hl :/:-hl 
Graph/nn in/in Fig./nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, p./nn 392/cd ,/, indicates/vbz how/wrb the/at ratio/nn of/in compressive/jj strength/nn to/in density/nn varies/vbz as/cs the/at latter/ap is/bez increased/vbn or/cc decreased/vbn ./.
The/at single/ap curve/nn line/nn represents/vbz a/at specific/jj formulation/nn in/in a/at test/nn example/nn ./.
By/in varying/vbg the/at formula/nn ,/, this/dt curve/nn may/md be/be moved/vbn forward/rb or/cc backward/rb along/in the/at coordinates/nns to/to produce/vb any/dti desired/vbn compression/nn strength/nn //in density/nn ratio/nn ./.
Thermal/jj-hl conductivity/nn-hl and/cc-hl temperature/nn-hl resistance/nn-hl :/:-hl 
In/in flexible/jj urethane/nn foams/nns ,/, we/ppss are/ber referring/vbg to/in the/at range/nn between/in the/at highest/jjt and/cc lowest/jjt temperatures/nns under/in which/wdt the/at materials'/nns$ primary/jj performance/nn remains/vbz functionally/rb useful/jj ./.
In/in temperature/nn resistance/nn ,/, this/dt quality/nn is/bez usually/rb related/vbn to/in specific/jj properties/nns ,/, e.g./rb ,/, flexural/jj ,/, tensile/jj strengths/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.
Thermal/jj conductivity/nn is/bez directly/rb traceable/jj to/in the/at material's/nn$ porous/jj ,/, air-cell/nn construction/nn which/wdt effectively/rb traps/vbz air/nn or/cc a/at gas/nn in/in the/at maze/nn of/in minute/jj bubbles/nns which/wdt form/vb its/pp$ composition/nn ./.
These/dts air/nn or/cc gas/nn bubbles/nns make/vb highly/ql functional/jj thermal/jj barriers/nns ./.
The/at K/nn factor/nn ,/, a/at term/nn used/vbn to/to denote/vb the/at rate/nn of/in heat/nn transmission/nn through/in a/at material/nn (/nil B.t.u./sq./nil ft./nil of/nil material/hr./*0F./in./nil of/nil thickness/nil )/nil ranges/vbz from/in 0.24/cd to/in 0.28/cd for/in flexible/jj urethane/nn foams/nns and/cc from/in 0.12/cd to/in 0.16/cd for/in rigid/jj urethane/nn foams/nns ,/, depending/in upon/in the/at formulation/nn ,/, density/nn ,/, cell/nn size/nn ,/, and/cc nature/nn of/in blowing/vbg agents/nns used/vbn ./.
Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, ,/, p./nn 394/cd ,/, shows/vbz a/at comparison/nn of/in K/nn factor/nn ratings/nns of/in a/at number/nn of/in commercial/jj insulating/vbg materials/nns in/in common/jj use/nn ,/, including/in two/cd different/jj types/nns of/in rigid/jj urethane/nn foam/nn ./.
Flexural/jj-hl strength/nn-hl :/:-hl 
This/dt term/nn refers/vbz to/in the/at ability/nn of/in a/at material/nn to/to resist/vb bending/vbg stress/nn and/cc is/bez determined/vbn by/in measuring/vbg the/at load/nn required/vbn to/to cause/vb failure/nn by/in bending/vbg ./.
The/at higher-density/nn urethane/nn semi-rigid/jj foams/nns usually/rb have/hv stronger/jjr flex/nn fatigue/nn resistance/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, the/at 12/cd lb./nns //in cu./jj ft./nn foam/nn has/hvz 8/cd times/nns the/at flexural/jj strength/nn of/in the/at 3/cd lb./nns //in cu./jj ft./nn density/nn ./.
Note/vb that/cs flexural/jj strength/nn is/bez not/* always/rb improved/vbn by/in simply/rb increasing/vbg the/at density/nn ,/, nor/cc is/bez the/at change/nn always/rb proportional/jj from/in one/cd formulation/nn to/in another/dt ./.
Where/wrb flexural/jj strength/nn is/bez an/at important/jj factor/nn ,/, be/be sure/jj that/cs your/pp$ urethane/nn foam/nn processor/nn is/bez aware/jj of/in it/ppo ./.
Tensile/jj-hl strength/nn-hl :/:-hl 
This/dt property/nn refers/vbz to/in the/at greatest/jjt longitudinal/jj stress/nn or/cc tension/nn a/at material/nn can/md endure/vb without/in tearing/vbg apart/rb ./.
(/( like/cs compression/nn strength/nn of/in urethane/nn foams/nns ,/, it/pps has/hvz a/at direct/jj relationship/nn to/in formulation/nn ./.
)/) Exceptional/jj tensile/jj strength/nn is/bez another/dt of/in urethane/nn foam's/nn$ strong/jj features/nns ./.
Figure/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, above/rb ,/, shows/vbz the/at aging/vbg properties/nns of/in urethane/nn foams/nns as/cs determined/vbn by/in the/at percent/nn of/in change/nn in/in tensile/jj strength/nn during/in exposure/nn to/in ultra-violet/jj light/nn ./.
Processing/vbg-hl urethanes/nns-hl 
There/ex are/ber many/ap ways/nns of/in producing/vbg a/at foamed/vbn urethane/nn product/nn ./.
The/at foam/nn can/md be/be made/vbn into/in slab/nn stock/nn and/cc cut/vbn to/in shape/nn ,/, it/pps can/md be/be molded/vbn ,/, it/pps can/md be/be poured-in-place/vbn ,/, it/pps can/md be/be applied/vbn by/in spray/nn guns/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.


	Slab/nn stock/nn is/bez still/rb one/cd of/in the/at most/ql important/jj forms/nns of/in urethane/nn end-product/nn in/in use/nn today/nr ./.
Basically/rb ,/, the/at foam/nn machines/nns that/wps produce/vb such/jj stock/nn consist/vb of/in two/cd or/cc more/ap pumping/vbg units/nns ,/, a/at variable/jj mixer/nn ,/, a/at nozzle/nn carriage/nn assembly/nn ,/, and/cc ,/, in/in many/ap cases/nns ,/, a/at conveyor/nn belt/nn to/to transport/vb and/cc contain/vb the/at liquid/nn during/in the/at reaction/nn process/nn and/cc until/cs it/pps solidifies/vbz into/in foam/nn ./.
The/at ingredients/nns are/ber fed/vbn from/in tanks/nns through/in a/at hose/nn and/cc into/in the/at mixer/nn at/in a/at predetermined/vbn rate/nn ./.
The/at mixing/vbg head/nn moves/vbz back/rb and/cc forth/rb slowly/rb across/in the/at width/nn of/in the/at receptacle/nn ./.
It/pps only/rb takes/vbz a/at few/ap minutes/nns for/in the/at foaming/vbg action/nn to/to be/be completed/vbn and/cc after/in a/at short/jj cure/nn ,/, the/at material/nn can/md be/be cut/vbn into/in lengths/nns as/cs desired/vbn ./.


	Much/ap has/hvz been/ben done/vbn in/in the/at way/nn of/in ingenious/jj slitters/nns to/to fabricate/vb the/at slab/nn stock/nn into/in finished/vbn products/nns ./.
Profile/nn cutting/vbg machines/nns are/ber available/jj which/wdt can/md split/vb foam/nn to/in any/dti desired/vbn thickness/nn and/cc produce/vb sine/nn ,/, triangle/nn ,/, trapezoid/nn ,/, and/cc other/ap profiles/nns in/in variable/jj heights/nns ,/, dimensions/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.
The/at convoluted/vbn sheets/nns can/md be/be combined/vbn to/to attain/vb certain/ap cushioning/vbg effects/nns mechanically/rb rather/rb than/cs chemically/rb ./.
Also/rb available/jj is/bez a/at slitter/nn which/wdt ``/`` peels/vbz ''/'' the/at inside/nn of/in a/at folded/vbn block/nn of/in foam/nn and/cc can/md be/be used/vbn to/to slit/vb continuous/jj sheets/nns up/rp to/in 300/cd yd./nns in/in length/nn ,/, down/rp to/in 1/16/cd in./nn thick/nn ./.


	The/at low/jj cost/nn and/cc ease/nn of/in fabrication/nn of/in the/at dies/nns for/in three-dimensional/jj foam/nn cutting/nn plus/cc the/at wide/jj variety/nn of/in shapes/nns ,/, dimensions/nns ,/, and/cc contours/nns that/wps can/md be/be tailor-made/vbn to/in customer/nn requirements/nns has/hvz made/vbn the/at technique/nn useful/jj for/in producing/vbg case/nn liners/nns ,/, materials/nns handling/nn containers/nns ,/, packaging/vbg and/cc cushioning/vbg devices/nns ,/, and/cc such/jj novelties/nns as/cs soap/nn dishes/nns ,/, toys/nns ,/, head/nn rests/nns ,/, arch/nn supports/nns ,/, and/cc gas/nn pedal/nn covers/nns ./.
Molding/vbg-hl 
Although/cs slab/nn stock/nn appeared/vbd first/rb ,/, it/pps soon/rb became/vbd apparent/jj that/cs for/in the/at production/nn of/in cushions/nns with/in irregular/jj shapes/nns ,/, crowned/vbn contours/nns ,/, or/cc rounded/vbn edges/nns ,/, the/at cutting/nn of/in slab/nn stock/nn is/bez a/at wasteful/jj and/cc uneconomical/jj process/nn ./.
Only/rb by/in resorting/vbg to/in molding/vbg techniques/nns can/md the/at cushion/nn manufacturer/nn hope/vb to/to compete/vb satisfactorily/rb in/in the/at established/vbn cushion/nn market/nn ./.


	The/at closed/vbn molding/nn of/in flexible/jj urethane/nn foams/nns has/hvz been/ben a/at problem/nn ever/rb since/in the/at introduction/nn of/in the/at material/nn (/( molding/vbg in/in open/jj molds/nns was/bedz more/ql feasible/jj )/) ./.
Satisfactory/jj methods/nns for/in polyester/nn foams/nns and/cc even/rb prepolymer/nn polyether/nn foams/nns were/bed never/rb fully/rb achieved/vbn ./.
Closed/vbn molding/nn generally/rb resulted/vbd in/in parts/nns weighing/vbg more/ap (/( because/rb of/in higher/jjr density/nn )/) than/cs parts/nns fabricated/vbn from/in free-blown/jj foams/nns ./.
This/dt counteracted/vbd the/at gain/nn from/in having/hvg no/at scrap/nn loss/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, there/ex were/bed difficulties/nns with/in the/at flow/nn and/cc spreading/nn of/in the/at foam/nn mixture/nn over/in the/at mold/nn surface/nn ,/, trouble/nn with/in lack/nn of/in gel/nn strength/nn in/in the/at rising/vbg foam/nn ,/, and/cc problems/nns of/in splits/nns ./.
The/at introduction/nn of/in one-shot/jj polyether/nn foam/nn systems/nns ,/, aided/vbn by/in the/at development/nn of/in new/jj catalysts/nns ,/, helped/vbd to/to alleviate/vb some/dti of/in the/at problems/nns of/in closed/vbn molding/nn ./.
While/cs there/ex are/ber still/rb many/ap bugs/nns to/to be/be ironed/vbn out/rp ,/, the/at technique/nn is/bez fast/rb developing/vbg ./.
Other/ap-hl techniques/nns-hl 
Simple/jj systems/nns are/ber available/jj that/wps make/vb it/ppo possible/jj for/in urethane/nn foam/nn components/nns to/to be/be poured/vbn ,/, pumped/vbn ,/, etc./rb ,/, into/in a/at void/nn where/wrb they/ppss foam/vb up/rp to/to fill/vb the/at void/nn ./.
In/in a/at typical/jj application/nn --/-- the/at making/nn of/in rigid/jj urethane/nn foam/nn sandwich/nn panels/nns --/-- an/at amount/nn of/in foam/nn mixture/nn calculated/vbn to/to expand/vb 10/cd to/in 20%/nn more/rbr than/cs the/at volume/nn of/in the/at panel/nn is/bez poured/vbn into/in the/at panel/nn void/nn and/cc the/at top/nn of/in the/at panel/nn is/bez locked/vbn in/in place/nn by/in a/at jig/nn ./.

Temperature/nn of/in the/at wash/nn and/cc rinse/nn waters/nns is/bez maintained/vbn at/in 85/cd -/in 90-degrees-F/nns (/nil 29/nil -/nil 32-degrees-C/nil )/nil ./.
The/at top/jjs rolls/nns are/ber loaded/vbn with/in 40/cd lbs./nns ./.
Sixty/cd lbs./nns loading/nn is/bez possible/jj but/cc 40/cd lbs./nns is/bez adequate/jj ./.


	The/at suds/nns box/nn drain/nn is/bez arranged/vbn at/in the/at start/nn to/to deliver/vb into/in the/at raised/vbn main/jjs drain/nn pipe/nn (/( thus/rb returning/vbg suds/nns to/in soap/nn box/nn )/) and/cc the/at machine/nn is/bez started/vbn ./.
The/at 160-ml./jj bath/nn containing/vbg the/at calculated/vbn amount/nn of/in detergent/nn is/bez applied/vbn slowly/rb and/cc directly/rb to/in the/at running/vbg specimen/nn ./.
Washing/vbg is/bez continued/vbn for/in 30/cd minutes/nns or/cc for/in a/at period/nn of/in time/nn sufficient/jj to/to allow/vb 100/cd nips/nns or/cc passes/nns through/in the/at squeeze/nn rolls/nns ./.
At/in the/at conclusion/nn of/in the/at washing/nn ,/, 8/cd liters/nns of/in water/nn at/in 90-degrees-F/nns (/nil 32*0C./nil )/nil are/ber automatically/rb metered/vbn from/in the/at rinse/nn reservoir/nn to/in the/at washing/vbg tubs/nns ,/, 4/cd liters/nns to/in each/dt tub/nn ./.
This/dt operation/nn requires/vbz from/in 10/cd to/in 12/cd minutes/nns ./.
During/in the/at rinsing/vbg operation/nn the/at volume/nn in/in the/at tubs/nns gradually/rb increases/vbz until/cs overflow/nn from/in the/at main/jjs drain/nn begins/vbz ./.
At/in this/dt point/nn the/at drains/nns are/ber readjusted/vbn so/cs that/cs the/at suds/nns box/nn drain/nn will/md discharge/vb directly/rb into/in the/at waste/nn line/nn and/cc the/at main/jjs tub/nn drain/nn is/bez set/vbn at/in the/at 2-1/2/cd mark/nn on/in the/at drain/nn gauge/nn ./.
When/wrb all/abn of/in the/at rinse/nn water/nn has/hvz passed/vbn from/in the/at reservoir/nn to/in the/at tubs/nns the/at main/jjs drains/nns are/ber lowered/vbn to/to permit/vb complete/jj draining/nn of/in the/at tubs/nns ./.
The/at run/nn is/bez complete/jj when/wrb all/abn the/at water/nn has/hvz drained/vbn off/rp into/in the/at waste/nn line/nn ./.


	By/in this/dt procedure/nn rinsing/vbg progresses/vbz in/in two/cd stages/nns ,/, first/rb by/in dilution/nn until/in the/at time/nn when/wrb the/at drains/nns are/ber separated/vbn and/cc thereafter/rb by/in displacement/nn of/in the/at soil-bearing/jj liquor/nn by/in clean/jj rinse/nn water/nn ,/, since/cs soiled/vbn liquor/nn squeezed/vbn from/in the/at specimens/nns at/in the/at nip/nn passes/vbz directly/rb to/in waste/nn from/in the/at suds/nns box/nn drains/nns ./.
This/dt method/nn of/in rinsing/vbg appears/vbz to/to produce/vb maximum/jj cleansing/nn with/in minimum/jj soil/nn redeposition/nn ./.



Suggested/vbn-hl evaluation/nn-hl and/cc-hl classification/nn-hl 
Evaluation/nn may/md be/be made/vbn on/in either/cc a/at soil-removal/nn or/cc a/at grease-removal/nn basis/nn as/cs desired/vbn ./.
A/at reflectance-measuring/jj instrument/nn may/md be/be desirable/jj to/to measure/vb cleaning/vbg ,/, whereas/cs Soxhlet/np extraction/nn is/bez necessary/jj to/to measure/vb grease/nn removal/nn ./.



Purpose/nn-hl and/cc-hl scope/nn-hl 
This/dt test/nn method/nn is/bez intended/vbn for/in determining/vbg the/at dimensional/jj changes/nns of/in woven/vbn or/cc knitted/vbn fabrics/nns ,/, made/vbn of/in fibers/nns other/ap than/cs wool/nn ,/, to/to be/be expected/vbn when/wrb the/at cloth/nn is/bez subjected/vbn to/in laundering/vbg procedures/nns commonly/rb used/vbn in/in the/at commercial/jj laundry/nn and/cc the/at home/nn ./.
Four/cd washing/vbg test/nn procedures/nns are/ber established/vbn ,/, varying/vbg in/in severity/nn from/in very/ql severe/jj to/in very/ql mild/jj ,/, and/cc are/ber intended/vbn to/to cover/vb the/at range/nn of/in practical/jj washing/vbg from/in commercial/jj procedure/nn to/in hand/nn washing/nn ./.
Five/cd drying/vbg test/nn procedures/nns are/ber established/vbn to/to cover/vb the/at range/nn of/in drying/vbg techniques/nns used/vbn in/in the/at home/nn and/cc commercial/jj laundry/nn ./.
Three/cd methods/nns for/in determining/vbg the/at dimensional/jj restorability/nn characteristics/nns are/ber established/vbn for/in those/dts textiles/nns which/wdt require/vb restoration/nn by/in ironing/vbg or/cc wearing/vbg after/in laundering/vbg ./.
These/dts tests/nns are/ber not/* accelerated/vbn and/cc must/md be/be repeated/vbn to/to evaluate/vb dimensional/jj changes/nns after/in repeated/vbn launderings/nns ./.


	Table/nn-tl 1/cd-tl ,/, summarizes/vbz all/abn of/in the/at various/ap washing/vbg ,/, drying/vbg ,/, and/cc restoration/nn procedures/nns available/jj ./.
The/at person/nn using/vbg these/dts tests/nns must/md determine/vb which/wdt combination/nn of/in procedures/nns is/bez practical/jj for/in any/dti specific/jj item/nn in/in order/nn to/to evaluate/vb the/at dimensional/jj changes/nns of/in textile/nn fabrics/nns or/cc garments/nns after/in laundering/vbg procedures/nns commonly/rb used/vbn in/in the/at home/nn or/cc commercial/jj laundry/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to identify/vb the/at test/nn procedure/nn completely/rb with/in a/at code/nn consisting/vbg of/in a/at Roman/jj-tl Numeral/nn-tl ,/, a/at letter/nn ,/, and/cc an/at Arabic/jj number/nn ./.
For/in example/nn Test/nn-tl 3/cd-tl ,/, E/nn 1/cd refers/vbz to/in a/at specimen/nn which/wdt has/hvz been/ben washed/vbn by/in procedure/nn ``/`` 3/cd (/( ''/'' (/( at/in 160-degrees-F/nns )/) for/in a/at total/nn of/in 60/cd minutes/nns in/in the/at machine/nn ,/, has/hvz been/ben dried/vbn in/in a/at tumble/nn dryer/nn by/in procedure/nn ``/`` E/nn ''/'' and/cc has/hvz been/ben subjected/vbn to/in restorative/jj forces/nns on/in the/at Tension/nn-tl Presser/nn-tl by/in procedure/nn ``/`` 1/cd-tl ''/'' ./.



Principle/nn-hl 
A/at specimen/nn or/cc garment/nn is/bez washed/vbn in/in a/at cylindrical/jj reversing/vbg wash/nn wheel/nn ,/, dried/vbn and/cc subjected/vbn to/in restorative/jj forces/nns where/wrb necessary/jj ./.
Temperature/nn and/cc time/nn of/in agitation/nn in/in the/at wash/nn wheel/nn are/ber varied/vbn to/to obtain/vb different/jj degrees/nns of/in severity/nn ./.
Drying/vbg procedures/nns and/cc application/nn of/in restorative/jj force/nn procedures/nns are/ber varied/vbn to/to conform/vb with/in end-use/jj handling/nn during/in home/nn or/cc commercial/jj laundering/nn ./.
Distances/nns marked/vbn on/in the/at specimen/nn in/in warp/nn and/cc filling/vbg directions/nns (/( or/cc wales/nns and/cc courses/nns for/in knitted/vbn fabrics/nns )/) are/ber measured/vbn before/in and/cc after/in laundering/vbg ./.



Apparatus/nn-hl and/cc-hl materials/nns-hl 
wash/nn-hl wheel/nn-hl --/---hl cylindrical/jj-hl wash/nn-hl wheel/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl reversing/vbg-hl type/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at wheel/nn (/( cage/nn )/) is/bez 20/cd to/in 24/cd inches/nns inside/jj diameter/nn and/cc 20/cd to/in 24/cd inches/nns inside/jj length/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber three/cd fins/nns each/dt approximately/rb three/cd inches/nns wide/jj extending/vbg the/at full/jj length/nn of/in the/at inside/nn of/in the/at wheel/nn ./.
One/cd fin/nn is/bez located/vbn every/at 120-degrees/nns around/in the/at inside/jj diameter/nn of/in the/at wheel/nn ./.
The/at wash/nn wheel/nn rotates/vbz at/in a/at speed/nn of/in 30/cd revolutions/nns per/in minute/nn ,/, making/vbg five/cd to/in ten/cd revolutions/nns before/in reversing/vbg ./.
The/at water/nn inlets/nns are/ber large/jj enough/qlp to/to permit/vb filling/vbg the/at wheel/nn to/in an/at eight-inch/jj level/nn in/in less/ap than/in two/cd minutes/nns ,/, and/cc the/at outlet/nn is/bez large/jj enough/qlp to/to permit/vb discharge/nn of/in this/dt same/ap amount/nn of/in water/nn in/in less/ap than/in two/cd minutes/nns ./.
The/at machine/nn is/bez equipped/vbn with/in a/at pipe/nn for/in injecting/vbg live/jj steam/nn that/wps is/bez capable/jj of/in raising/vbg the/at temperature/nn of/in water/nn at/in an/at eight-inch/nn level/nn from/in 110-degrees/nns to/in 140-degrees-F/nns (/nil 38*0/nil to/nil 60*0C./nil )/nil in/in less/ap than/in two/cd minutes/nns ./.
The/at machine/nn shall/md contain/vb an/at opening/nn for/in the/at insertion/nn of/in a/at thermometer/nn or/cc other/ap equivalent/jj equipment/nn for/in determining/vbg the/at temperature/nn of/in the/at water/nn during/in the/at washing/nn and/cc rinsing/vbg procedures/nns ./.
It/pps is/bez equipped/vbn with/in an/at outside/jj water/nn gauge/nn that/wps will/md indicate/vb the/at level/nn of/in the/at water/nn in/in the/at wheel/nn ./.


	A/at domestic/jj automatic/jj washer/nn that/wps will/md give/vb equivalent/jj results/nns may/md be/be used/vbn ./.
The/at wash/nn wheel/nn is/bez the/at equipment/nn preferred/vbn for/in the/at test/nn ./.
Pressing/vbg-hl equipment/nn-hl --/---hl flat-bed/nn-hl press/nn-hl measuring/vbg-hl 24/cd-hl inches/nns-hl by/in-hl 50/cd-hl inches/nns-hl or/cc-hl larger/jjr-hl ./.-hl

Any/dti flat-bed/nn press/nn capable/jj of/in pressing/vbg a/at specimen/nn 22/cd inches/nns square/jj may/md be/be used/vbn as/cs an/at alternative/nn ./.
The/at flat-bed/nn press/nn is/bez maintained/vbn at/in a/at temperature/nn not/* less/ap than/in 275-degrees-F/nns (/nil 135*0C./nil )/nil ./.
Dryer/nn-hl --/---hl dryer/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl rotary/jj-hl tumble/nn-hl type/nn-hl ,/,-hl having/hvg-hl a/at-hl cylindrical/jj-hl basket/nn-hl approximately/rb-hl 30/cd-hl inches/nns-hl in/in-hl diameter/nn-hl and/cc-hl 24/cd-hl inches/nns-hl in/in-hl length/nn-hl and/cc-hl rotating/vbg-hl at/in-hl approximately/rb-hl 35/cd-hl r.p.m./nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at dryer/nn is/bez provided/vbn with/in a/at means/nn of/in maintaining/vbg a/at drying/vbg temperature/nn of/in 120-degrees/nns -/in 160-degrees-F/nns (/nil 49*0/nil -/nil 71*&0C./nil )/nil ,/, measured/vbn in/in the/at exhaust/nn vent/nn as/ql close/rb as/cs possible/jj to/in the/at drying/vbg chamber/nn ./.
Screen/nn-hl drying/vbg-hl racks/nns-hl --/---hl 16-mesh/jj screening/nn-hl (/(-hl Saran/np-hl or/cc-hl Velon/np-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Drying/vbg-hl room/nn-hl --/---hl facilities/nns-hl for/in-hl drip-/nn-hl or/cc-hl line-drying/nn-hl ./.-hl

Extractor/nn-hl --/---hl centrifugal/jj-hl extractor/nn-hl of/in-hl the/at-hl laundry-type/nn-hl with/in-hl a/at-hl perforated/vbn-hl basket/nn-hl ,/,-hl approximately/rb-hl 11/cd-hl inches/nns-hl deep/jj-hl by/in-hl 17/cd-hl inches/nns-hl in/in-hl diameter/nn-hl ,/,-hl with/in-hl an/at-hl operating/vbg-hl speed/nn-hl of/in-hl approximately/rb-hl 1,500/cd-hl r.p.m./nns-hl ./.-hl

Pen/nn-hl and/cc-hl ink/nn-hl ,/,-hl indelible/jj-hl --/---hl or/cc-hl other/ap-hl suitable/jj-hl marking/vbg-hl device/nn-hl ./.-hl

measuring/nil scale/nil --/nil 


Soap/nn-hl ,/,-hl neutral/jj-hl chip/nn-hl --/---hl fed./jj-hl Spec./nn-tl-hl 566/cd-hl or/cc-hl Aj/nn-hl ./.-hl

Softener/nn-hl --/---hl e.g./rb-hl sodium/nn-hl metaphosphate/nn-hl or/cc-hl sodium/nn-hl hexametaphosphate/nn-hl (/(-hl if/cs-hl needed/vbn-hl in/in-hl hard/jj-hl water/nn-hl areas/nns-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Detergent/nn-hl ,/,-hl synthetic/jj-hl --/---hl alkylarysulfonate/nn-hl type/nn-hl ./.-hl

Flatiron/nn-hl ,/,-hl electric/jj-hl --/---hl approximately/rb-hl 3/cd-hl lb./nn-hl 
tension/nn-hl presser/nn-hl --/---hl consisting/vbg-hl of/in-hl a/at-hl padded/vbn-hl ironing/vbg-hl board/nn-hl from/in-hl which/wdt-hl extend/vb-hl clamping/vbg-hl members/nns-hl on/in-hl all/abn-hl four/cd-hl sides/nns-hl ./.-hl

Two/cd of/in the/at clamps/nns are/ber fixed/vbn to/in the/at edges/nns of/in the/at board/nn whereas/cs two/cd clamps/nns travel/vb on/in guide/nn rails/nns opposite/in the/at fixed/vbn clamps/nns ./.
The/at movable/jj clamps/nns travel/vb on/in carriages/nns which/wdt ride/vb the/at rails/nns and/cc are/ber drawn/vbn by/in dead-weight/nn loading/vbg ./.
Sets/nns of/in weights/nns are/ber provided/vbn so/cs that/cs the/at load/nn can/md be/be selected/vbn in/in the/at range/nn of/in 1/2/cd to/in 4/cd pounds/nns ./.
A/at perforated/vbn aluminum/nn plate/nn ,/, used/vbn to/to provide/vb the/at drying/vbg surface/nn ,/, is/bez heated/vbn by/in means/nn of/in a/at flatiron/nn ./.
A/at special/jj template/nn is/bez furnished/vbn with/in the/at apparatus/nn to/to enable/vb marking/vbg a/at specimen/nn for/in a/at central/jj measuring/vbg area/nn and/cc the/at fabric/nn extensions/nns to/in the/at clamps/nns (/( see/vb Fig./nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) ./.
Knit/nn-hl shrinkage/nn-hl gauge/nn-hl --/---hl consisting/vbg-hl of/in-hl a/at-hl set/nn-hl of/in-hl 20/cd-hl mounting/vbg-hl pins/nns-hl set/vbn-hl in/in-hl guides/nns-hl in/in-hl radial/jj-hl slots/nns-hl (/(-hl Fig./nn-tl-hl 1/cd-tl-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt pin/nn is/bez individually/rb sprung/vbn to/in a/at tensioning/vbg member/nn which/wdt is/bez driven/vbn outwardly/rb in/in the/at slot/nn ./.
The/at springs/nns have/hv an/at extension/nn of/in 1/cd inch/nn at/in Af/nn tension/nn ./.
The/at tensioning/vbg members/nns have/hv a/at common/jj drive/nn so/cs that/cs the/at application/nn of/in restorative/jj force/nn takes/vbz place/nn simultaneously/rb in/in all/abn directions/nns in/in the/at plane/nn of/in the/at test/nn specimen/nn ./.
The/at minimum/jj diameter/nn of/in the/at pin/nn frame/nn in/in the/at collapsed/vbn state/nn is/bez 11/cd inches/nns and/cc the/at maximum/jj diameter/nn in/in the/at freely/rb extended/vbn state/nn (/( unloaded/vbn )/) is/bez 14/cd inches/nns ./.
The/at surface/nn of/in the/at apparatus/nn in/in contact/nn with/in the/at test/nn-hl specimen/nn-hl is/bez uncluttered/jj and/cc polished/vbn so/cs as/cs to/to be/be as/ql friction-free/jj as/ql possible/jj ./.



Test/nn specimens/nns 
The/at preparation/nn of/in test/nn specimens/nns will/md vary/vb depending/in upon/in the/at type/nn of/in dimensional/jj restorability/nn procedure/nn (/( if/cs any/dti )/) to/to be/be used/vbn ./.


	Three/cd specimens/nns for/in each/dt sample/nn to/to be/be tested/vbn are/ber required/vbn in/in order/nn to/to arrive/vb at/in a/at satisfactory/jj average/nn of/in performance/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez especially/ql true/jj for/in knitted/vbn fabrics/nns ./.


	Specimens/nns are/ber allowed/vbn to/to reach/vb moisture/nn equilibrium/nn with/in a/at standard/jj atmosphere/nn of/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn and/cc then/rb laid/vbn out/rp without/in tension/nn on/in a/at flat/jj ,/, polished/vbn surface/nn ,/, care/nn being/beg taken/vbn that/cs the/at fabric/nn is/bez free/jj from/in wrinkles/nns or/cc creases/nns ./.
Fabrics/nns that/wps are/ber badly/rb distorted/vbn in/in their/pp$ unlaundered/jj state/nn due/rb to/in faulty/jj finishing/nn may/md give/vb deceptive/jj dimensional/jj change/nn results/nns when/wrb laundered/vbn by/in any/dti procedure/nn ./.
This/dt also/rb holds/vbz true/jj if/cs restorative/jj forces/nns are/ber applied/vbn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez recommended/vbn that/cs in/in such/jj cases/nns the/at sample/nn be/be replaced/vbn ,/, or/cc if/cs used/vbn ,/, the/at results/nns of/in dimensional/jj change/nn or/cc dimensional/jj restorability/nn tests/nns be/be considered/vbn as/cs indicative/jj only/rb ./.


	Generally/rb ,/, it/pps is/bez necessary/jj to/to mark/vb distances/nns on/in a/at specimen/nn (/( or/cc garment/nn )/) in/in both/abx lengthwise/jj and/cc widthwise/jj directions/nns and/cc to/to measure/vb before/in and/cc after/in laundering/vbg ./.
The/at distances/nns may/md be/be marked/vbn with/in indelible/jj ink/nn and/cc a/at fine-point/nn pen/nn ,/, by/in sewing/vbg fine/jj threads/nns into/in the/at fabric/nn ,/, or/cc by/in a/at specially/rb designed/vbn stamping/vbg machine/nn ./.
The/at marked/vbn distances/nns are/ber parallel/rb to/in the/at respective/jj yarns/nns ./.
Usually/rb ,/, the/at greater/jjr the/at original/jj distances/nns marked/vbn ,/, the/at greater/jjr will/md be/be the/at accuracy/nn of/in the/at test/nn ./.
Distances/nns of/in less/ap than/in 10/cd inches/nns are/ber not/* recommended/vbn ./.
Woven/vbn-hl fabrics/nns-hl to/to-hl be/be-hl dried/vbn-hl by/in-hl procedure/nn-hl b/nn-hl (/(-hl flat-bed/nn-hl pressed/vbn-hl )/)-hl or/cc-hl restored/vbn-hl by/in-hl procedure/nn-hl 3/cd-hl (/(-hl hand/nn-hl ironing/vbg-hl )/)-hl :/:-hl 
The/at specimen/nn of/in fabric/nn is/bez a/at rectangle/nn at/in least/ap 22/cd by/in 22/cd inches/nns ,/, except/in for/in cloth/nn narrower/jjr than/cs 22/cd inches/nns ,/, in/in which/wdt case/nn the/at specimen/nn is/bez the/at entire/jj width/nn of/in the/at fabric/nn ./.
Three/cd distances/nns ,/, each/dt at/in least/ap 18/cd inches/nns ,/, are/ber measured/vbn and/cc marked/vbn off/rp parallel/rb to/in each/dt of/in the/at warp/nn and/cc filling/vbg directions/nns ./.
The/at distances/nns are/ber at/in least/ap two/cd inches/nns from/in any/dti edge/nn of/in the/at specimen/nn ./.
Woven/vbn-hl or/cc-hl warp/nn-hl knitted/vbn-hl fabrics/nns-hl to/to-hl be/be-hl subjected/vbn-hl to/in-hl restorative/jj-hl procedure/nn-hl 1/cd-hl (/(-hl tension/nn-hl presser/nn-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt specimen/nn is/bez at/in least/ap 25/cd inches/nns by/in 25/cd inches/nns ./.
Place/vb the/at template/nn (/( Fig./nn-tl 2/cd-tl )/) on/in the/at fabric/nn so/cs that/cs the/at sides/nns of/in the/at 10/cd inch/nn square/nn cut/vbn out/rp of/in the/at template/nn are/ber parallel/rb to/in the/at warp/nn and/cc filling/nn for/in woven/vbn fabrics/nns ,/, or/cc the/at wales/nns and/cc courses/nns for/in knitted/vbn fabrics/nns ,/, and/cc so/cs that/cs the/at same/ap amount/nn of/in fabric/nn extends/vbz beyond/in the/at edges/nns of/in the/at template/nn on/in all/abn sides/nns ./.
Mark/vb the/at specimen/nn at/in the/at outer/jj edges/nns of/in the/at template/nn with/in pen/nn and/cc indelible/jj ink/nn ;/. ;/.
also/rb place/vb three/cd dots/nns on/in the/at specimen/nn at/in each/dt side/nn of/in the/at 10/cd inch/nn square/nn ,/, one/cd dot/nn at/in midpoint/nn ,/, and/cc one/cd at/in approximately/rb 1/2/cd inch/nn from/in each/dt corner/nn ./.
Measure/vb and/cc record/vb ./.
Circular/jj-hl knitted/vbn-hl fabrics/nns-hl to/to-hl be/be-hl subjected/vbn-hl to/in-hl restorative/jj-hl procedure/nn-hl 2/cd-hl ,/,-hl (/(-hl knit/nn-hl shrinkage/nn-hl gauge/nn-hl )/)-hl ./.-hl

Each/dt specimen/nn is/bez approximately/rb 16/cd inches/nns square/jj ./.
The/at markings/nns consist/vb of/in a/at centrally/rb located/vbn 10/cd inch/nn diameter/nn measuring/vbg circle/nn and/cc a/at 14/cd inch/nn diameter/nn circle/nn of/in 20/cd dots/nns equidistantly/rb spaced/vbn (/( See/vb Figure/nn-tl 1/cd-tl )/) ./.
Garments/nns-hl ./.-hl

Critical/jj measurements/nns in/in length/nn and/cc width/nn directions/nns should/md be/be taken/vbn before/in and/cc after/in washing/vbg-hl ,/,-hl drying/vbg ,/, and/cc restorative/jj procedures/nns ./.



Procedure/nn-hl 
washing/vbg --/-- 
The/at washing/vbg procedures/nns are/ber summarized/vbn in/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.


	Place/vb the/at specimen/nn in/in the/at wash/nn wheel/nn with/in sufficient/jj other/ap similar/jj fabric/nn to/to make/vb a/at dry/jj load/nn of/in Af/nn pounds/nns ./.
Start/vb the/at wash/nn wheel/nn and/cc note/vb the/at time/nn ./.
Immediately/rb add/vb water/nn at/in 100/cd -/in 105-degrees-F/nns (/nil 38/nil -/nil 43*0C./nil )/nil to/in the/at wheel/nn to/in a/at level/nn of/in Af/nn inches/nns ;/. ;/.
this/dt level/nn will/md be/be increased/vbn by/in condensed/vbn steam/nn ./.
When/wrb this/dt water/nn level/nn has/hvz been/ben reached/vbn ,/, inject/vb steam/nn into/in the/at wheel/nn until/cs the/at temperature/nn reaches/vbz that/dt shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl B/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Add/vb sufficient/jj soap/nn (/( and/cc softener/nn if/cs required/vbn to/to counteract/vb hard/jj water/nn )/) to/to furnish/vb a/at good/jj running/vbg suds/nns ,/, or/cc if/cs desired/vbn use/vb a/at synthetic/jj detergent/nn ./.
Test/nn-tl-hl 1/cd-tl-hl ,/, 
--/-- Stop/vb the/at wash/nn wheel/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at time/nn shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl A/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, and/cc drain/vb ./.
Refill/vb the/at machine/nn to/in a/at level/nn of/in Af/nn inches/nns with/in water/nn at/in 100/cd -/in 109-degrees-F/nns (/nil (/( 38/nil -/nil 43*0/nil C./nil )/nil and/cc start/vb the/at machine/nn ./.
Inject/vb steam/nn ,/, if/cs necessary/jj ,/, to/to reach/vb the/at temperature/nn shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl D/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Again/rb stop/vb the/at machine/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at time/nn shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl C/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
This/dt procedure/nn is/bez repeated/vbn for/in the/at second/od rinse/nn ,/, using/vbg the/at temperatures/nns and/cc time/nn shown/vbn in/in Columns/nns-tl F/np-tl and/cc E/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ./.
Tests/nns-tl-hl 2/cd-hl ,/,-hl 3/cd-hl ,/,-hl ,/, ,/, and/cc-hl 4/cd-hl ./.-hl

--/-- Run/vb the/at machine/nn continuously/rb until/in completion/nn of/in the/at test/nn ./.
Drain/vb off/rp the/at soap/nn solution/nn of/in the/at suds/nns cycle/nn at/in such/abl a/at time/nn that/cs the/at wheel/nn has/hvz become/vbn substantially/rb empty/jj of/in soap/nn and/cc water/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at time/nn shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl A/np-tl of/in Table/nn-tl 2/cd-tl ,/, ,/, measured/vbn from/in the/at time/nn the/at wash/nn wheel/nn was/bedz started/vbn ./.
Refill/vb the/at machine/nn to/in a/at level/nn of/in Af/nn inches/nns with/in water/nn at/in 100/cd -/in 109-degrees-F/nns (/nil 38/nil -/nil 43*0C./nil )/nil ./.
When/wrb this/dt water/nn level/nn has/hvz been/ben reached/vbn ,/, inject/vb steam/nn until/cs the/at temperature/nn is/bez that/dt shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl Aj/np-tl ./.
Drain/vb off/rp the/at water/nn at/in such/abl a/at time/nn that/cs the/at wheel/nn has/hvz become/vbn substantially/rb empty/jj of/in water/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at sum/nn of/in the/at times/nns shown/vbn in/in Columns/nns-tl A/np-tl and/cc C/np-tl ,/, measured/vbn from/in the/at time/nn the/at wash/nn wheel/nn was/bedz started/vbn ./.
Immediately/rb refill/vb to/in a/at level/nn of/in Af/nn inches/nns with/in water/nn at/in 100/cd -/in 109-degrees-F/nns (/nil 38/nil -/nil 43*0C/nil )/nil ./.
When/wrb this/dt water/nn level/nn has/hvz been/ben reached/vbn inject/vb steam/nn until/cs the/at temperature/nn is/bez that/dt shown/vbn in/in Column/nn-tl Aj/np-tl ./.
Drain/vb off/rp the/at water/nn at/in such/abl a/at time/nn that/cs the/at wheel/nn has/hvz become/vbn substantially/rb empty/jj of/in water/nn at/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at sum/nn of/in the/at times/nns shown/vbn in/in Columns/nns-tl A/np-tl ,/, C/np-tl ,/, and/cc E/nn ,/, measured/vbn from/in the/at time/nn the/at wash/nn wheel/nn was/bedz started/vbn ./.



	High-gain/nn ,/, photoelectronic/jj image/nn intensification/nn is/bez applied/vbn under/in conditions/nns of/in low/jj incident/jj light/nn levels/nns whenever/wrb the/at integration/nn time/nn required/vbn by/in a/at sensor/nn or/cc recording/vbg instrument/nn exceeds/vbz the/at limits/nns of/in practicability/nn ./.
Examples/nns of/in such/jj situations/nns are/ber (/( aerial/jj )/) night/nn reconnaissance/nn ,/, the/at recording/nn of/in radioactive/jj tracers/nns in/in live/jj body/nn tissues/nns ,/, special/jj radiography/nn in/in medical/jj or/cc industrial/jj applications/nns ,/, track/nn recording/nn of/in high/jj energy/nn particles/nns ,/, etc./rb ./.


	High-gain/nn photoelectronic/jj image/nn intensification/nn may/md be/be achieved/vbn by/in several/ap methods/nns ;/. ;/.
some/dti of/in these/dts are/ber listed/vbn below/rb :/: (/(-hl A/np-hl )/)-hl 
Cascading/vbg single/ap stages/nns by/in coupling/vbg lens/nn systems/nns ,/, (/(-hl B/np-hl )/)-hl 
Channel-type/jj ,/, secondary/jj emission/nn image/nn intensifier/nn ,/, (/(-hl C/np-hl )/)-hl 
Image/nn intensifier/nn based/vbn upon/in the/at ``/`` multipactor/nn ''/'' principle/nn ,/, (/(-hl D/np-hl )/)-hl 
Transmission/nn secondary/jj electron/nn multiplication/nn image/nn intensifiers/nns (/( TSEM/np tubes/nns )/) ,/, (/(-hl E/np-hl )/)-hl 
Cascading/vbg of/in single/ap stages/nns ,/, enclosed/vbn in/in one/cd common/jj envelope/nn ./.


	Cascading/vbg single/ap stages/nns by/in coupling/vbg lens/nn systems/nns is/bez rather/ql inefficient/jj as/cs the/at lens/nn systems/nns limit/vb the/at obtainable/jj gain/nn quite/ql severely/rb ./.
Channel-type/jj image/nn intensifiers/nns are/ber capable/jj of/in achieving/vbg high-gain/nn values/nns ;/. ;/.
they/ppss suffer/vb ,/, however/rb ,/, from/in an/at inherently/rb low/jj resolution/nn ./.
Image/nn intensifiers/nns based/vbn upon/in the/at multipactor/nn principle/nn appear/vb to/to hold/vb promise/nn as/ql far/rb as/cs obtainable/jj resolution/nn is/bez concerned/vbn ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at unavoidable/jj low-duty/nn cycle/nn restricts/vbz the/at effective/jj gain/nn ./.
TSEM/np tubes/nns have/hv been/ben constructed/vbn showing/vbg high/jj gain/nn and/cc resolution/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, electrostatic/jj focus/nn ,/, important/jj for/in many/ap applications/nns ,/, has/hvz not/* been/ben realized/vbn for/in these/dts devices/nns ./.
Resolution/nn limitations/nns with/in electrostatic/jj focus/nn might/md be/be anticipated/vbn due/rb to/in chromatic/jj aberrations/nns ./.
Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at thin/jj film/nn dynodes/nns appear/vb to/to have/hv a/at natural/jj diameter/nn limitation/nn wherever/wrb a/at mesh/nn support/nn cannot/md* be/be tolerated/vbn ./.


	Cascaded/vbn single/ap stages/nns enclosed/vbn by/in a/at common/jj envelope/nn have/hv been/ben constructed/vbn with/in high/jj gain/nn and/cc high/jj resolution/nn ./.
These/dts tubes/nns may/md differ/vb both/abx in/in the/at choice/nn of/in the/at electron/nn optical/jj system/nn and/cc in/in the/at design/nn of/in the/at coupling/vbg members/nns ./.
The/at electron/nn optical/jj system/nn may/md be/be either/cc a/at magnetic/jj or/cc electrostatic/jj one/cd ./.
The/at magnification/nn may/md be/be smaller/jjr ,/, equal/jj ,/, or/cc larger/jjr than/cs unity/nn ./.


	An/at electrostatic/jj system/nn suffers/vbz generally/rb from/in image/nn plane/nn curvature/nn leading/vbg to/in defocusing/vbg in/in the/at peripheral/jj image/nn region/nn if/cs a/at flat/jj viewing/vbg screen/nn (/( or/cc interstage/jj coupler/nn )/) is/bez utilized/vbn ,/, while/cs a/at magnetic/jj system/nn requires/vbz accurate/jj adjustment/nn of/in the/at solenoid/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez heavy/jj and/cc bulky/jj ./.
As/cs it/pps will/md be/be discussed/vbn later/rbr ,/, peripheral/jj defocusing/vbg can/md be/be improved/vbn on/rp by/in utilizing/vbg curved/vbn fiber/nn couplers/nns ./.
It/pps should/md be/be noted/vbn ,/, however/rb ,/, that/cs the/at paraxial/jj resolution/nn is/bez quite/ql similar/jj for/in both/abx electron/nn optical/jj systems/nns ./.


	It/pps is/bez felt/vbn that/cs fiber-coupled/jj double-/jj (/( and/cc multi-/jj )/) stage/nn image/nn intensifiers/nns will/md gain/vb considerable/jj importance/nn in/in the/at future/nn ./.
Therefore/rb ,/, we/ppss shall/md consider/vb in/in this/dt paper/nn the/at theoretical/jj gain/nn and/cc resolution/nn capabilities/nns of/in such/jj tubes/nns ./.
The/at luminous/jj efficiency/nn and/cc resolution/nn of/in single/ap stages/nns ,/, fiber/nn couplers/nns ,/, and/cc finally/rb of/in the/at composite/jj tube/nn will/md be/be computed/vbn ./.


	It/pps will/md be/be shown/vbn theoretically/rb that/cs the/at high/jj image/nn intensification/nn obtainable/jj with/in such/abl a/at tube/nn and/cc contact/nn photography/nn permits/vbz the/at utilization/nn of/in extremely/ql low/jj incident/jj light/nn levels/nns ./.
The/at effect/nn of/in device/nn and/cc quantum/nn noise/nn ,/, associated/vbn with/in such/ql low/jj input/nn levels/nns ,/, will/md be/be described/vbn ./.


	After/in these/dts theoretical/jj considerations/nns ,/, constructional/jj details/nns of/in a/at fiber-coupled/jj ,/, double-stage/nn X-ray/nn-tl image/nn intensifier/nn will/md be/be discussed/vbn ./.
Measured/vbn performance/nn characteristics/nns for/in this/dt experimental/jj tube/nn will/md be/be listed/vbn ./.


	The/at conclusion/nn shall/md be/be reached/vbn that/cs fiber-coupled/jj ,/, double-stage/nn tubes/nns represent/vb a/at sensible/jj and/cc practical/jj approach/nn to/in high-gain/nn image/nn intensification/nn ./.



Basic/jj-hl design/nn-hl of/in-hl a/at-hl fiber-coupled/jj-hl ,/,-hl double-stage/nn-hl image/nn-hl intensifier/nn-hl 
The/at tube/nn design/nn which/wdt forms/vbz the/at basis/nn of/in the/at theoretical/jj discussion/nn shall/md be/be described/vbn now/rb ./.
The/at electron/nn optical/jj system/nn (/( see/vb fig./nn 14-1/cd )/) is/bez based/vbn in/in principle/nn on/in the/at focusing/vbg action/nn of/in concentric/jj spherical/jj cathode/nn and/cc anode/nn surfaces/nns ./.
The/at inner/jj (/( anode/nn )/) sphere/nn is/bez pierced/vbn ,/, elongated/vbn into/in a/at cup/nn ,/, and/cc terminated/vbn by/in the/at phosphor/nn screen/nn ./.
The/at photoelectrons/nns emitted/vbn from/in a/at circular/jj segment/nn of/in the/at cathode/nn sphere/nn are/ber focused/vbn by/in the/at positive/jj lens/nn action/nn of/in the/at two/cd concentric/jj spheres/nns ,/, pass/vb through/in the/at (/( negative/jj )/) lens/nn formed/vbn by/in the/at anode/nn aperture/nn ,/, and/cc impinge/vb upon/in the/at cathodoluminescent/jj viewing/vbg screen/nn ./.
The/at cylindrical/jj focusing/vbg electrode/nn permits/vbz adjustment/nn of/in the/at positive/jj lens/nn part/nn by/in varying/vbg the/at focusing/vbg potential/nn ./.
The/at anode/nn potential/nn codetermines/vbz the/at gain/nn ,/, G/nn ,/, and/cc magnification/nn ,/, M/nn ,/, of/in the/at stage/nn ./.


	Both/abx the/at photocathode/nn and/cc the/at image/nn plane/nn of/in such/abl an/at electrode/nn configuration/nn are/ber curved/vbn concave/jj as/cs seen/vbn from/in the/at anode/nn aperture/nn ./.
The/at field-flattening/jj property/nn of/in the/at biconcave/jj fiber/nn coupler/nn can/md be/be utilized/vbn to/to alleviate/vb the/at peripheral/jj resolution/nn losses/nns resulting/vbg with/in a/at flat/jj phosphor-screen/nn or/cc coupling/vbg member/nn ./.
For/in the/at same/ap reason/nn ,/, the/at output/nn fiber/nn plate/nn is/bez planoconcave/jj ,/, its/pp$ exposed/vbn flat/jj side/nn permitting/vbg contact/nn photography/nn if/cs a/at permanent/jj record/nn is/bez desired/vbn ./.
As/cs it/pps will/md be/be shown/vbn later/rbr ,/, the/at field-flattening/jj properties/nns of/in the/at interstage/jj and/cc output/nn fiber/nn coupler/nn comprise/vb indeed/rb the/at main/jjs advantage/nn of/in such/abl a/at design/nn ./.


	The/at second/od photocathode/nn and/cc both/abx phosphor/nn surfaces/nns are/ber deposited/vbn on/in the/at fiber/nn plate/nn substrates/nns ./.
The/at photocathode/nn sensitivities/nns S/nn ,/, phosphor/nn efficiencies/nns P/nn ,/, and/cc anode/nn potentials/nns V/nn of/in the/at individual/jj stages/nns shall/md be/be distinguished/vbn by/in means/nn of/in subscripts/nns 1/cd ,/, and/cc 2/cd ,/, in/in the/at text/nn ,/, where/wrb required/vbn ./.
Both/abx stages/nns are/ber assumed/vbn to/to have/hv unity/nn magnification/nn ./.



Theoretical/jj-hl discussion/nn-hl of/in-hl flux/nn-hl gain/nn-hl 
flux/nn-hl gain/nn-hl of/in-hl a/at-hl single/ap-hl stage/nn-hl 
The/at luminous/jj gain/nn of/in a/at single/ap stage/nn with/in Af/nn (/( flux/nn gain/nn )/) is/bez ,/, to/in a/at first/od approximation/nn ,/, given/vbn by/in the/at product/nn of/in the/at photocathode/nn sensitivity/nn S/nn (/( amp/nn //in lumen/nn )/) ,/, the/at anode/nn potential/nn V/nn (/( volts/nns )/) ,/, and/cc the/at phosphor/nn conversion/nn efficiency/nn P/nn (/( lumen/watt/nn )/) ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, P/nn is/bez a/at function/nn of/in V/nn and/cc the/at current/jj density/nn ,/, but/cc it/pps shall/md here/rb be/be assumed/vbn as/cs a/at constant/nn ./.


	The/at luminous/jj efficiency/nn Af/nn of/in a/at photocathode/nn depends/vbz on/in the/at maximum/jj radiant/jj sensitivity/nn Af/nn and/cc on/in the/at spectral/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at incident/jj light/nn Af/nn by/in the/at relation/nn :/: Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn is/bez normalized/vbn radiant/jj photocathode/nn sensitivity/nn ./.
Af/nn is/bez standard/jj visibility/nn function/nn ./.
The/at luminous/jj flux/nn gain/nn of/in a/at single/ap stage/nn is/bez given/vbn by/in :/: Af/nn ./.
If/cs the/at input/nn light/nn distribution/nn falls/vbz beyond/in the/at visible/jj range/nn ,/, Af/nn as/cs expected/vbn ,/, since/cs Af/nn ./.
Such/jj cases/nns are/ber not/* considered/vbn here/rb ./.
Efficiency/nn-hl of/in-hl fiber/nn-hl couplers/nns-hl 
The/at efficiency/nn of/in fiber/nn optics/nn plates/nns depends/vbz on/in four/cd factors/nns :/: (/(-hl A/np-hl )/)-hl 
numerical/jj aperture/nn (/( N.A./np )/) ;/. ;/.
(/(-hl B/np-hl )/)-hl 
end/nn (/( Fresnel/np reflection/nn )/) losses/nns (/( R/np )/) ;/. ;/.
(/(-hl C/np-hl )/)-hl 
internal/jj losses/nns (/( I.L./np )/) ;/. ;/.
(/(-hl D/np-hl )/)-hl 
packing/vbg efficiency/nn (/( F.R./np )/) ./.
The/at numerical/jj aperture/nn of/in the/at fibers/nns is/bez given/vbn by/in :/: Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn ./.


	The/at angle/nn Af/nn is/bez measured/vbn in/in the/at medium/nn of/in index/nn Af/nn ./.
Settled/vbn phosphors/nns ,/, as/ql generally/rb used/vbn in/in image/nn intensifiers/nns ,/, have/hv low/jj optical/jj contact/nn with/in the/at substrate/nn surface/nn ,/, hence/rb Af/nn shall/md be/be assumed/vbn ./.
The/at numerical/jj aperture/nn should/md be/be in/in general/jj close/rb to/in unity/nn ./.
This/dt condition/nn can/md be/be satisfied/vbn ,/, e.g./rb ,/, with/in Af/nn and/cc Af/nn or/cc equivalent/jj glass/nn combinations/nns ./.


	A/at sufficiently/ql good/jj approximation/nn for/in determining/vbg the/at end/nn reflection/nn losses/nns R/nn can/md be/be obtained/vbn from/in the/at angle/nn independent/jj Fresnel/np formula/nn :/: Af/nn ./.
For/in phosphor/nn to/in fiber/nn and/cc fiber/nn to/in air/nn surfaces/nns ,/, and/cc assuming/vbg Af/nn ,/, we/ppss obtain/vb Af/nn percent/nn ./.
This/dt value/nn may/md be/be reduced/vbn to/in 4.6/cd percent/nn by/in means/nn of/in a/at (/( very/ql thin/jj )/) glass/nn layer/nn of/in index/nn 1.5/cd ./.
Hence/rb ,/, the/at Af/nn factor/nn for/in the/at output/nn fiber/nn coupler/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.


	As/cs the/at index/nn of/in refraction/nn of/in photosensitive/jj surfaces/nns of/in the/at SbCs-type/nn lies/vbz around/in 2/cd ,/, the/at Fresnel/np losses/nns at/in the/at fiber-photocathode/nn interface/nn are/ber about/rb 0.5/cd percent/nn and/cc the/at Af/nn factor/nn for/in the/at interstage/jj coupler/nn is/bez 0.95/cd ./.
It/pps might/md be/be anticipated/vbn that/cs multiple/jj coatings/nns will/md reduce/vb end/nn reflection/nn losses/nns even/ql further/rbr ./.


	The/at internal/jj losses/nns are/ber due/jj to/in absorption/nn and/cc the/at small/jj but/cc finite/jj losses/nns suffered/vbn in/in the/at numerous/jj internal/jj reflections/nns due/jj to/in deviations/nns from/in the/at prescribed/vbn ,/, cylindrical/jj fiber/nn cross-section/nn and/cc minute/jj imperfections/nns of/in the/at core-jacket/nn interface/nn ./.
These/dts losses/nns depend/vb on/in fiber/nn diameter/nn and/cc length/nn ,/, absorption/nn coefficient/nn ,/, the/at mean/jj value/nn of/in the/at loss/nn per/in internal/jj reflection/nn and/cc last/ap ,/, but/cc not/* least/ap ,/, on/in the/at angular/jj distribution/nn of/in the/at incident/jj light/nn ./.
Explicit/jj expressions/nns (/( integral/jj averages/nns )/) are/ber given/vbn in/in the/at literature/nn ./.
Lacking/vbg reliable/jj data/nn for/in some/dti of/in the/at variables/nns ,/, we/ppss are/ber relying/vbg on/in experimental/jj data/nn of/in about/rb 20/cd percent/nn internal/jj losses/nns for/in 1/4-inch/nn long/jj ,/, small/jj (/( 5/cd -/in 10/cd M/np )/) diameter/nn fibers/nns ./.
This/dt relatively/ql high/jj value/nn is/bez probably/rb due/jj to/in the/at small/jj fiber/nn diameters/nns increasing/vbg the/at number/nn of/in internal/jj reflections/nns ./.
Since/cs we/ppss are/ber considering/vbg here/rb relatively/ql small/jj diameter/nn (/( 1/cd -/in 1.5/cd inches/nns )/) fiber/nn plates/nns ,/, their/pp$ average/jj thickness/nn can/md be/be kept/vbn below/in 1/4/cd inch/nn and/cc their/pp$ internal/jj losses/nns may/md be/be assumed/vbn as/cs 15/cd percent/nn (/( per/in plate/nn )/) ./.


	The/at packing/vbg efficiency/nn ,/, F.R./np ,/, of/in fiber/nn plates/nns did/dod not/* receive/vb much/ap attention/nn in/in the/at literature/nn ,/, probably/rb as/cs it/pps is/bez high/jj for/in the/at larger/jjr fibers/nns generally/rb used/vbn ,/, until/in rather/ql recently/rb ./.
For/in circular/jj fibers/nns in/in a/at closely/rb packed/vbn hexagonal/jj array/nn ,/, the/at packing/vbg efficiency/nn is/bez given/vbn by/in :/: Af/nn where/wrb Af/nn ,/, and/cc 0.906/cd is/bez the/at ratio/nn of/in the/at area/nn of/in a/at circle/nn to/in that/dt of/in the/at circumscribed/vbn hexagon/nn ./.
For/in the/at small/jj diameter/nn fibers/nns now/rb technically/rb feasible/jj and/cc required/vbn for/in about/rb 100/cd Af/nn resolution/nn ,/, Af/nn ./.
The/at cladding/vbg thickness/nn is/bez about/rb 0.5/cd M/nn-tl ,/, hence/rb ,/, Af/nn and/cc Af/nn ./.


	Thus/rb ,/, the/at efficiency/nn **yt/nn couplers/nns is/bez given/vbn by/in --/-- Af/nn or/cc approximately/rb 50/cd percent/nn each/dt ./.


	It/pps must/md be/be remembered/vbn that/cs the/at fiber/nn plates/nns replace/vb a/at glass/nn window/nn and/cc a/at (/( mica/nn )/) membrane/nn ,/, in/in addition/nn to/in an/at optical/jj output/nn lens/nn system/nn ./.
The/at efficiency/nn Af/nn of/in an/at Af/nn lens/nn at/in the/at magnification/nn Af/nn is/bez :/: Af/nn ./.
Neglecting/vbg absorption/nn ,/, the/at end/nn losses/nns of/in the/at coupling/vbg membrane/nn and/cc the/at output/nn window/nn Af/nn would/md be/be 6/cd percent/nn and/cc 8/cd percent/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, the/at combined/vbn efficiency/nn of/in the/at elements/nns replaced/vbn by/in the/at two/cd fiber/nn plates/nns (/( with/in a/at combined/vbn efficiency/nn of/in 0.25/cd )/) is/bez 0.043/cd or/cc about/rb six/cd times/nns less/ap than/cs that/dt of/in the/at two/cd fiber/nn plates/nns ./.
Gain/nn-hl of/in-hl fiber/nn-hl coupled/vbn-hl image/nn-hl intensifiers/nns-hl 
Including/in the/at brightness/nn gain/nn Af/nn due/jj to/in the/at Af/nn area/nn demagnification/nn ,/, the/at overall/jj gain/nn of/in a/at fiber/nn coupled/vbn double/jj stage/nn image/nn intensifier/nn is/bez :/: Af/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez obvious/jj that/cs the/at careful/jj choice/nn of/in photocathode/nn which/wdt maximizes/vbz Af/nn for/in a/at given/vbn input/nn E/nn (/( in/in the/at case/nn of/in the/at second/od stage/nn ,/, for/in the/at first/od phosphor/nn screen/nn emission/nn )/) is/bez very/ql important/jj ./.
The/at same/ap consideration/nn should/md govern/vb the/at choice/nn of/in the/at second-stage/nn phosphor/nn screen/nn for/in matching/vbg with/in the/at spectral/jj sensitivity/nn of/in the/at ultimate/jj sensor/nn (/( e.g./rb ,/, photographic/jj emulsion/nn )/) ./.


	We/ppss have/hv evaluated/vbn the/at ``/`` matching/vbg integrals/nns ''/'' for/in two/cd types/nns of/in photocathodes/nns (/( S-11/jj and/cc S-20/nn )/) and/cc three/cd types/nns of/in light/nn input/nn ./.
The/at input/nn light/nn distributions/nns considered/vbn are/ber P-11/nn and/cc P-20/nn phosphor/nn emission/nn and/cc the/at so-called/jj ``/`` night/nn light/nn ''/'' (/( N.L./np )/) as/cs given/vbn by/in H.W./np Babcock/np and/cc J./np J./np Johnson/np ./.
The/at integrals/nns (/( in/in units/nns )/) are/ber listed/vbn in/in table/nn 14-1/cd ,/, below/rb ./.



Theoretical/jj-hl discussion/nn-hl of/in-hl paraxial/jj-hl device/nn-hl resolution/nn-hl 
resolution/nn-hl limitations/nns-hl in/in-hl a/at-hl single/ap-hl stage/nn-hl 
The/at resolution/nn limitations/nns for/in a/at single/ap stage/nn are/ber given/vbn by/in the/at inherent/jj resolution/nn of/in the/at electron/nn optical/jj system/nn as/ql well/rb as/cs the/at resolution/nn capabilities/nns of/in the/at cathodoluminescent/jj viewing/vbg screen/nn ./.


	The/at resolution/nn capabilities/nns of/in an/at electrostatic/jj system/nn depend/vb on/in both/abx the/at choice/nn of/in magnification/nn and/cc chromatic/jj aberrations/nns ./.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben stated/vbn previously/rb that/cs a/at minifying/vbg electrostatic/jj system/nn yields/vbz a/at lower/jjr resolution/nn than/cs a/at magnifying/vbg system/nn or/cc a/at system/nn with/in unity/nn magnification/nn ./.


	Furthermore/rb ,/, the/at chromatic/jj aberrations/nns depend/vb on/in the/at chosen/vbn high/jj voltage/nn ./.
In/in general/jj ,/, a/at high/jj anode/nn voltage/nn reduces/vbz chromatic/jj aberrations/nns and/cc thus/rb increases/vbz the/at obtainable/jj resolution/nn ./.


	The/at luminous/jj gain/nn of/in the/at discussed/vbn tube/nn was/bedz calculated/vbn from/in Eq./nn-tl (/( 6/cd-tl )/) for/in the/at 16/cd possible/jj combinations/nns of/in S-11/nn and/cc S-20/nn photocathodes/nns and/cc P-11/nn and/cc P-20/nn phosphor/nn screens/nns ,/, for/in night/nn light/nn and/cc P-20/nn light/nn input/nn ./.
(/( The/at P-20/nn input/nn is/bez of/in interest/nn because/cs it/pps corresponds/vbz roughly/rb to/in the/at light/nn emission/nn of/in conventional/jj X-ray/nn-tl fluorescent/jj screens/nns )/) ./.
The/at following/vbg efficiencies/nns obtained/vbn from/in JEDEC/nn and/cc RCA/nn specifications/nns were/bed used/vbn :/: Af/nn 

	./.
The/at following/vbg table/nn (/( 14-2/cd )/) lists/vbz the/at (/( luminous/jj )/) gain/nn values/nns computed/vbn according/rb to/in Eq./nn-tl (/( 6/cd-tl )/) with/in Af/nn ./.


	The/at possibility/nn of/in a/at space/nn charge/nn blowup/nn of/in the/at screen/nn crossover/nn of/in the/at elementary/jj electron/nn bundles/nns has/hvz been/ben pointed/vbn out/rp ./.
It/pps is/bez obvious/jj that/cs such/abl an/at influence/nn can/md only/rb be/be expected/vbn in/in the/at final/jj stage/nn of/in an/at image/nn intensifier/nn at/in rather/ql high/jj output/nn levels/nns ./.
Space/nn charge/nn influences/nns will/md also/rb decrease/vb at/in increased/vbn voltages/nns ./.


	Electrostatic/jj systems/nns of/in the/at pseudo-symmetric/jj type/nn have/hv been/ben tested/vbn for/in resolution/nn capabilities/nns by/in applying/vbg electronography/nn ./.
A/at resolution/nn of/in 70/cd -/in 80/cd line-pairs/nns per/in millimeter/nn appears/vbz to/to be/be feasible/jj ./.


	The/at inherent/jj resolution/nn of/in a/at cathodoluminescent/jj phosphor/nn screen/nn decreases/vbz with/in increasingly/ql aggregate/jj thickness/nn (/( with/in increasing/vbg anode/nn voltage/nn )/) ,/, decreases/vbz with/in decreasing/vbg porosity/nn (/( thus/rb the/at advantage/nn of/in cathodophoretic/jj phosphor/nn deposition/nn )/) and/cc might/md be/be impaired/vbn by/in the/at normally/rb used/vbn aluminum/nn mirror/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, in/in general/jj ,/, elementary/jj light/nn optical/jj effects/nns ,/, light/nn scatter/nn ,/, and/cc electron/nn scatter/nn determine/vb the/at obtainable/jj resolution/nn limit/nn ./.
It/pps should/md be/be noted/vbn that/cs photoluminescence/nn ,/, due/rb to/in ``/`` Bremsstrahlung/fw-nn ''/'' generated/vbn within/in the/at viewing/vbg screen/nn by/in electron/nn impact/nn ,/, appears/vbz to/to be/be important/jj only/rb if/cs anode/nn voltages/nns in/in excess/nn of/in 30/cd KV/nn are/ber utilized/vbn ./.
It/pps has/hvz been/ben stated/vbn that/cs settled/vbn cathodoluminescent/jj phosphor/nn screens/nns may/md have/hv a/at limiting/vbg resolution/nn of/in 60/cd Af/nn at/in high/jj voltage/nn values/nns of/in approximately/rb 20/cd Aj/nn ./.
For/in the/at further/jjr discussion/nn ,/, we/ppss shall/md thus/rb assume/vb an/at electron/nn optical/jj resolution/nn of/in 80/cd Af/nn and/cc phosphor/nn screen/nn resolution/nn of/in 60/cd Af/nn ./.

The/at set/nn of/in all/abn decisions/nns is/bez called/vbn the/at operating/vbg policy/nn or/cc ,/, more/ql simply/rb ,/, the/at policy/nn ./.
An/at optimal/jj policy/nn is/bez one/cd which/wdt in/in some/dti sense/nn gets/vbz the/at best/jjt out/rp of/in the/at process/nn as/cs a/at whole/nn by/in maximizing/vbg the/at value/nn of/in the/at product/nn ./.
There/ex are/ber thus/rb three/cd components/nns to/in an/at optimal/jj design/nn problem/nn :/: (/(-hl 1/cd-hl )/)-hl 
The/at specification/nn of/in the/at state/nn of/in the/at process/nn stream/nn ;/. ;/.
(/(-hl 2/cd-hl )/)-hl 
The/at specification/nn of/in the/at operating/vbg variables/nns and/cc the/at transformation/nn they/ppss effect/vb ;/. ;/.
(/(-hl 3/cd-hl )/)-hl 
The/at specification/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn of/in which/wdt the/at optimization/nn is/bez desired/vbn ./.
For/in a/at chemical/nn process/nn the/at first/od of/in these/dts might/md involve/vb the/at concentrations/nns of/in the/at different/jj chemical/nn species/nns ,/, and/cc the/at temperature/nn or/cc pressure/nn of/in the/at stream/nn ./.
For/in the/at second/od we/ppss might/md have/hv to/to choose/vb the/at volume/nn of/in reactor/nn or/cc amount/nn of/in cooling/vbg to/to be/be supplied/vbn ;/. ;/.
the/at way/nn in/in which/wdt the/at transformation/nn of/in state/nn depends/vbz on/in the/at operating/vbg variables/nns for/in the/at main/jjs types/nns of/in reactors/nns is/bez discussed/vbn in/in the/at next/ap chapter/nn ./.
The/at objective/jj function/nn is/bez some/dti measure/nn of/in the/at increase/nn in/in value/nn of/in the/at stream/nn by/in processing/vbg ;/. ;/.
it/pps is/bez the/at subject/nn of/in Chapter/nn-tl 4/cd-tl ./.


	The/at essential/jj characteristic/nn of/in an/at optimal/jj policy/nn when/wrb the/at state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn is/bez transformed/vbn in/in a/at sequence/nn of/in stages/nns with/in no/at feedback/nn was/bedz first/rb isolated/vbn by/in Bellman/np ./.
He/pps recognized/vbd that/cs whatever/wdt transformation/nn may/md be/be effected/vbn in/in the/at first/od stage/nn of/in an/at R-stage/nn process/nn ,/, the/at remaining/vbg stages/nns must/md use/vb an/at optimal/jj Af-stage/nn policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at state/nn resulting/vbg from/in the/at first/od stage/nn ,/, if/cs there/ex is/bez to/to be/be any/dti chance/nn of/in optimizing/vbg the/at complete/jj process/nn ./.
Moreover/rb ,/, by/in systematically/rb varying/vbg the/at operating/vbg conditions/nns in/in the/at first/od stage/nn and/cc always/rb using/vbg the/at optimal/jj Af-stage/nn policy/nn for/in the/at remaining/vbg stages/nns ,/, we/ppss shall/md eventually/rb find/vb the/at optimal/jj policy/nn for/in all/abn R/nn stages/nns ./.
Proceeding/vbg in/in this/dt way/nn ,/, from/in one/cd to/in two/cd and/cc from/in two/cd to/in three/cd stages/nns ,/, we/ppss may/md gradually/rb build/vb up/rp the/at policy/nn for/in any/dti number/nn ./.
At/in each/dt step/nn of/in the/at calculation/nn the/at operating/vbg variables/nns of/in only/rb one/cd stage/nn need/md be/be varied/vbn ./.


	To/to see/vb how/wrb important/jj this/dt economy/nn is/bez ,/, let/vb us/ppo suppose/vb that/cs there/ex are/ber M/np operating/vbg variables/nns at/in each/dt stage/nn and/cc that/cs the/at state/nn is/bez specified/vbn by/in N/np variables/nns ;/. ;/.
then/rb the/at search/nn for/in the/at maximum/jj at/in any/dti one/cd stage/nn will/md require/vb a/at number/nn of/in operations/nns of/in order/nn Af/nn (/( where/wrb a/nn is/bez some/dti number/nn not/* unreasonably/ql large/jj )/) ./.
To/to proceed/vb from/in one/cd stage/nn to/in the/at next/ap a/at sufficient/jj number/nn of/in feed/nn states/nns must/md be/be investigated/vbn to/to allow/vb for/in interpolation/nn ;/. ;/.
this/dt number/nn will/md be/be of/in the/at order/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs ,/, however/rb ,/, we/ppss are/ber seeking/vbg the/at optimal/jj R-stage/nn policy/nn for/in a/at given/vbn feed/nn state/nn ,/, only/rb one/cd search/nn for/in a/at maximum/jj is/bez required/vbn at/in the/at final/jj step/nn ./.
Thus/rb a/at number/nn of/in operations/nns of/in the/at order/nn of/in Af/nn are/ber required/vbn ./.
If/cs all/abn the/at operating/vbg variables/nns were/bed varied/vbn simultaneously/rb ,/, Af/nn operations/nns would/md be/be required/vbn to/to do/do the/at same/ap job/nn ,/, and/cc as/cs R/nn increases/vbz this/dt increases/vbz very/ql much/ql more/ql rapidly/rb than/cs the/at number/nn of/in operations/nns required/vbn by/in the/at dynamic/jj program/nn ./.
But/cc even/ql more/ql important/jj than/cs this/dt is/bez the/at fact/nn that/cs the/at direct/jj search/nn by/in simultaneously/rb varying/vbg all/abn operating/vbg conditions/nns has/hvz produced/vbn only/rb one/cd optimal/jj policy/nn ,/, namely/rb ,/, that/dt for/in the/at given/vbn feed/nn state/nn and/cc R/nn stages/nns ./.
In/in contrast/nn ,/, the/at dynamic/jj program/nn produces/vbz this/dt policy/nn and/cc a/at whole/jj family/nn of/in policies/nns for/in any/dti smaller/jjr number/nn of/in stages/nns ./.
If/cs the/at problem/nn is/bez enlarged/vbn to/to require/vb a/at complete/jj coverage/nn of/in feed/nn states/nns ,/, Af/nn operations/nns are/ber needed/vbn by/in the/at dynamic/jj program/nn and/cc Af/nn by/in the/at direct/jj search/nn ./.
But/cc Af/nn is/bez vastly/ql larger/jjr than/cs R/nn ./.
No/at optimism/nn is/bez more/ql baseless/jj than/cs that/dt which/wdt believes/vbz that/cs the/at high/jj speed/nn of/in modern/jj digital/jj computers/nns allows/vbz for/in use/nn of/in the/at crudest/jjt of/in methods/nns in/in searching/vbg out/rp a/at result/nn ./.
Suppose/vb that/cs Af/nn ,/, and/cc that/cs the/at average/jj operation/nn requires/vbz only/rb Af/nn sec./nns ./.
Then/rb the/at dynamic/jj program/nn would/md require/vb about/rb a/at minute/nn whereas/cs the/at direct/jj search/nn would/md take/vb more/ap than/in three/cd millennia/nns !/. !/.


	The/at principle/nn of/in optimality/nn thus/rb brings/vbz a/at vital/jj organization/nn into/in the/at search/nn for/in the/at optimal/jj policy/nn of/in a/at multistage/nn decision/nn process/nn ./.
Bellman/np (/( 1957/cd )/) has/hvz annunciated/vbn in/in the/at following/vbg terms/nns :/: 

	``/`` An/at optimal/jj policy/nn has/hvz the/at property/nn that/cs whatever/wdt the/at initial/jj state/nn and/cc initial/jj decision/nn are/ber ,/, the/at remaining/vbg decisions/nns must/md constitute/vb an/at optimal/jj policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at state/nn resulting/vbg from/in the/at first/od decision/nn ''/'' ./.


	This/dt is/bez the/at principle/nn which/wdt we/ppss will/md invoke/vb in/in every/at case/nn to/to set/vb up/rp a/at functional/jj equation/nn ./.
It/pps appears/vbz in/in a/at form/nn that/wps is/bez admirably/rb suited/vbn to/in the/at powers/nns of/in the/at digital/jj computer/nn ./.
At/in the/at same/ap time/nn ,/, every/at device/nn that/wps can/md be/be employed/vbn to/to reduce/vb the/at number/nn of/in variables/nns is/bez of/in the/at greatest/jjt value/nn ,/, and/cc it/pps is/bez one/cd of/in the/at attractive/jj features/nns of/in dynamic/jj programming/nn that/cs room/nn is/bez left/vbn for/in ingenuity/nn in/in using/vbg the/at special/jj features/nns of/in the/at problem/nn to/in this/dt end/nn ./.



2.2/cd-hl the/at discrete/jj deterministic/jj process/nn 
Consider/vb the/at process/nn illustrated/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 2.1/cd-tl ,/, consisting/vbg of/in R/nn distinct/jj stages/nns ./.
These/dts will/md be/be numbered/vbn in/in the/at direction/nn opposite/rb to/in the/at flow/nn of/in the/at process/nn stream/nn ,/, so/cs that/cs stage/nn R/np is/bez the/at T/np stage/nn from/in the/at end/nn ./.
Let/vb the/at state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn leaving/vbg stage/nn R/np be/be denoted/vbn by/in a/at vector/nn Af/nn and/cc the/at operating/vbg variables/nns of/in stage/nn R/np by/in Af/nn ./.
Thus/rb Af/nn denotes/vbz the/at state/nn of/in the/at feed/nn to/in the/at R-stage/nn process/nn ,/, and/cc Af/nn the/at state/nn of/in the/at product/nn from/in the/at last/ap stage/nn ./.
Each/dt stage/nn transforms/vbz the/at state/nn Af/nn of/in its/pp$ feed/nn to/in the/at state/nn Af/nn in/in a/at way/nn that/wps depends/vbz on/in the/at operating/vbg variables/nns Af/nn ./.
We/ppss write/vb this/dt Af/nn ./.
This/dt transformation/nn is/bez uniquely/rb determined/vbn by/in Af/nn and/cc we/ppss therefore/rb speak/vb of/in the/at process/nn as/cs deterministic/jj ./.
In/in practical/jj situations/nns there/ex will/md be/be restrictions/nns on/in the/at admissible/jj operating/vbg conditions/nns ,/, and/cc we/ppss regard/vb the/at vectors/nns as/cs belonging/vbg to/in a/at fixed/vbn and/cc bounded/vbn set/nn S/nn ./.
The/at set/nn of/in vectors/nns Af/nn constitutes/vbz the/at operating/vbg policy/nn or/cc ,/, more/ql briefly/rb ,/, the/at policy/nn ,/, and/cc a/at policy/nn is/bez admissible/jj if/cs all/abn the/at Af/nn belong/vb to/in S/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at policy/nn has/hvz been/ben chosen/vbn ,/, the/at state/nn of/in the/at product/nn can/md be/be obtained/vbn from/in the/at state/nn of/in the/at feed/nn by/in repeated/vbn application/nn of/in the/at transformation/nn (/( 1/cd )/) ;/. ;/.
thus/rb Af/nn ./.
The/at objective/jj function/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez to/to be/be maximized/vbn ,/, is/bez some/dti function/nn ,/, usually/rb piecewise/rb continuous/jj ,/, of/in the/at product/nn state/nn ./.
Let/vb this/dt be/be denoted/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.


	An/at optimal/jj policy/nn is/bez an/at admissible/jj policy/nn Af/nn which/wdt maximizes/vbz the/at objective/jj function/nn P/nn ./.
The/at policy/nn may/md not/* be/be unique/jj but/cc the/at maximum/jj value/nn of/in P/nn certainly/rb is/bez ,/, and/cc once/cs the/at policy/nn is/bez specified/vbn this/dt maximum/nn can/md be/be calculated/vbn by/in (/( 2/cd )/) and/cc (/( 3/cd )/) as/cs a/at function/nn of/in the/at feed/nn state/nn Af/nn ./.
Let/vb Af/nn where/wrb the/at maximization/nn is/bez over/in all/abn admissible/jj policies/nns Af/nn ./.
When/wrb it/pps is/bez necessary/jj to/to be/be specific/jj we/ppss say/vb that/cs the/at optimal/jj policy/nn is/bez an/at optimal/jj R-stage/nn policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at feed/nn state/nn Af/nn ./.


	For/in any/dti choice/nn of/in admissible/jj policy/nn Af/nn in/in the/at first/od stage/nn ,/, the/at state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn leaving/vbg this/dt stage/nn is/bez given/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
This/dt is/bez the/at feed/nn state/nn of/in the/at subsequent/jj Af/nn stages/nns which/wdt ,/, according/rb to/in the/at principle/nn of/in optimality/nn ,/, must/md use/vb an/at optimal/jj Af-stage/nn policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in this/dt state/nn ./.
This/dt will/nn result/vb in/in a/at value/nn Af/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn ,/, and/cc when/wrb Af/nn is/bez chosen/vbn correctly/rb this/dt will/md give/vb Af/nn ,/, the/at maximum/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn ./.
Thus/rb Af/nn where/wrb the/at maximization/nn is/bez over/in all/abn admissible/jj policies/nns Af/nn ,/, and/cc Af/nn is/bez related/vbn to/in Af/nn by/in (/( 5/cd )/) ./.
The/at sequence/nn of/in equations/nns (/( 6/cd )/) can/md be/be solved/vbn for/in Af/nn when/wrb Af/nn is/bez known/vbn ,/, and/cc clearly/rb Af/nn ,/, the/at maximization/nn being/beg over/in all/abn admissible/jj Af/nn ./.


	The/at set/nn of/in equations/nns (/( 5/cd )/) ,/, (/( 6/cd )/) ,/, and/cc the/at starting/vbg equation/nn (/( 7/cd )/) is/bez of/in a/at recursive/jj type/nn well/rb suited/vbn to/in programming/vbg on/in the/at digital/jj computer/nn ./.
In/in finding/vbg the/at optimal/jj R-stage/nn policy/nn from/in that/dt of/in Af/nn stages/nns ,/, only/rb the/at function/nn Af/nn is/bez needed/vbn ./.
When/wrb Af/nn has/hvz been/ben found/vbn it/pps may/md be/be transferred/vbn into/in the/at storage/nn location/nn of/in Af/nn and/cc the/at whole/jj calculation/nn repeated/vbn ./.
We/ppss also/rb see/vb how/wrb the/at results/nns may/md be/be presented/vbn ,/, although/cs if/cs n/nn ,/, the/at number/nn of/in state/nn variables/nns ,/, is/bez large/jj any/dti tabulation/nn will/md become/vb cumbersome/jj ./.
A/at table/nn or/cc set/nn of/in tables/nns may/md be/be set/vbn out/rp as/cs in/in Table/nn-tl 2.1/cd-tl ./.


	To/to extract/vb the/at optimal/jj R-stage/nn policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at feed/nn state/nn Af/nn ,/, we/ppss enter/vb section/nn R/nn of/in this/dt table/nn at/in the/at state/nn Af/nn and/cc find/vb immediately/rb from/in the/at last/ap column/nn the/at maximum/jj value/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn ./.
In/in the/at third/od column/nn is/bez given/vbn the/at optimal/jj policy/nn for/in stage/nn R/nn ,/, and/cc in/in the/at fourth/od ,/, the/at resulting/vbg state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn when/wrb this/dt policy/nn is/bez used/vbn ./.
Since/cs by/in the/at principle/nn of/in optimality/nn the/at remaining/vbg stages/nns use/vb an/at optimal/jj Af-stage/nn policy/nn with/in respect/nn to/in Af/nn ,/, we/ppss may/md enter/vb section/nn Af/nn of/in the/at table/nn at/in this/dt state/nn Af/nn and/cc read/vb off/in the/at optimal/jj policy/nn for/in stage/nn Af/nn and/cc the/at resulting/vbg state/nn Af/nn ./.
Proceeding/vbg in/in this/dt way/nn up/in the/at table/nn we/ppss extract/vb the/at complete/jj optimal/jj policy/nn and/cc ,/, if/cs it/pps is/bez desired/vbn ,/, we/ppss can/md check/vb on/in Af/nn by/in evaluating/vbg Af/nn at/in the/at last/ap stage/nn ./.


	It/pps may/md be/be that/cs the/at objective/jj function/nn depends/vbz not/* only/rb on/in Af/nn but/cc also/rb on/in Af/nn ,/, as/cs when/wrb the/at cost/nn of/in the/at operating/vbg policy/nn is/bez considered/vbn ./.
A/at moment's/nn$ reflection/nn shows/vbz that/cs the/at above/jj algorithm/nn and/cc presentation/nn work/vb equally/ql well/rb in/in this/dt case/nn ./.
A/at form/nn of/in objective/jj function/nn that/wpo we/ppss shall/md often/rb have/hv occasion/nn to/to consider/vb is/bez Af/nn ./.
Here/rb P/np represents/vbz the/at value/nn of/in the/at stream/nn in/in state/nn P/np and/cc Q/np the/at cost/nn of/in operating/vbg the/at stage/nn with/in conditions/nns Q/np ./.
Hence/rb P/nn is/bez the/at increase/nn in/in value/nn of/in the/at stream/nn minus/in the/at cost/nn of/in operation/nn ,/, that/dt is/bez ,/, the/at net/jj profit/nn ./.
If/cs Af/nn denotes/vbz the/at net/nn profit/nn from/in stage/nn R/np and/cc Af/nn ,/, then/rb the/at principle/nn of/in optimality/nn gives/vbz Af/nn ./.
This/dt sequence/nn of/in equations/nns may/md be/be started/vbn with/in the/at remark/nn that/cs with/in no/at process/nn Af/nn there/ex is/bez no/at profit/nn ,/, i.e./rb ,/, Af/nn ./.



2.3/cd-hl the/at discrete/jj stochastic/jj process/nn 
The/at process/nn in/in which/wdt the/at outcome/nn of/in any/dti one/cd stage/nn is/bez known/vbn only/rb statistically/rb is/bez also/rb of/in interest/nn ,/, although/cs for/in chemical/nn reactor/nn design/nn it/pps is/bez not/* as/ql important/jj as/cs the/at deterministic/jj process/nn ./.
In/in this/dt case/nn the/at stage/nn R/np operating/vbg with/in conditions/nns Af/nn transforms/vbz the/at state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn from/in Af/nn to/in Af/nn ,/, but/cc only/rb the/at probability/nn distribution/nn of/in Af/nn is/bez known/vbn ./.
This/dt is/bez specified/vbn by/in a/at distribution/nn function/nn Af/nn such/jj that/cs the/at probability/nn that/cs Af/nn lies/vbz in/in some/dti region/nn D/nn of/in the/at stage/nn space/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.


	We/ppss cannot/md* now/rb speak/vb of/in maximizing/vbg the/at value/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn ,/, since/cs this/dt function/nn is/bez now/rb known/vbn only/rb in/in a/at probabilistic/jj sense/nn ./.
We/ppss can/md ,/, however/rb ,/, maximize/vb its/pp$ expected/vbn value/nn ./.
For/in a/at single/ap stage/nn we/ppss may/md define/vb Af/nn where/wrb the/at maximization/nn is/bez by/in choice/nn of/in Af/nn ./.
We/ppss thus/rb have/hv an/at optimal/jj policy/nn which/wdt maximizes/vbz the/at expected/vbn value/nn of/in the/at objective/jj function/nn for/in a/at given/vbn Af/nn ./.
If/cs we/ppss consider/vb a/at process/nn in/in which/wdt the/at outcome/nn of/in one/cd stage/nn is/bez known/vbn before/in passage/nn to/in the/at next/ap ,/, then/rb the/at principle/nn of/in optimality/nn shows/vbz that/cs the/at policy/nn in/in subsequent/jj stages/nns should/md be/be optimal/jj with/in respect/nn to/in the/at outcome/nn of/in the/at first/od ./.
Then/rb Af/nn ,/, the/at maximization/nn being/beg over/in all/abn admissible/jj Af/nn and/cc the/at integration/nn over/in the/at whole/nn of/in stage/nn space/nn ./.


	The/at type/nn of/in presentation/nn of/in results/nns used/vbn in/in the/at deterministic/jj process/nn may/md be/be used/vbn here/rb ,/, except/in that/cs now/rb the/at fourth/od column/nn is/bez redundant/jj ./.
The/at third/od column/nn gives/vbz the/at optimal/jj policy/nn ,/, but/cc we/ppss must/md wait/vb to/to see/vb the/at outcome/nn of/in stage/nn R/nn and/cc enter/vb the/at preceding/vbg section/nn of/in the/at table/nn at/in this/dt state/nn ./.
The/at discussion/nn of/in the/at optimal/jj policy/nn when/wrb the/at outcome/nn of/in one/cd stage/nn is/bez not/* known/vbn before/cs passing/vbg to/in the/at next/ap is/bez a/at very/ql much/ql more/ql difficult/jj matter/nn ./.



2.4/cd-hl the/at continuous/jj deterministic/jj process/nn 
In/in many/ap cases/nns it/pps is/bez not/* possible/jj to/to divide/vb the/at process/nn into/in a/at finite/jj number/nn of/in discrete/jj stages/nns ,/, since/cs the/at state/nn of/in the/at stream/nn is/bez transformed/vbn in/in a/at continuous/jj manner/nn through/in the/at process/nn ./.
We/ppss replace/vb r/nn ,/, the/at number/nn of/in the/at stage/nn from/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at process/nn ,/, by/in t/nn ,/, a/at continuous/jj variable/jj which/wdt measures/vbz the/at ``/`` distance/nn ''/'' of/in the/at point/nn considered/vbn from/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at process/nn ./.
The/at word/nn distance/nn-nc is/bez used/vbn here/rb in/in a/at rather/ql general/jj sense/nn ;/. ;/.
it/pps may/md in/in fact/nn be/be the/at time/nn that/wps will/md elapse/vb before/in the/at end/nn of/in the/at process/nn ./.
If/cs T/nn is/bez the/at total/jj ``/`` length/nn ''/'' of/in the/at process/nn ,/, its/pp$ feed/nn state/nn may/md be/be denoted/vbn by/in a/at vector/nn p(T)/nn and/cc the/at product/nn state/nn by/in p(Q)/nn ./.
P/np denotes/vbz the/at state/nn at/in any/dti point/nn T/np and/cc Q/np the/at vector/nn of/in operating/vbg variables/nns there/rb ./.



	A/at gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn system/nn ,/, using/vbg restrained/vbn gyros/nns ,/, is/bez well/ql suited/vbn for/in automatic/jj leveling/nn because/rb of/in the/at characteristics/nns of/in the/at gyro-platform-servo/nn combination/nn ./.
The/at restrained/vbn gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn with/in reasonable/jj response/nn characteristics/nns operates/vbz with/in an/at approximate/jj equation/nn of/in motion/nn ,/, neglecting/vbg transient/jj effects/nns ,/, as/cs follows/vbz :/: Af/nn where/wrb U/nn is/bez a/at torque/nn applied/vbn about/in the/at output/nn axis/nn of/in the/at controlling/vbg gyro/nn ./.


	The/at platform/nn angle/nn **yf/nn is/bez the/at angle/nn about/in which/wdt the/at gyro/nn is/bez controlling/vbg ./.
This/dt is/bez normally/rb termed/vbn the/at gyro/nn input/nn axis/nn ,/, 90-degrees/nns away/rb from/in the/at gyro/nn output/nn or/cc **yj/nn axis/nn ./.
The/at gyro/nn angular/jj momentum/nn is/bez defined/vbn by/in H/nn ./.


	Thus/rb if/cs the/at gyro/nn and/cc platform-controller/nn combination/nn maintains/vbz the/at platform/nn with/in zero/cd angular/jj deviation/nn about/in the/at **yf/nn axis/nn ,/, the/at system/nn can/md be/be rotated/vbn with/in an/at angular/jj velocity/nn Af/nn if/cs a/at torque/nn is/bez supplied/vbn to/in the/at gyro/nn output/nn axis/nn Aj/nn ./.
It/pps is/bez assumed/vbn that/cs the/at gyros/nns are/ber designed/vbn with/in electrical/jj torquers/nns so/cs that/cs a/at torque/nn can/md be/be applied/vbn about/in their/pp$ output/nn axes/nns ./.


	In/in the/at system/nn shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 7-1/cd-tl ,/, the/at accelerometer/nn output/nn is/bez amplified/vbn and/cc the/at resulting/vbg voltage/nn is/bez applied/vbn to/in the/at gyro/nn output-axis/nn torquer/nn ./.
This/dt torque/nn causes/vbz the/at entire/jj system/nn to/to rotate/vb about/in the/at **yf/nn axis/nn ,/, since/cs the/at response/nn to/in Af/nn ./.
If/cs the/at polarities/nns are/ber correct/jj ,/, the/at platform/nn rotates/vbz in/in such/abl a/at direction/nn as/cs to/to reduce/vb the/at accelerometer/nn output/nn to/in zero/cd ./.
As/cs the/at accelerometer/nn output/nn is/bez decreasing/vbg ,/, the/at torque/nn applied/vbn to/in the/at gyro/nn output/nn axis/nn decreases/vbz and/cc ,/, therefore/rb ,/, the/at rate/nn decreases/vbz ./.
Finally/rb ,/, when/wrb the/at accelerometer/nn output/nn is/bez zero/cd ,/, the/at entire/jj system/nn remains/vbz stationary/jj ,/, and/cc the/at platform/nn is/bez ,/, by/in definition/nn ,/, leveled/vbn ./.


	A/at mathematical/jj block/nn diagram/nn for/in the/at leveling/vbg system/nn is/bez shown/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 7-2/cd-tl ./.
The/at platform/nn is/bez initially/rb off/in level/jj by/in the/at angle/nn Aj/nn ./.
The/at angle/nn generated/vbn by/in the/at platform/nn servo/nn **yf/nn multiplied/vbn by/in G/np is/bez the/at effective/jj acceleration/nn acting/vbg on/in the/at accelerometer/nn ./.
Af/nn is/bez the/at scale/nn factor/nn of/in the/at accelerometer/nn (/( Af/nn )/) ./.
The/at voltage/nn Af/nn is/bez amplified/vbn by/in Af/nn and/cc applied/vbn to/in the/at gyro/nn torquer/nn with/in scale/nn factor/nn Af/nn ./.
Finally/rb ,/, the/at gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn characteristic/nn is/bez represented/vbn by/in Af/nn ./.
The/at system/nn as/cs indicated/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 7-2/cd-tl is/bez fundamental/jj and/cc simple/jj because/cs the/at transient/jj effects/nns of/in both/abx the/at platform/nn servo/nn and/cc the/at accelerometer/nn have/hv been/ben neglected/vbn ./.
With/in these/dts factors/nns included/vbn ,/, an/at upper/jj limit/nn is/bez placed/vbn on/in the/at allowable/jj loop/nn gain/nn by/in stability/nn considerations/nns ./.
In/in this/dt type/nn of/in system/nn ,/, a/at high/jj loop/nn gain/nn is/bez desirable/jj because/cs it/pps provides/vbz a/at fast/jj response/nn time/nn ./.


	When/wrb the/at frequency/nn response/nn characteristics/nns of/in practical/jj components/nns are/ber considered/vbn ,/, their/pp$ effect/nn on/in stability/nn does/doz not/* present/vb the/at most/ql serious/jj limit/nn on/in the/at system/nn loop/nn gain/nn ./.
The/at time/nn required/vbn for/in the/at system/nn to/to reach/vb a/at level/jj position/nn is/bez approximately/ql inversely/rb proportional/jj to/in the/at servo/nn loop/nn gain/nn ./.
In/in addition/nn ,/, the/at cutoff/nn frequency/nn for/in input/nn accelerations/nns is/bez approximately/ql proportional/jj to/in the/at servo/nn loop/nn gain/nn ;/. ;/.
i.e./rb ,/, high/jj loop/nn gain/nn causes/vbz the/at system/nn to/to respond/vb to/in horizontal/jj components/nns of/in accelerations/nns ./.
This/dt problem/nn usually/rb determines/vbz the/at lower/jjr limit/nn of/in loop/nn gain/nn rather/rb than/cs response/nn time/nn ./.


	It/pps must/md be/be noticed/vbn in/in Fig./nn-tl 7-1/cd-tl that/cs the/at accelerometer/nn responds/vbz to/in any/dti input/nn acceleration/nn ./.
The/at equation/nn relating/vbg input/nn acceleration/nn to/in output/nn platform/nn angle/nn is/bez Af/nn ./.
In/in practice/nn ,/, the/at preflight/jj leveling/vbg process/nn takes/vbz place/nn with/in the/at system/nn mounted/vbn in/in the/at airframe/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at system/nn is/bez arranged/vbn for/in automatic/jj leveling/nn ,/, the/at platform/nn angles/nns respond/vb to/in any/dti horizontal/jj components/nns of/in acceleration/nn acting/vbg on/in the/at accelerometers/nns ./.
There/ex are/ber many/ap such/jj components/nns of/in acceleration/nn present/rb due/rb to/in the/at effect/nn of/in wind/nn gusts/nns ,/, engine/nn noise/nn ,/, turbulence/nn around/in the/at vehicle/nn ,/, etc./rb ./.
One/cd of/in the/at greatest/jjt problems/nns associated/vbn with/in automatic/jj leveling/nn is/bez establishing/vbg a/at true/jj level/nn in/in the/at presence/nn of/in high-level/nn acceleration/nn noise/nn ./.
One/cd solution/nn to/in the/at problem/nn is/bez to/to operate/vb with/in a/at low/jj loop/nn gain/nn and/cc to/to include/vb low-pass/nn filters/nns ./.
This/dt technique/nn causes/vbz the/at system/nn to/to respond/vb only/rb to/in low/jj frequency/nn acceleration/nn components/nns such/jj as/cs the/at platform/nn tilt/nn ./.
Since/cs a/at lower/jjr loop/nn gain/nn and/cc low-pass/nn filtering/nn increases/vbz the/at response/nn time/nn ,/, a/at practical/jj compromise/nn must/md be/be reached/vbn ./.


	One/cd of/in the/at most/ql desirable/jj solutions/nns is/bez achieved/vbn by/in the/at use/nn of/in a/at non-linear/jj amplifier/nn for/in Af/nn ./.
The/at amplifier/nn is/bez designed/vbn so/cs that/cs its/pp$ gain/nn is/bez large/jj for/in accelerometer/nn signals/nns above/in a/at certain/ap threshold/nn level/nn ./.
Below/in this/dt level/nn ,/, the/at amplifier/nn gain/nn Af/nn is/bez proportional/jj and/cc is/bez of/in small/jj value/nn ,/, in/in order/nn to/to provide/vb adequate/jj noise/nn filtering/nn ./.
The/at effect/nn is/bez that/cs the/at platform/nn returns/vbz from/in an/at off-level/jj position/nn at/in a/at rapid/jj rate/nn until/cs it/pps is/bez nearly/ql level/jj ,/, at/in which/wdt point/nn the/at platform/nn is/bez controlled/vbn by/in a/at proportional/jj servo/nn with/in low/jj enough/qlp frequency/nn response/nn so/cs that/cs the/at noise/nn has/hvz little/ap effect/nn on/in the/at leveling/vbg process/nn ./.


	When/wrb the/at system/nn is/bez on/in automatic/jj leveling/nn ,/, the/at gyro/nn drift/nn is/bez canceled/vbn by/in the/at output/nn of/in the/at leveling/vbg system/nn (/( amplifier/nn Af/nn )/) ./.
The/at platform/nn actually/rb tilts/vbz off/in level/jj so/cs that/cs the/at accelerometer/nn output/nn ,/, when/wrb amplified/vbn by/in Af/nn ,/, will/md supply/vb the/at correct/jj current/nn to/in the/at gyro/nn torquer/nn to/to cancel/vb the/at gyro/nn drift/nn ./.
The/at amount/nn of/in platform/nn dip/nn required/vbn depends/vbz upon/in the/at scale/nn factors/nns of/in the/at system/nn ./.



7-3/cd ./.
Practical/jj-hl leveling/vbg-hl considerations/nns-hl ./.-hl

The/at automatic/jj leveling/vbg system/nn described/vbn in/in this/dt section/nn is/bez readily/rb adaptable/jj to/in a/at gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn consisting/vbg of/in three/cd integrating/vbg gyros/nns ./.
The/at system/nn requires/vbz some/dti switching/nn of/in flight/nn equipment/nn circuits/nns ./.
However/rb ,/, the/at leveling/vbg operation/nn can/md be/be maintained/vbn and/cc controlled/vbn remotely/rb with/in no/at mechanical/jj or/cc optical/jj contact/nn with/in the/at platform/nn ./.


	This/dt leveling/vbg system/nn will/md hold/vb the/at platform/nn on-level/jj ,/, automatically/rb ,/, as/ql long/rb as/cs the/at system/nn is/bez actuated/vbn ./.
A/at useful/jj by-product/nn of/in this/dt system/nn is/bez that/cs the/at information/nn necessary/jj to/to set/vb the/at gyro/nn drift/nn biases/nns is/bez available/jj from/in the/at currents/nns necessary/jj to/to hold/vb the/at system/nn in/in level/jj ./.


	The/at leveling/vbg process/nn can/md be/be accomplished/vbn manually/rb ,/, and/cc the/at results/nns are/ber as/ql satisfactory/jj as/cs those/dts obtained/vbn with/in automatic/jj equipment/nn ./.
The/at process/nn consists/vbz in/in turning/vbg the/at platform/nn manually/rb until/cs the/at outputs/nns of/in both/abx accelerometers/nns are/ber zero/cd ./.
The/at turning/nn is/bez accomplished/vbn by/in applying/vbg voltage/nn to/in the/at gyro/nn torquers/nns described/vbn above/rb ./.
In/in brief/jj ,/, the/at human/nn replaces/vbz amplifier/nn Af/nn in/in Figs./nns-tl 7-1/cd-tl and/cc 7-2/cd-tl ./.


	Manual/jj leveling/nn requires/vbz an/at appropriate/jj display/nn of/in the/at accelerometer/nn outputs/nns ./.
If/cs high/jj accuracy/nn is/bez required/vbn in/in preflight/jj leveling/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez usually/rb necessary/jj to/to integrate/vb or/cc doubly/rb integrate/vb the/at accelerometer/nn outputs/nns (/( this/dt also/rb minimizes/vbz the/at noise/nn problem/nn )/) ./.
With/in integration/nn ,/, the/at effect/nn of/in a/at small/jj acceleration/nn (/( or/cc small/jj platform/nn tilt/nn angle/nn )/) can/md be/be seen/vbn after/in a/at time/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, skill/nn is/bez required/vbn on/in the/at part/nn of/in an/at operator/nn to/to level/vb a/at platform/nn to/in any/dti degree/nn of/in accuracy/nn ./.
Also/rb ,/, it/pps requires/vbz more/ap time/nn as/cs compared/vbn to/in the/at automatic/jj approach/nn ./.


	Manual/jj leveling/nn is/bez inconvenient/jj if/cs the/at platform/nn must/md be/be maintained/vbn accurately/rb level/jj for/in any/dti prolonged/vbn period/nn of/in time/nn ./.
The/at operator/nn must/md continually/rb supply/vb the/at correct/jj amount/nn of/in turning/vbg current/nn to/in the/at gyro/nn torquers/nns so/cs that/cs the/at effect/nn of/in gyro/nn drift/nn is/bez canceled/vbn ./.
This/dt process/nn is/bez especially/ql difficult/jj since/cs gyro/nn drifting/vbg is/bez typically/rb random/jj ./.



7-4/cd-hl ./.-hl
Platform/nn heading/nn ./.

Platform/nn heading/nn consists/vbz of/in orienting/vbg the/at sensitive/jj axis/nn of/in the/at accelerometers/nns parallel/rb to/in the/at desired/vbn coordinate/nn system/nn of/in the/at navigator/nn ./.
In/in simpler/jjr terms/nns ,/, it/pps amounts/vbz to/in pointing/vbg the/at platform/nn in/in the/at proper/jj direction/nn ./.


	For/in purely/ql inertial/jj navigators/nns ,/, two/cd techniques/nns are/ber available/jj to/to accomplish/vb the/at platform/nn heading/nn :/: Use/nn of/in external/jj or/cc surveying/vbg equipment/nn to/to establish/vb proper/jj heading/nn ;/. ;/.

Use/nn of/in the/at characteristics/nns of/in the/at platform/nn components/nns for/in an/at indication/nn of/in true/jj heading/nn ./.
The/at choice/nn of/in the/at heading/nn technique/nn is/bez dependent/jj upon/in the/at accuracy/nn requirements/nns ,/, field/nn conditions/nns ,/, and/cc the/at time/nn available/jj to/to accomplish/vb the/at heading/nn ./.



7-5/cd ./.
External/jj-hl determination/nn-hl of/in-hl heading/vbg-hl --/---hl surveying/vbg-hl technique/nn-hl ./.-hl

With/in the/at gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn leveled/vbn ,/, it/pps can/md be/be headed/vbn in/in the/at proper/jj direction/nn by/in using/vbg surveying/vbg techniques/nns ./.
The/at platform/nn accelerometers/nns must/md be/be slightly/ql modified/vbn for/in this/dt procedure/nn ./.
Before/cs the/at accelerometers/nns are/ber mounted/vbn on/in the/at platform/nn ,/, the/at direction/nn of/in their/pp$ sensitive/jj axis/nn must/md be/be accurately/rb determined/vbn ./.
A/at mirror/nn is/bez mounted/vbn on/in each/dt accelerometer/nn so/cs that/cs the/at plane/nn of/in the/at mirror/nn is/bez perpendicular/jj to/in the/at sensitive/jj axis/nn of/in the/at unit/nn ./.
Transit/nn-hl ./.-hl

A/at precision/nn transit/nn is/bez set/vbn up/rp so/cs that/cs it/pps is/bez aligned/vbn with/in respect/nn to/in true/jj north/nn ./.
This/dt can/md be/be done/vbn to/in a/at high/jj degree/nn of/in accuracy/nn by/in existing/vbg surveying/vbg techniques/nns ./.
With/in the/at transit/nn set/vbn up/rp ,/, a/at mirror/nn on/in one/cd of/in the/at accelerometers/nns is/bez sighted/vbn and/cc the/at platform/nn is/bez turned/vbn until/cs it/pps is/bez aligned/vbn ./.


	The/at sighting/vbg procedure/nn includes/vbz the/at use/nn of/in a/at fixture/nn for/in the/at transit/nn to/to project/vb a/at beam/nn of/in light/nn ,/, which/wdt is/bez darkened/vbn by/in crossed/vbn hairs/nns ,/, on/in the/at accelerometer/nn mirror/nn ./.
When/wrb the/at platform/nn is/bez aligned/vbn ,/, the/at reflected/vbn image/nn of/in the/at crossed/vbn hairs/nns can/md be/be seen/vbn exactly/rb superimposed/vbn upon/in the/at original/jj crossed/vbn hairs/nns ./.
The/at images/nns can/md easily/rb be/be aligned/vbn with/in a/at high/jj degree/nn of/in accuracy/nn ./.
The/at platform/nn is/bez turned/vbn as/cs required/vbn by/in supplying/vbg currents/nns to/in the/at appropriate/jj gyro/nn torquers/nns ./.


	Although/cs this/dt technique/nn is/bez simple/jj and/cc satisfactory/jj ,/, one/cd practical/jj difficulty/nn does/doz exist/vb :/: the/at direction/nn of/in true/jj north/nn must/md be/be known/vbn for/in each/dt launch/nn point/nn ./.
However/rb ,/, this/dt difficulty/nn is/bez not/* too/ql serious/jj if/cs it/pps is/bez realized/vbn that/cs a/at surveying/vbg team/nn can/md establish/vb a/at true/jj north/nn base/nn line/nn with/in a/at few/ap days'/nns$ work/nn ./.


	In/in many/ap installations/nns ,/, the/at inertial/jj platform/nn is/bez raised/vbn off/in the/at ground/nn a/at considerable/jj height/nn when/wrb it/pps is/bez mounted/vbn in/in the/at vehicle/nn before/in flight/nn ./.
With/in this/dt situation/nn ,/, it/pps is/bez difficult/jj to/to sight/vb in/rp on/in the/at platform/nn with/in surveying/vbg equipment/nn ./.
If/cs the/at platform/nn is/bez not/* too/ql high/rb off/in the/at ground/nn ,/, a/at transit/nn can/md be/be mounted/vbn on/in a/at stand/nn to/to raise/vb it/ppo up/rp to/in the/at platform/nn ./.
Obviously/rb ,/, the/at heading/nn accuracy/nn is/bez lessened/vbn by/in such/jj techniques/nns since/cs errors/nns are/ber introduced/vbn because/rb of/in motion/nn of/in the/at stand/nn ./.
Autocollimator/nn-hl ./.-hl

The/at transit/nn can/md be/be replaced/vbn by/in an/at autocollimator/nn ./.
This/dt instrument/nn provides/vbz an/at electrical/jj signal/nn proportional/jj to/in the/at angular/jj deviations/nns of/in the/at platform/nn and/cc can/md be/be used/vbn to/to automatically/rb hold/vb the/at platform/nn on/in true/jj heading/nn ./.
The/at electrical/jj signal/nn from/in the/at autocollimator/nn is/bez amplified/vbn and/cc supplied/vbn to/in the/at Z-gyro/nn torquer/nn ./.
If/cs the/at polarity/nn is/bez correct/jj ,/, the/at platform/nn will/md turn/vb until/cs the/at heading/nn error/nn angle/nn is/bez zero/cd ./.
Information/nn is/bez also/rb available/jj from/in this/dt autocollimator/nn system/nn to/to set/vb the/at drift/nn bias/nn for/in the/at Z-axis/nn gyro/nn ./.
If/cs the/at Z/nn gyro/nn is/bez drifting/vbg ,/, a/at current/nn generated/vbn by/in the/at autocollimator/nn is/bez delivered/vbn to/in the/at gyro/nn torquer/nn to/to cancel/vb the/at drift/nn ./.
If/cs the/at drift/nn error/nn is/bez systematic/jj ,/, it/pps can/md be/be canceled/vbn with/in a/at bias/nn circuit/nn which/wdt can/md be/be arranged/vbn and/cc adjusted/vbn to/to supply/vb the/at required/vbn compensating/vbg current/nn ./.
Electrical/jj-hl pickoffs/nns-hl ./.-hl

It/pps is/bez possible/jj to/to locate/vb an/at angular/jj electrical/jj pickoff/nn ,/, which/wdt will/md indicate/vb the/at angular/jj deviation/nn between/in the/at true/jj heading/nn direction/nn and/cc the/at platform/nn ./.
Essentially/rb ,/, the/at stator/nn or/cc reference/nn portion/nn of/in the/at pickoff/nn is/bez established/vbn with/in respect/nn to/in the/at true/jj heading/nn direction/nn ,/, and/cc the/at platform/nn is/bez turned/vbn either/cc manually/rb or/cc automatically/rb until/cs the/at angular/jj electrical/jj pickoff/nn signal/nn is/bez reduced/vbn to/in zero/cd ./.



7-6/cd-hl ./.-hl
Gyrocompass/nn-hl heading/vbg-hl ./.

Gyrocompass/nn alignment/nn is/bez an/at automatic/jj heading/nn system/nn which/wdt depends/vbz upon/in the/at characteristic/nn of/in one/cd gyro/nn to/to establish/vb true/jj heading/nn ./.
For/in the/at case/nn of/in a/at purely/ql inertial/jj autonavigator/nn consisting/vbg of/in three/cd restrained/vbn gyros/nns ,/, a/at coordinate/nn system/nn is/bez used/vbn where/wrb the/at sensitive/jj axis/nn of/in the/at X/nn accelerometer/nn is/bez parallel/rb to/in the/at east-west/jj direction/nn at/in the/at base/nn point/nn ,/, and/cc the/at Y/nn accelerometer/nn sensitive/jj axis/nn is/bez parallel/rb to/in the/at north-south/jj direction/nn at/in the/at base/nn point/nn ./.
The/at accelerometers/nns are/ber mounted/vbn rigidly/rb on/in the/at platform/nn ./.
Thus/rb ,/, if/cs one/cd accelerometer/nn is/bez properly/rb aligned/vbn ,/, the/at other/ap is/bez also/rb ./.
The/at input/nn axis/nn of/in the/at appropriate/jj gyros/nns are/ber parallel/rb to/in the/at sensitive/jj direction/nn of/in the/at accelerometers/nns ./.


	Figure/nn-tl 7-3/cd-tl shows/vbz a/at platform/nn system/nn with/in the/at gyro/nn vectors/nns arranged/vbn as/cs described/vbn above/rb ./.
The/at platform/nn is/bez leveled/vbn and/cc properly/rb headed/vbn ,/, so/cs that/cs the/at X-gyro/nn input/nn axis/nn is/bez parallel/rb to/in the/at east-west/jj direction/nn and/cc the/at Y-gyro/nn input/nn axis/nn is/bez parallel/rb to/in the/at north-south/jj direction/nn ./.


	The/at input/nn axis/nn of/in the/at X/nn gyro/nn ,/, when/wrb pointing/vbg in/in the/at east-west/jj direction/nn ,/, is/bez always/rb perpendicular/jj to/in the/at spin/nn axis/nn of/in earth/nn ./.
If/cs the/at platform/nn is/bez not/* properly/rb headed/vbn ,/, the/at X-gyro/nn input/nn axis/nn will/md see/vb a/at component/nn of/in the/at earth's/nn$ rotation/nn ./.
The/at sensing/nn of/in this/dt rotation/nn by/in the/at X/nn gyro/nn can/md be/be utilized/vbn to/to direct/vb the/at platform/nn into/in proper/jj heading/nn ./.


	In/in Fig./nn-tl 7-4/cd-tl ,/, the/at input/nn axis/nn of/in the/at three-axis/jj platform/nn is/bez shown/vbn at/in some/dti point/nn on/in the/at earth/nn ./.
The/at point/nn is/bez at/in a/at latitude/nn **yl/nn ,/, and/cc the/at platform/nn is/bez at/in an/at error/nn in/in heading/vbg east/nr ./.
The/at earth/nn is/bez spinning/vbg at/in an/at angular/jj velocity/nn **zq/nn equal/jj to/in one/cd revolution/nn per/in 24/cd hr./nns ./.
When/wrb the/at platform/nn is/bez level/jj ,/, **ye/nn is/bez a/at rotation/nn about/in the/at Z/nn axis/nn of/in the/at platform/nn Af/nn ./.
Since/cs the/at earth/nn is/bez rotating/vbg and/cc the/at unleveled/jj gyro-stabilized/jj platform/nn is/bez fixed/vbn with/in respect/nn to/in a/at reference/nn in/in space/nn ,/, an/at observer/nn on/in the/at earth/nn will/md see/vb the/at platform/nn rotating/vbg (/( with/in respect/nn to/in the/at earth/nn )/) ./.

